UNIT 14

EXPLORATION METHODS

Structure______________________________________________
14.1 Introduction Self-Potential Method

Expected Learning Outcomes Telluric Current Method

14.2 Exploration Methods Magnetotelluric Method
14.3 Surface Exploration Resistivity Method

Geological Exploration Induced Potential Method

Photogeology, Remote Sensing Electromagnetic Method

and Geographic Information
Seismic Method
System
Pitting, Trenching, Drilling and
Geochemical Exploration
Borehole Logging
Geobotanical Exploration
14.5 Activity
Biogeochemical Survey
14.6 Summary
14.4 Subsurface Exploration
14.7 Terminal Questions
Methods
14.8 References
Gravity Method
14.9 Further/Suggested Readings
Magnetic Method
14.10 Answers
Electrical Method

14.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have studied about basic principles and stages of mineral exploration.
Mineral exploration has its own characteristic and is dominated by “High Risk-High Reward”
proposition as the occurrence of mineral deposit is not uniform worldwide. In this unit, you will learn
about different mineral exploration methods that involve various activities to identify/ quantify and
extract economically hidden deposits to the surface. The physicochemical properties of the minerals
like specific gravity, electrical conductivity, magnetic susceptibility, radioactivity, propagation of
seismic waves and mode of occurrence of minerals enables in locating ore deposits of economic
interest.
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Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

After reading this unit you should be able to:
❖ outline different exploration methods for mineral exploration;
❖ learn principles and practices of exploration methods;
❖ discuss their importance in various stages of mineral exploration; and
❖ explain limitations of each exploration method.

14.2 EXPLORATION METHODS

In the previous Unit 13, you have been introduced to prospecting and
exploration. Now, let us discuss about exploration methods. Different types of
exploration methods are essential to find out and estimate volume of a
commercially viable mineral concentration as it involves high capital-intensive
operations. The exploration methods are divided into two main groups, namely:
A) Surface exploration; and
B) Subsurface exploration.
Involvement of different surface and subsurface exploration methods during
various stages of mineral exploration projects is shown in Figure 14.1. Surface
exploration methods includes: geological, geochemical, geobotanical,
photogeology & remote sensing. Subsurface exploration methods include:
gravity, magnetic, electrical, self-potential, telluric current, magnetotelluric,
resistivity, induced potential, electromagnetic, seismic. We will discuss the
surface and subsurface exploration methods in details in the following sections.

Fig. 14.1: Types of mineral exploration methods.

14.3 Surface Exploration

The surface exploration method includes preparation of geological maps based
on data collected through field survey (including elevation data). Incorporation
of aerial photos, satellite imagery, geochemical and vegetation data into these

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maps provide useful details regarding rock outcrops and their boundaries,
vegetation, geomorphology, lithology and lithological variations of the area
under investigation. Various surface exploration methods viz. geological,
geochemical, geobotanical, photogeology and remote sensing are carried out
during preliminary & detailed survey.
Let us discuss them in the following sections.
14.3.1 Geological Exploration
The occurrence of ore bodies are mainly controlled by geologic setting with
specific structural and tectonic setting and their spatial distribution over a wide
area.
Selection of most prospective area for exploration requires a sound geological
knowledge which includes structure of the area, age of the rocks, rock types
and basin modelling etc. Good acquaintance is required to make perfect
predictions and draw parallels between an established ore deposit and the
unknown potential mineralisation sought after exploration. The broad activities
involved in geological exploration are:
• to prepare a field database from different sources; and
• plot in geological base map.

The detailed activities include:

i) Review of existing data and field work: The exploration begins with the
regional appraisal of large area through available geological information,
review of literature, earlier published maps, survey and reports from different
sources. After preliminary findings from the review, the exploration team
visits the field to gather information related to geological, mineralisation, host
rock and hunting for the surface guides to incorporate and prepare the
geological base map for next phase of exploration.
ii) Geological / Surface Guides: During geological traverse, the exploration
team explores the existence of various types of surface signatures of mineral
deposits called geological or surface guides. You have read about
geological / surface guides in the previous Unit 13.

iii) Study of Topographic Maps: A topographical map (toposheets or

topomaps) commonly shows quantitative and precise representation of
physical and cultural features of the Earth’s surface. They represent a
symbolic picture of the natural and man-made features of small areas which
are drawn at relatively large scale (Fig.14.2). As a result, these maps serve
as indispensable tool for city and regional planners, natural resources
managers, and for engineering, environmental and geological studies. Earlier
a topographic survey is conducted with tape and compass. Now a days, it is
being done using electronic total stations to capture 3D observation data on
the field to prepare digital terrain model that is transformed into a high quality
geological map.

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Fig. 14.2: Topographic maps (a) 1:250000; (b) 1: 50000 and (c) 1: 25000 scales.
(Source: www.surveyofindia.gov.in)

The activities carried out during geological exploration can be subdivided into
three main categories namely regional scale, belt scale and deposit scale.
• Regional Scale: Surface features, like broad geological contacts,
existence of shear zones and weathering features are regionally plotted in
the base map. Study of aerial photographs, satellite images, airborne
geophysical data acquisition, wide spaced soil sample, grab and chip
sampling of surface exposures for broad geochemical surveys and
weathering profiles are collected and recorded.
• Mineral Belt Scale: Geological base map survey is scaled up to 1:25000
or 1:10000 scales using theodolite and GPS survey instruments. Detailed
study of geological structural setting such as stratigraphy and
identification of host rock, surface shows of mineralisation, existence of
ancient mining and smelting signatures are recorded and plotted in the
base map. Additionally, ground geophysics, geochemistry, pitting,
trenching data are acquired for data integration.
• Mineral Deposit Scale: After integrated study of the area, maximum
information of the mineral deposit is acquired by triangulation station
survey. Thereafter, base map in larger scale of 1:5000 or 1:1000 is
prepared. Additionally, closely spaced surface drilling, trenches, pits and
boreholes is carried out along and across the mineral body to delineate
and extension of the mineral deposit (Fig. 14.3).
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Fig. 14.3: Surface map of the Zawar deposits showing Balaria, Mochia Magra,
Baroi, and Zawarmala mining blocks, India. (Source: Haldar, 2018).

iv) River and glacial floating: River float tracing consists of finding and tracing
the ore bearing rock fragments by estimating travel distance of the float on
the basis of degree of wearing along the traverse line of the river. If the float
is absent in the alluvium, and then the search will continue towards up slope
direction. Shallow pits / trenches are dug at the spot where the last float was
traced (Fig. 14.4).
Similarly, in glacial float tracing, a systematic search of ore bearing boulders
along the direction of glacier movement are traced. This is done by observing
the orientation of terminal moraines, eskers and drumlins.

Fig. 14.4: River Float Tracing.

Panning of alluvial and colluvial material is conducted at a regular interval along

the rivers, streams and sides of the valleys. [Panning is a method of separating
particles of greater specific gravity from soil or gravels by washing in a pan with
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water]. This is done for tracing of metal pieces and fragments of ore minerals,
which have been migrated from the outcrops in the up slope area of the river.
Systematic panning helps to trace the primary mineral deposit based of the
concentration of ore fragments in each panning spot (Figs.14.5a and 14.5b).

Fig. 14.5: a) Photograph of panning of samples; and b) Map showing panning of

heavy mineral concentration. [Source: for (a) www.gsi.gov.in]

14.3.2 Photogeology, Remote sensing and Geographic

Information System
Geologists has always been fascinated by the bird’s eye view of Earth’s surface
to understand its geomorphology, structures, lithology and vegetation which are
considered as useful guides for mineral exploration. However, the physical
approaches for exploration have been replaced by photogeology and remote
sensing techniques. These techniques are helpful in exploration of minerals in
remote, hazardous terrain at less time and cost.
i) Photogeology
Photogeology is the elementary technique to derive geological information from
the interpretation of aerial photographs during reconnaissance survey for
mineral exploration. The aerial photos are most commonly panchromatic black
and white (B&W), B&W (Infrared), colour and colour (Infrared) photographs.
Infrared photos are extensively used to differentiate vegetation in dense
forested areas for mineral exploration. Aerial photographs are acquired from a
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camera above the ground with specific technique and can be interpreted in the
laboratory using certain optical instrument.
Aerial photographs are generally classified into two types: (a) vertical and (b)
oblique; Vertical photographs are taken by a camera pointing vertically
downward in most of the cases. Whereas oblique photographs are taken at an
angle to obtain permanent record of cliffs and similar features which are difficult
to access.
During acquisition of aerial photographs, a camera mounted airplane takes a
series of photographs in its flying directions on regular parallel lines over the
interested area (Fig. 14.6).

Fig. 14.6: Typical aerial photography survey to obtain full stereo coverage.
(Source: Redrawn from Roger, 2010)

Broadly two types of optical equipments are used for aerial photo interpretation,
namely:
• Pocket field stereoscope for quick view of the field survey data (Fig.
14.7a), and
• Mirror stereoscope (Fig. 14.7b).
These instruments have binocular eyepieces to get enlarged image view.
These interpreted photo data are transferred into a scale corrected geological
base map for generation of a photogeological map. Now a days, multi-image
interpretation using satellite images with air photos have been carried out in
mineral exploration. Additional equipment, such as image analyser and colour
additive viewers are utilized in the exploration program to analyse multispectral
photos.

Fig. 14.7: a) Pocket Stereoscope; and b) Mirror Stereoscope.

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ii) Remote Sensing

As discussed in the above section, photogeology is the elementary technique to
derive geological information from the interpretation of aerial photographs.
Photogeology is the use of aerial photographs in geological studies and is one
of the most important techniques used in remote sensing. Remote sensing
implies data acquisition by electromagnetic radiation from sensors flying on
aerial or space platforms and interpretation of physical attributes of the ground
objects (Campbell, 2007). Based on the increasing wavelength and decreasing
frequency, electromagnetic radiation can be divided into cosmic, gamma, X-ray,
ultraviolet, visible, IR, terahertz and, microwave radiations, and radio waves, as
shown in Fig. 14.8.

Fig. 14.8: Electromagnetic spectrum. (Source: modified after Sabins, 1997)

In remote sensing technique, the sensors capture the electromagnetic

radiations that are reflected or emitted by an object. They are in contact with
rays of different ranges of wavelength within the electromagnetic spectrum,
depending on their physicochemical properties. The spectral response of an
object or a pattern is stored which can be analysed for the identification of the
object.
Two types of sensors, namely passive and active sensors have been used for
procuring remote sensing data. They are:
• Passive Sensors: They use reflected or transmitted portion of
electromagnetic spectrum of solar radiation and thermal radiation from the
target area. Some of these sensors are Multispectral Scanner (MSS),
Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM), Advanced Space borne Thermal Emission
and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) etc.

• Active Sensors: They emit energy and measure the intensity of energy that
gets reflected from the object or area under investigation. A few examples of
active sensors are Radar (microwave) and Lasers (Fig. 14.9).

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Fig.14.9: Schematic diagram showing active and passive sensor position with
respect to Sun and Earth for data collection.

The digital data is processed and converted into an image with the help of
software, giving rise to imagery for interpretation and decision making. After
acquiring raw satellite images, the processes viz. image restoration, image
enhancement and data extraction are carried out before their interpretation and
integration with other geological data. After digital processing of satellite
images, extraction of geological information is carried out by two approaches,
namely spectral approach and photogeological approach.
1) In spectral approach, unique spectral reflectance characteristics of every
identical unit in the image data are used to separate them from each other.
2) In the photogeological approach, different photogeological elements like
topography, erosion, tone, texture, drainage pattern, vegetation, and land
use are captured to infer the presence of topographical expression,
geological structure or lithology.
iii) Geographic Information System (GIS)
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system that can handle a wide range
of spatial and georeferenced data. It can collect, store, organise, integrate and
analyse geological, geobotanical, geophysical, geochemical, remote sensing
and cultural data of same area. GIS system can model the acquired data to
produce a composite map required for geological interpretation (Fig.14.10).
Data received from various sources are directly entered into GIS system using
DBMS, RDBMS and SQL software. They can be stored and can provide ways
to modify, revise, refine, update the database. It can also export the data to
other systems in a common (ASCII) format as per requirement.
• GIS for Mineral Exploration
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a robust technique for identification of
the target of mineralized zones based on the modelling using overlay analysis.
This kind of analysis analyzes and interpolate multiple data received from
various sources pertaining to same area or similar object either in vector or
raster mode. They are stored in GIS system as individual data file or a layer. A

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new information on the object or area can be created by overlying of related

individual layers one above another with common georeferences that generates
a specific model as per project requirement.

Fig. 14.10: GIS application in mineral exploration.

Figure 14.11 is an example of overlay analysis of Rajpura-Dariba mineral

deposit of India. It contains different layers like hydrology, elevation, surface
signature, geology and geochemistry collected from different sources that have
been georeferenced in each cell in the surface grid of individual layers.

Fig. 14.11: Overlay analysis with multilayer data of Rajpura- Dariba base metal
belt for identification of drill targets by GIS application. (Source:
Redrawn from Haldar, 2018)

GIS manipulates and overlays the information derived from different data files
simultaneously and interrelate all geocoded source data files during
interpretation. This generates a thematic map for identification of the target area
for exploration of sulphide deposits in Rajpura-Dariba mineral belt.
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14.3.3 Geochemical Exploration

Geochemical exploration is employed in the search of economic mineral
deposits. It primarily deals with the unusual concentration or depletion of certain
chemical elements in soil, rocks, streams, lake sediments, water, air and
vegetation in the vicinity of mineral deposits other than barren regions.
The geochemical environments of the Earth can be categorised mainly into two
groups, viz. primary and secondary.
• The primary environment comprises of deep seated igneous and
metamorphic processes.

• The secondary environment involved surface processes, which includes

weathering, transportation, and sedimentation.
Geochemical cycle is partly a closed cycle of the movement of constituents of
the Earth from one environment to another (Fig. 14.12).

Fig. 14.12: Typical geochemical cycle. (Source: Redrawn from Gandhi and Sarkar,
2016)

• Geochemical Prospecting

Prospecting is the first stage of any geological analysis followed

by exploration. Geochemical prospecting is done by systematic
measurements of one or more chemical components of naturally occurring

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material in the Earth's crust, usually in traces. We will discuss geochemical

prospecting under the following headings: elemental dispersion, background
and threshold value and pathfinder elements.

a) Elemental dispersion: Elemental dispersion pattern can be due to

distribution of elements disseminated in rocks, which occurred during ore
forming process. This may also occur by migration and redistribution of
elements in solution during oxidation, weathering and erosion of mineral
deposit.

Elemental dispersion can give rise to two types of haloes: primary and
secondary. Halo is a region surrounding an ore deposit in which the ore
concentration is intermediate between that of the ore and that of the country
rock.

• Primary dispersion halo is an expression of alteration and zoning

conditions surrounding metalliferous deposit, which is synchronous to
mineralisation. The halos are either enriched or depleted in several
elements because of introduction or redistribution related to ore forming
phenomena (Fig.14.13a).

• Secondary dispersion halo is the dispersed remnants of mineralisation

caused by surface processes of chemical and physical weathering and
redistribution of primary patterns. Minerals are often unstable in
secondary environment.

b) Background and Threshold value: Background values are characterised

by the normal range of concentration of elements in regional perspective
rather than localised mineral occurrences. It is significant to establish the
background value of the area against the anomalies due to economic
mineral accumulations, if any, can be identified.

Threshold value is defined as the probable upper or lower limit of the

background value (Fig. 14.13b) at some statistically precise confidence level.
Any sample that exceeds this threshold is considered as possibly anomalous
and belongs to a separate population. The negative anomalous threshold
defines the lower limit of background fluctuation.

c) Pathfinder elements: Pathfinder or indicator elements/minerals are

characteristic parameters in geochemical prospecting to detect hidden ore
bodies. The pathfinder elements generally form large haloes and are
relatively mobile due to physicochemical conditions of the solutions or may
be in a gaseous state in which they are found. They can be detected easily
by simpler and inexpensive analytical methods. The types of deposit and
their pathfinder elements as per Rose et al. (1979) are given in the table
below.

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Fig.14.13: Diagram shows: a) concealed copper deposit with primary dispersion

halos; b) geochemical profile of soil samples viewing background,
threshold values, and anomalous zone; and c) histogram of Cu values.
(Source: Haldar, 2018)

Table 14.1: Pathfinder elements and type of deposits.

Pathfinder Elements Types of Deposits

Au-Ag vein type; Au-Ag-Cu-Co-Zn complex

As
sulphides

W-Be-Zn-Mo-Cu-Pb skarns; Sn-W-Bo veins or

B
gneisses

Hg Pb-Zn-Ag complex sulphide deposits

Mo W-Sn contact metamorphic deposits

Mn Ba-Ag vein deposit, porphyry copper

Se, V, Mo U, sedimentary type

Mo, Te, Au Porphyry copper

Pd-Cr-Cu-Ni-Co Pt in ultramafic rocks

Rn U, all types

Zn-Cu Ag-Pb-Zn; Cu-Pb-Zn sulphide deposits

SO4 Sulphide deposits of all types

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Geochemical Exploration Methods are broadly divided into two subgroups,

viz. conventional and non-conventional.
A) Conventional Methods
Systematic measurement of one or more key or path finder elements in
different sample media (like soil, rock, stream sediments, glacial debris, water,
plants etc.) is conducted under conventional technique.
Different conventional geochemical exploration techniques i.e.,
pedogeochemical, stream sediment, lithogeochemical glacial drift,
hydrogeochemical surveys are described below:

i. Pedogeochemical (soil) survey: You have read about soil in unit 5 of

BGYCT-131 course. The soil is the unconsolidated weathering product that
lies over or close to the parent material from which it was is derived is called
residual soil or may be transported over a long distance forming alluvial soil.
Soil sampling is carried out at regular intervals following straight traverse
lines, along topographic, cultural features, or ridge tops/roads (Fig. 14.14a).
Samples are taken from the “B” horizon of soil profile is enriched with trace
elements. Samples are collected from small pits, generally 70-80 cm from
the surface, laid in a grid pattern (Fig. 14.14b).

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Fig.14.14: a) Field photograph of soil survey, and b) Data interpretation of soil

and pit geochemical samples by contouring copper values to identify
target for drill testing. [Source: for b) Redrawn from Halder, 2018]

ii. Stream sediment surveys: Stream sediment sampling is the most widely
used tool in reconnaissance geochemical survey. The survey is based on
the chemical analysis of samples of stream sediments from drainage course
that led to discover mineral bodies at a greater distance. The stream
sediments comprise of clays, detrital fine grained rocks, organic matter,
inorganic colloidal and clast with iron and manganese coatings. All these
components of the sediments exhibit different mobility (ability to move
freely). The detrital grains enriched in ore(s) and indicator elements are
deposited downstream. However, following the path of increasing the
elemental concentration(s) upstream lead to locate the mineralisation target.
This is the simple technique that allows rapid evaluation of areas at
relatively low cost (Fig. 14.15).
iii. Lithogeochemical survey: This survey is conducted to collect samples
from unweathered host rock to identify primary dispersion and trace
elements, association which are different from country rock. Samples are
collected from fresh outcrops, wall rocks and drill holes.
iv. Glacial drift survey: The drift survey is conducted to collect samples of
debris deposited by moving ice in a glaciated terrain. The drift sequence is
examined for the presence of heavy minerals, mineralised clasts, relative
abundance of major, minor and trace elements. This is helpful in tracing
back to the original place of the source by estimating the distance travelled
from the sampling point.
v. Hydrogeochemical survey: Sampling of ground water, surface water and
hot spring water are conducted in this method. Ground water provides
information about occurrence of Cu, Zn, Pb, S, Mo, Sn, Ni and Co caused
by chemical weathering, oxidation and leaching of overburden. Hot spring
water are characterised by probable locations of B, Li and Hg
mineralisation. Changes of elemental values of acquired water sample
depend on time and season.

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Fig. 14.15: Distribution of samples from the Sonapet Valley area, Jharkhand,
showing gold contents. (Source: Redrawn from Talapatra, 2006)

B) Non-conventional Methods
Non-conventional geochemical exploration techniques are used in areas where
the conventional exploration techniques are not applicable especially for deeply
buried deposits covered by transported soil, desert sands, talus or debris etc.
Some of the non-conventional geochemical exploration techniques are:
1) Vapour or gas survey,
2) Electrogeochemical,
3) Radiogenic isotope geochemistry,
4) Polymetallic poly nodule survey,
5) Hydrocarbon geochemical survey, etc.
Following are the major components of the geochemical survey:

• Sampling and preparation of samples: The field procedure covers the

collection of various types of samples (solid, liquid and gas) for geochemical
analysis with accurate location data. Different geological materials like rocks,
ores and minerals differs in their constitution, weathering features, size etc.
Therefore, their sample preparation method employed must have the
flexibility to get good results. The samples are collected from stream
sediments, soils, rocks, groundwater, and volatile matter (gas). During field
survey, unconsolidated soil sample of fine size (-80 mesh), weighing
between 250 and 1000 gm., is collected by hand, or with a plastic or
aluminium scoop. Rock chips are collected by chisel and hammer at
specified grid intervals. The unconsolidated soil samples are kept in plastic
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bags. The rock chips are kept in cloth bags with code numbers indicating
project name, location, and sample type with description. Geological
observations and sketches are recorded in a field notebook. The sample is
further reduced to 50g by drying, screening, grinding, coning, and quartering
at the camp site. Each sample of quantity of 1-5 gm. is sent to laboratory for
chemical analysis and remaining sample is preserved for future reference.
Water is collected in a specialised clean, hard, polyethylene sampling bottle.
The quantity of surface water and groundwater sample varies between 100
and 1000ml depending upon the number of elements and type of analysis
(as per requirement).

• Geochemical data interpretation: Geochemical samples yield a huge

volume of analytical data in ppm level, seldomly at percentage level. The
location coordinates and analytical data of each sample with other geological
parameters are stored and conducted for different statistical analysis as per
requirement. The population of data undergoes statistical evaluation and
varying types of graphical plots are prepared for the assessment of
threshold. In exploration geochemistry, other statistical analysis tool like
principal component analysis (PCA) and factor analysis (FA) are also
adopted to separate the element associations inherent to number of groups
from the acquired survey database. PCA is variance oriented, while FA is
correlation oriented. For geochemical data, PCA works in situations in which
the range of variation of the elements is characteristics of the geochemical
environment (Fig. 14.16), whereas FA is favourable in situations in which
element associations characterise the geochemical environment.

• Anomaly enhancement technique: It is one of the major techniques used

for deep seated mineral deposits, particularly showing weak anomalies.
Physical, chemical and statistical methods are employed for anomaly
enhancement. The physical method includes enrichment of metallic,
magnetic, and heavy minerals by panning, magnetic, and heavy media
separation. The chemical method employs dilute acid leaches of iron and
manganese oxides in the host environment.

• Generation of Geochemical maps: Geochemical maps are generated from

both regional and local surveys which can be subdivided into two broad
categories viz.:

i. the point symbol maps showing the concentration of elements at the

sample locations; and

ii. the maps emphasise the regional elemental distribution pattern at local or
regional scale.

The regional maps generally show distribution of individual elements by point

symbol map, smoothed grey level map using filters or principal component map
with colour combination.
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Other kinds of maps are:

i. Filtered anomaly map that emphasises departures of data value from the
general background trend;
ii. Trend surface maps which show regional compositional variations for
individual elements with contour lines based on the value of sampled data
points; and
iii. Multicomponent maps that show simultaneous variation of number of
elements of interest.

Fig. 14.16: Principal component analysis (PC1 vs PC2) of Scotty Creek sandstone
samples from Kim ore body drill fan dataset. (Source: Redrawn from
Fisher et.al. 2014)

14.3.4 Geobotanical Exploration

The use of plants in mineral prospecting is very useful tool which aid as a guide
to the nature. The changes found in the vegetation in mineralised area indicate
that distinct plant species, either there appear or vanish. These plant species
are called indicator plants. The morphological changes in the plants are
possibly due to excesses or paucity of certain elements in the soil.
Geobotanical mapping is employed after ground and aero-visualisation on the
characteristics of vegetation. This is done to demarcate the mineralised zone
from the non-mineralised zone (Fig.14.17). Though, this method is not directly
helpful to locate ore bodies, but successful results come out by integration with
other exploration methods. Various nickel, copper, iron, manganese, uranium,
lead and zinc deposits in India have been located by geobotanical prospecting
method. Common indicator plants available in India are listed in Table 14.2:

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Table 14.2: Common indicator plants (Source: Sen and Guha, 1993).

Indicator (Index) Plant Mineral deposit

Combretum decandrum (Atandi), Terminalia tomentosa

Nickel
(Asan)
Polycarpes spirostylis, Vermonia cinerea, Eugenia
jambolana (Jainun), Rhus occidentalis (Sims),
Calicarpa arborea (Makihi), Diospyros tomantosa Copper
(Kendu), Pulicaria wightiana, Bacium homblei(Basil),
Lychnis alpine (Campion)
Acacia patens, Burtonia polyzyga, Calythrix longiflora,
Iron
Goodenia scaevolina
Amorpha canencens, Amorpha canenscens Lead
Viola cala mineria, Calicarpa arbarea (Mekshi),
Zinc
Impatience balsania (gulmehsli), Viola calaminaria
Pinus cembroides (Pinyon), Borreria articularis,
Uranium
Juniperus monosperma (Juniper)
Oryzopsis bymenoides, Astragalus preussi(Milkvetch) Selenium
Hepatis sauveolens (Bantulsi) Tungsten

Fig. 14.17: Geobotanical survey in a Zinc deposit accumulation.

14.3.5 Biogeochemical Survey

This technique is adopted under vegetation survey by sampling of leaf, bark
and root of the trees in areas with thick laterite overburden or where the
overburden is too deep. The samples are dried and burnt to ashes. Ashes are
sent to laboratory for analysis of different trace elements. Different plant
samples are taken in one particular season and the age of the plant is also
taken into account during sampling of its parts.

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Learners, you have learnt about the surface exploration methods. Before
discussing about the subsurface exploration methods, spend a few minutes to
perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 1
a) List the broad activities of geological exploration.
b) What do you mean by passive and active sensors?
c) What are the pathfinder elements?

14.4 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

In the above section you have read about surface exploration methods. Now,
let us discuss about subsurface exploration methods. After preliminary or
reconnaissance survey by applying surface exploration techniques, the study
area is narrowed down and the target area is focused for subsurface
exploration. There are two methods such as direct and indirect.
i. The direct methods involve collection of samples from subsurface rock
strata by digging drill holes, trenches, pits, exploratory tunnels and the rock
samples are examined and tested in the laboratory.
ii. The indirect methods are extensively used in the subsurface exploration by
applying different geophysical techniques to locate mineral ore bodies.
Let us discuss them briefly in the following sections.
1. Gravity Method
Gravimetric method implies the techniques of measuring the gravitational fields
at different points on the surface using gravimeters, expressed in milligals. They
can detect minute changes in gravity caused by crustal density differences. The
anomalous gravity readings are calculated by deducting the regional gravity
field from the measured fields on the basis of anomalous densities of the
subsurface materials. Shallow high density materials like barite, chromite,
hematite shows positive gravity anomalies while shallow low density bodies like
halite, weathered kimberlite etc. yield gravity lows (Fig. 14.18).

Different types of gravity surveys like airborne, gradiometry are conducted as

per requirement. Airborne gravity survey is more appropriate to map deep
seated rock masses, whereas, gravity gradiometry survey is used to map the
subsurface closer to the ground surface.
2. Magnetic Method
Magnetic method employs the natural magnetic field of the Earth. Magnetic
surveys not only detect changes in magnetic concentration of near surface
mineral bodies, but also help to estimate the size, shape, strike and depth of
the ore bodies. The magnetic elements composing the Earth’s magnetic field
are declination angle (d), dip angle of the resultant field (v) due to horizontal (H)
and vertical components (Z) of the magnetic field (Fig.14.19)

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Fig. 14.18: Sketch showing an excess mass in the crust that locally enhance the
gravity field producing gravity high (positive anomaly).

Fig. 14.19: Schematic diagram of geomagnetic elements showing the declination

(d) and inclination (i) of the total field vector F.

The magnetic survey uses high precision magnetometer that measures the dip
and the declination, which is operable in air (airborne), sea (marine) and land
(ground). Different types of magnetometers like, fluxgate, proton-precision,
overhauser are used in exploration survey. Airborne is cost effective and is
applicable to cover large area. Marine magnetic survey is used for investigation
of ocean floor polymetallic nodules and the ground magnetic survey is suitable
for small area coverage.
For example, the zinc-lead mineralisation across Rampura-Agucha supergiant
deposit is shown in Fig. 14.20, wherein the conductors that fall in the vicinity of
structurally favourable locales endorsed by gravity and magnetic anomalies.

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Fig. 14.20: Gravity and magnetic profiles over Rampura-Agucha mineral belt,
India. (Source: Gandhi and Sarkar, 2016)

3. Electrical Method
All electrical methods are dependent primarily on the properties of resistivity
and conductivity of subsurface rock masses to propagate electric current. Wide
variety of method includes either due to naturally occurring electrical field within
the earth or by inducing artificially generated current through the ground.
Different techniques of electrical methods are available that employ different
instruments and procedures as shown in Table 14.3.
Table 14.3: Different techniques of Electrical Methods.

Electrical Methods and their uses

Employing natural electrical
Employing artificial electrical source
source
Self Induced
Telluric Magnetotelluric Resistivity Electromagnetic
Potential Potential
Method Method Method Method
method Method

Sulphide
veins, Mining, geothermal, Large sulphide
Groundwater, Sulphide ore,
Graphite, petroleum, ground water disseminations,
Sulphide ore graphite deposits
ground exploration graphite
water

4. Self-Potential Method (SP)

Self-potential method is also known as spontaneous potential method. It
involves measurement of natural electrical potential due to electrochemical
reactions between the solutions and the surrounding subsurface rocks. These
reactions take place in a different order throughout the body of rock masses.
Thereby creating a potential difference which source flow of current from one
end to the other end. This method is useful in locating elongated magnetite and
sulphide ore deposits. The sulphide ores are very good conductors of electricity
(Fig. 14.21).

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Fig. 14.21: Self-potential method showing anomalous zone.

5. Telluric Current Method

Telluric current is an alternating electrical current with available frequency of
1Hz or less, flowing horizontally in the upper part of the Earth’s crust. It is
generated due to induction effect owing to the electric current in the ionosphere
formed mainly by solar magnetic storms.
The basic idea of telluric current survey is to measure difference in potential at
a base station where thickness and resistivity of the sedimentary basin are
known.

Fig. 14.22: (A) Telluric Current flow lines in a lava of low resistivity resting on a
zone of high density; and (B) the potential difference produced by
these currents L= Electrode spacing, Zs = thickness at satellite station,
Z0= thickness at base station.

Figs.14.22a and 14.22b illustrates that the change in the thickness (ΔZ) is
approximately proportional to the change of current density (Δµ) between the
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base station and the satellite station. The telluric current survey is done in the
initial stage of oil exploration in areas where there is less information known
about thickness of the sedimentary rock strata.
6. Magnetotelluric Method
According to the principle of electromagnetic induction, an alternating electric
current has an associated alternating magnetic field. Measurement of the
intensity of components of this field in the same direction as the component of
voltage provides another means of determining the thickness and apparent
resistivity of a layered sequence of rocks. Magnetotelluric surveying combines
these measurements. The depth of investigation is from 300 m below the
ground down to the 10,000 m or much deeper by detecting higher frequencies
with long period soundings. This method is useful to know basement structures
for oil & gas prospecting (Fig.14.23).

Fig. 14.23: Typical layout for a standard magnetotelluric recording station,

indicating relative electrode line and induction magnetometer
positions. (Source: Redrawn from https://openei.org/wiki/Magnetotellurics)

7. Resistivity Method
Resistivity surveys are conducted by putting electric current directly into the
ground and measure the resistance of the rocks through which the current
passes by means of arrays of receiver electrodes. For example, metallic
sulphides can conduct electric current by movement of charged ions and these
ions can be easily detected by an anomalous low resistance zone (Fig.14.24).
The conventional practice in this survey is to use source and sink electrodes
connected to an electric power source to compel current to flow into the ground.
An ammeter is placed in this circuit to measure the input current. Two other
electrodes connected to a voltmeter are placed in other positions to measure
the difference in potentials. This depends on the resistivity in the zone bounded
by the two equipotential surfaces that reach to the land surface at potential

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electrodes. Usually, four electrodes, i.e., current electrodes (A & B) and

potential electrodes (M & N) are placed in a line (Fig.14.25).

Fig. 14.24: Electrical properties of naturally occurring minerals. (Source: Redrawn

from http://zonge.com/rock-properties-lab/ore-minerals-physical-properties/)

Fig. 14.25: Array of electrodes & equipotential surfaces.

8. Induced Potential Method

Induced potential (IP) or polarisation method is an imaging technique used to
identify electrical chargeability of subsurface ore bodies. Like resistivity survey,
IP method is also applied on the ground using four electrodes which measures
capacitive properties of the subsurface materials in addition to resistivity. It
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provides additional information about the spatial variation in the lithology and
grain surface chemistry measurement. Two different modes of survey being
conducted, i.e., time domain and frequency domain IP. In the former, the
measurement of decaying voltage over a certain time period is measured after
injection of current into the ground. In the later mode, apparent resistivity of
subsurface bodies is measured when a variable low frequency alternating
current is injected into the ground (Fig.14.26).

Fig. 14.26: Schematic sketch map how Induced Polarisation works. (Source:
adapted from Bleil, D.F., 1953)

9. Electromagnetic Method
This method directly measures the magnetic field associated with the low
frequency alternating current flow, generated in a loop of wire called transmitter
suspended either on or above the ground surface.

Fig. 14.27: Electromagnetic method. (Source: Grant and West, 1965)

The primary alternating magnetic field, created by the current flow from
transmitter coil can be detected with minor deflection in amplitude by means of
a receiver coil in a homogeneous subsurface material. However, if there is a
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conductor material below the ground, the primary magnetic field will induce a
set of alternating current called eddy current to flow within it. It will generate its
own secondary electromagnetic field which distorts the primary field. The
receiver will detect the response from both arrivals of primary and secondary
fields. It differs in amplitude, phase and direction that reveal the presence and
geometry of subsurface conductive materials associated with the sulphide ore
bodies (Figs.14.27 and 14.28).

Fig. 14.28: Aeromagnetic survey configuration.

10. Seismic Method

Seismic method is based on the difference in the propagation velocity of
artificially induced elastic or seismic waves through various strata in the
subsurface. The source generates shock waves by means of explosives,
mechanical vibrators or compressed air gun, which travel down into subsurface.
Primary (P) and Secondary (S) seismic waves move uniformly from the source
to the subsurface and reflect and refract simultaneously on the boundary of a
second medium with different elastic properties. Accordingly, the travel time of
reflected or refracted wave is recorded on sensitive instrument called geophone
placed on the surface. In the refraction technique, the waves travel along a
boundary between rocks of different elastic properties. While the reflection
technique uses the waves reflected from such boundaries (Fig.14.29). Seismic
methods are comparatively less used in mineral exploration due to high cost.
More especially because most ore bodies associated with igneous or
metamorphic rocks lack coherent layering like sedimentary rocks. In general,
the reflected seismic data is used for exploration of coal, oil & gas. Refracted
data is used in mineral investigation to map low velocity alluvial deposits that
may contain gold, tin, sand or gravel.
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Fig.14.29: Method of seismic reflection and refraction profiling by time versus

distance curve. (Source: Redrawn from Halder, 2018)

11. Pitting, Trenching, Drilling and Borehole Logging

Quantitative information at various points of the confirmed mineralisation as
indicated by indirect methods can be obtained by pitting, trenching, boring and
drilling.
Pitting is employed to test shallow flat lying extensive ore bodies. Samples are
taken from single wall, opposite wall or all the four walls of the pit based on the
type and nature of the mineralisation and obtain a representative sample for
examination (Fig. 14.30).
Trenching: Trenches are conducted by excavation across the strike of host
rocks to look into the exposure of steep dipping mineralisation buried below the
overburden. In some cases, cross trenching is required to expose mineralised
zones. Trenches usually have a dimension of 10 m width and 3 to 5 m depth.
Channel samples are taken along the floor of trenches (Fig. 14.30).

Fig. 14.30: Pitting and trenching for gold prospects. (Source: www.gsi.gov.in)

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If the depth of ore bodies is too large for pitting and trenching, then it is tested
by boring and drilling. Making a hole in the soil is referred to as boring where
as in the solid rock is referred to drilling, which can be done with the help of
light weight portable drilling machine. Drilling is the most effective means of
exploration of mineral deposit of all types and also for other geological activities
like rock types, stratigraphy, structure, wall rock alteration, geochemical zoning,
ore guides and control.
Several types of drilling techniques are available. Percussion drilling, Rotary
drilling, Diamond drilling (Fig. 14.31) and Auger drilling are the commonly used
drilling methods in mineral exploration. The choice of drilling method normally
depends upon the depth of the drill hole, location of drill site, geometry of ore
target, and the kind of sample needed.
Logging also known as well logging/ borehole logging is a technique for
systematic recording of rock properties including its fluid contents down the drill
hole. Some of the rock properties which can be logged are electrical resistivity,
self-potential, gamma ray emission, density, magnetic susceptibility, and
acoustic velocity.

Fig. 14.31: Schematic diagram of surface diamond drilling unit. (Source: Redrawn
from Haldar, 2018)

Learners, you have learnt about the subsurface exploration methods. Now,
spend a few minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

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SAQ 2
a) What do you mean by direct and indirect subsurface methods?
b) What is self-potential method?
c) How resistivity survey methods are conducted?

14.5 ACTIVITY
• Prepare a list of surface and subsurface exploration methods you have
studied in this unit.

14.6 SUMMARY
Let us sum up what we have learnt in this unit.
• Principles of exploration methods are based on physicochemical properties
like specific gravity, electrical and magnetic properties, velocity of seismic
waves, radioactivity of minerals
• Two broad types of exploration methods are used to locate economically
viable mineral deposits, namely surface and subsurface explorations.
• Surface exploration methods include geological, geochemical, geobotanical,
photogeology and remote sensing to prepare detailed geological maps of the
surveyed area.
• Geochemical and geobotanical surveys involve sampling of soil, rock, water,
air and vegetation to find out an anomalous value with respect to the
background value of the surveyed area. Indicator elements and plants help
to identify occurrence of near surface mineral deposit.
• Remote sensing is the collection of information about an area without
physical contact using different kind of sensors installed in vehicles,
balloons, aircraft or satellites.
• Aerial photos and satellite imageries are used in the detection of various
geological features controlling mineralisation or hydrocarbon accumulation.
• Geographic Information System (GIS) helps to identify mineral deposits
based on integration and interpolation of multiple georeferenced source data
and modelling using software and computer hardware.
• Let us summarise the main subsurface methods as given in Table 14.3.
Table 14.3: Summary of subsurface (geophysical) methods. (Abbreviation:
A: Airborne Survey; B: Bore hole Survey; & G: Ground Survey;
PGE: Platinum group of elements)

Geophysical Physical Direct and Indirect Targets

Method Properties

Gravity Density Mapping of sedimentary basins, geological

(A,B & G) structures; high-density ores and minerals like
chromite, manganese, barites, sulphide, etc.,
and low-density minerals like coal, lignite, etc.

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Massive Sulphide, chromite, Ni-Cu-PGE, salt

domes, barite, kimberlite pipes, concealed
basins
Magnetic Magnetic Mapping of igneous, sedimentary, and
(A,B & G) susceptibilit metamorphic units, geological structures;
y; natural Ground water
remnant Magnetite, ilmenite, pyrrhotite-rich Sulphide, Ni-
magnetism Cu-PGE.
Electromagnetic: Sulphide, Cr-Ni-Cu-PGE ore,
graphite
Self-potential Electrical/th Sulphide, graphite, formational contacts,
(B & G) ermal seepage, etc.
conductivity Sulphide veins, graphite, ground water, Ni-Cu-
PGE
Resistivity Electrical Groundwater, Sulphide, Ni-Cu-PGE
(B & G) conductivity

Eletromagnet Electrical Sulphide. Some oxides, mapping of conductive

ic conductivity formations, geological structure, groundwater
(A,B & G) and
inductance
Induced Electrical Sulphide, some oxides, disseminated ore
Polarization capacitance (porphyry type), groundwater
(B & G) Large Sulphide dissemination, Ni-Cu-PGE,
graphite
Seismic Seismic Mapping of sedimentary formation (coal beds),
(B & G) wave structures, bedrock and basement rock
velocity Coal, oil and gas, groundwater, layered
(elastic sedimentary basin, Ni-Cu-PGE in volcanic basal
moduli and flows
density)
Radiometric Radioactive Radioactive minerals, geological formations,
(A,B & G) decay structures
Thorium, uranium, radium
Thermal Thermal Sulphide, geological formation mapping,
(B) conductivity geothermal springs

14.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss surface exploration methods.
2. Discuss subsurface exploration methods.
3. Write in brief about the geochemical and geobotanical exploration methods.
4. Explain the gravimetric and magnetic exploration methods with suitable
diagram.
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14.8 REFERENCES
• Bleil, D.F., (1953) Induced polarization: A method of geophysical
prospecting, Geophysics, 18: 636–661p.
• Bhattacharya, S., Wright, A., Clayton, J., Price, W., Southern, E. and Evans,
H. (1984) Close genetic linkage between X-linked retinitis pigmentosa and a
restriction fragment length polymorphism identified by recombinant DNA
probe L1.28. Nature 309, 253–255p. https://doi.org/10.1038/309253a0
• Charles J., Whatley Michael K.G. and Evans K.M. (2006) Introduction to
mineral exploration, Blackwell publishing, 499p.
• Fisher, L., Gazley, M.F., Baensch, A., Barnes, S.J., Cleverley, J., & Duclaux,
G. (2014) Resolution of geochemical and lithostratigraphic complexity: a
work flow for application of portable X-ray fluorescence to mineral
exploration. Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis, 14: 149-
159p.
• Gandhi, S.M and Sarkar, B.C. (2016) Essentials of Mineral Exploration and
Evaluation, 1st edition, Elsevier Cambridge, 410p.
• Grant, F. S. and West, G. F. (1965) Interpretation Theory in Applied
Geophysics, McGrawHill, New York, 361p.
• Haldar, S. K. (2018), Mineral Exploration Principles and Applications,
Elsevier Publications, 374p.
• Marjoribanks Roger (2010) Geological Methods in Mineral Exploration and
Mining, Springer Publications, 2nd edition, 243p.
• Sabins, F.F. (1997), Remote Sensing, Principles and Interpretation, W H
Freeman and Company, 450p.
• Sawant, P. T. (2011), Engineering and General Geology, New India
Publishing Agency, New Delhi, 486p.
• Sen, A. K. and Guha, P. K. (1993), A Handbook of Economic Geology,
Published by Modern Book Agency Pvt Ltd, Calcutta, 332p.
• Singh, Parbin (2013) Engineering and General Geology. S.K. Kataria and
Sons. ISBN: 8188458511, 9788188458516, 600p.
• Talapatra, Ashoke K. (2006), Modelling and Geochemical Exploration of
Mineral Deposits, Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, 170p.
• https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1995/ofr-95-0831/CHAP3.pdf
• http://zonge.com/rock-properties-lab/ore-minerals-physical-properties/
• https://openei.org/wiki/Magnetotellurics
• www.surveyofindia.gov.in
• www.gsi.gov.in
(Above websites are excessed between 10th and 20th June 2021)

14.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Gandhi, S.M and Sarkar, B.C. (2016) Essentials of Mineral Exploration and
Evaluation, 1st edition, Elsevier Cambridge, 410p.

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• Haldar, S. K. (2018), Mineral Exploration Principles and Applications,

Elsevier Publications, 374p.

14.10 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) The broad activities of geological exploration are:
• Review of existing data and field work
• Surface guides
• Topographic survey
• River and glacial floating
b) The passive sensors use reflected or transmitted portion of electromagnetic
spectrum of solar radiation and thermal radiation from the target area. The
active sensors emit energy and measure intensity of energy that gets
reflected back from the object or area under investigation.
c) Pathfinder or indicator elements/minerals are characteristic parameters in
geochemical prospecting to detect hidden ore bodies.
SAQ 2
a) The direct methods involve collection of samples from subsurface rock
strata by digging drill holes, trenches, pits, exploratory tunnels and the rock
samples are examined and tested in the laboratory. The indirect methods
are extensively used by applying different geophysical techniques to locate
mineral ore bodies.
b) Self-potential (spontaneous potential) method involves measurement of
natural electrical potential due to electrochemical reactions between the
solutions and the surrounding subsurface rocks.
c) Resistivity surveys are conducted by putting electricity directly into the
ground and measure the resistance of the rocks through which the current
passes, by means of arrays of receiver electrodes.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to section 14.3.
2. Please refer to section 14.4.
3. Please refer to subsections 14.3.3 and 14.3.4.
4. Please refer to section 14.4.

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