4.

1 Introduction
Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces the body
through a certain distance in the direction of force.

4.2 Work Done by a Constant Force

Let a constant force F be applied on the body such that it makes an angle
θ with the horizontal and body is displaced through a distance s.
Then work done by the force in displacing the body through a distance s is
given by
W = (F cos θ) s = Fs cos θ ⇒ W = (F cos θ) s = Fs cos θ

W=

4.3 Nature of Work Done

Positive work Negative work

Positive work means that force (or its Negative work means that force (or its
component) is parallel to displacement component) is opposite to displacement
0º ≤ θ < 90º i.e., 90º < θ ≤ 180º

The positive work sigmnes that the external The negative work sigmnes that the
external force favours the motion force opposes the motion of the body.
of the body.

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4.4 Work Done by aVariable Force
When the magnitude and direction of a force varies with position, the work
done by such a force for an infinite simal displacement is given by
dW = .

The total work done in going from A to B is W = .

Area under force displacement curve with proper algebraic sign represents
work done by the force.

4.5 Work Depends on Frame of Reference

With change of frame of reference (inertial) force does not change while
displacement may change. So the work done by a force will be different in
different frames.
Examples : If a person is pushing a box inside a moving train, the work done

in the frame of train will while in the frame of earth will be

where is the displacement of the train relative to the ground.

4.6 Energy
The energy of a body is defined as its capacity for doing work.
(1) It is a scalar quantity.
(2) Dimension : [ML2T2] it is same as that of work or torque.
(3) Units : Joule [S.I.], erg [C.G.S.]
Practical units : electron volt (eV), Kilowatt hour (KWh), Calories (Cal)
Relation between different units :
1 Joule = 107 erg
1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 Joule
1 KWh = 3.6 × 106 Joule
1 Calorie = 4.18 Joule
(4) Mass energy equivalence : The relation between the mass of a particle
m and its equivalent energy is given as E = mc2 where c = velocity of
light in vacuum.

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4.7 Kinetic Energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic
energy.

Let m = mass of the body, v = velocity of the body then K.E. = .

(1) Kinetic energy depends on frame of reference : The kinetic energy
of a person of mass m, sitting in a train moving with speed v, is zero in

the frame of train but in the frame of the earth.

(2) Work-energy theorem : It states that work done by a force acting on a
body is equal to the change produced in the kinetic energy of the body.
This theorem is valid for a system in presence of all types of forces
(external or internal, conservative or non-conservative).
(3) Relation of kinetic energy with linear momentum : As we know
p2
E= 2m  p=  2mE

(4) Various graphs of kinetic energy

4.8 Potential Energy

4.9 Potential Energy

Potential energy is defined only for conservative forces. In the space occupied
by conservative forces every point is associated with certain energy which is
called the energy of position or potential energy. Potential energy generally
are of three types : Elastic potential energy and Gravitational potential energy

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 etc.
(1) Change in potential energy : Change in potential energy between any
two points is defined in terms of the work done by the force in displacing
the particle between these two points without any change in kinetic
energy.

U2 – U1 = ...(1)
(2) Potential energy curve : A graph plotted between the potential energy of
a particle and its displacement from the centre of force is called potential
energy curve. Negative gradient of the potential energy gives force.

= F

(5) Types of equilibrium : If net force acting on a particle is zero, it is said

to be in equilibrium.

For equilibrium, = 0, but the equilibrium of particle can be of three

types :
Stable Unstable Neutral
When a particle is displaced
slightly from a position, then When a particle is displaced When a particle is slightly
a force acting on it brings it slightly from a position, then displaced from a position
back to the initial position, a force acting on it tries to then it does not experience
it is said to be in stable displace the particle further any force acting on it and
equilibrium position. continues to be in equili-
away from the equilibrium brium in the displaced
position, it is said to be in position, it is said to be in
unstable equilibrium. neutral equilibrium.
Potential energy is minimum.
Potential energy is maximum. Potential energy is constant.

i.e., rate of change of is

positive. i.e., rate of change of
i.e., rate of change of
is negative. is zero.
Example : A marble placed
at the bottom of a hemi- E x a m p l e : A m a r b l e Example : A marble placed
spherical bowl. balanced on top of a hemi- on horizontal table.
spherical bowl.
4.10 Elastic Potential Energy

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 (1) Restoring force and spring constant : When a spring is stretched or
compressed from its normal position (x = 0) by a small distance x, a
restoring froce is produced in the spring to bring it to the normal position.
According to Hooke’s law this restoring force is proportional to the
displacement x and its direction is always opposite to the displacement.

i.e., α

or = ...(i)
where k is called spring constant.
(2) Expression for elastic potential energy :

Elastic potential energy U=

Note :
• If spring is stretched from initial position x1 to final position x2 then
work done = Increment in elastic potential energy

(3) Energy graph for a spring : It mean kinetic energy changes parabolically
w.r.t. position but total energy remain always constant irrespective to
position of the mass.
4.11 Law of Conservation of Energy
(1) Law of conservation of energy : For an isolated system or body in
presence of conservative forces the sum of kinetic and potential energies
at any point remains constant throughout the motion. It does not depends
upon time. This is known as the law of conservation of mechanical energy.
(2) Law of conservation of total energy : If the forces are conservative
and non-conservative both, it is not the mechanical energy alone which
is conserved, but it is the total energy, may be heat, light, sound or

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 mechanical etc., which is conserved.

4.15 Power
Power of a body is defined as the rate at which the body can do the work.

Average power (Pav) =

Instantaneous power (Pinst.) =

[As dW =

Pinst =
i.e., power is equal to the scalar product of force with velocity.
(1) Dimension : [P] = [ML2T–3]
(2) Units : Watt or Joule/sec [S.I.]
Practical Units : Kilowatt (kW), Mega watt (MW) and Horse power
(hp)
Relations between different units : 1 watt = 1 Joule/sec = 107 erg/sec
1hp = 746 Watt
(3) The slope of work time curve gives the instantaneous power. As
P = dW/dt = tan θ

(4) Area under power time curve gives the work done as P =
∴ W =
∴ W = Area under P – t curve

4.12 Collision
Collision is an isolated event in which a strong force acts between two or
more bodies for a short time as a result of which the energy and momentum of
the interacting particle change.
In collision particles may or may not come in real touch.
(3) Types of collision : (i) On the basis of conservation of kinetic energy.
Perfectly Inelastic collision Perfectly inelastic

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 Elastic collision collision
If in a collision, kinetic
energy after collision is If in a collision kinetic If in a collision two bodies
equal to kinetic energy energy after collision
before collision, the stick together or move
collision is said to be is not equal to kinetic with same velocity after
perfectly elastic. energy before collision, the collision, the collision
the collision is said to is said to be perfectly
Coefficient of restitution inelastic. inelastic.
e=1 Coefficient of restitution Coefficient of restitution
0<e<1 e=0
H e r e k i n e t i c e n e rg y The term ‘perfectly
appears in other forms. inelastic’ does not
In some cases (KE)final < necessarily mean that all
(KE)initial such as when the initial kinetic energy is
initial KE is converted lost, it implies that the loss
(KE)final = (KE)initial in kinetic energy is as large
into internal energy of the
product (as heat, elastic as it can be. (Consistent
or excitation) while in with momentum conser-
other cases (KE) final > vation).
(KE)initial such as when
internal energy stored in
the colliding particles is
Examples : (1) Collision released.
between atomic particles Examples : (1) Collision Example : Collision
(2) Bouncing of ball with between two billiard balls. between a bullet and a
same velocity after the block of wood into which
(2) Collision between two
collision with earth. it is fired. When the bullet
automobile on a road.
In fact all majority of remains embeded in the
collision belong to this block.
category.
4.13 Perfectly Elastic Head on Collision

Let two bodies of masses m1 and m2

moving initial velocities u1 and u2 in the
same direction they collide such that after
collision their final velocities are v1 and
v2 respectively.

According to law of conservation of momentum and conservation of kinetic

energy.
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 Note :
• The ratio of relative velocity of separation and relative velocity of
approach is defined as coefficient of restitution.

e = or v2 – v1 = e (u1 – u2).
• For perfectly elastic collision e = 1
∴ v2 – v1 = u1 – u2 [As shown in eq. (vi)]
• For perfectly inelastic collision e = 0
∴ v2 – v1 = 0 or v2 = v1
It means that two body stick together and move with same velocity.
• For inelastic collision 0 < e < 1
∴ v2 – v1 = (u1 – u2)
In short we can say that e is the degree of elasticity of collision and it is
dimension less quantity.

v1 = ...(vii)

v2 = ...(viii)

• When two bodies of equal masses undergo head on elastic collision,

their velocities get interchanged.

(2) Kinetic energy transfer during head on elastic collision : Fractional

decrease in kinetic energy

= ...(iv)

Note :

• Greater the difference in masses less will be transfer of kinetic energy

and vice versa.

• Transfer of kinetic energy in head on elastic collision (when target is at

rest) is maximum when the masses of particles are equal.

2.14 Motion in Vertical Circle

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 This is an example of non-uniform circular motion. In this motion body is
under the influence of gravity of earth.
(1) Velocity at any point on vertical
loop : If u is the initial velocity imparted
to body at lowest point then, velocity of
body at height h is given by

where l is the length of the string.

(2) Tension at any point on vertical loop : Tension at general point P,

T=

(3) Various conditions for vertical motion :

Velocity at lowest Condition

point

Tension in the string will not be zero at any of the point and
body will continue the circular motion.

Tension at highest point C will be zero and body will just

complete the circle.

Particle will not follow circular motion. Tension in string

become zero somewhere between points B and C whereas
velocity remain positive. Particle leaves circular path and
follow parabolic trajectory.

Both velocity and tension in the string becomes zero between

A and B and particle will oscillate along semi-circular path.

Velocity of particle becomes zero between A and B but

tension will not be zero and the particle will oscillate about
the point A.

(6) Various quantities for a critical condition in a vertical loop at

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different positions :

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