SEMICONDUCTOR

INTRODUCTION
The branch of engineering which deals with current conduction through
vaccum or gas or semiconductor is knowns as electronics.
The word electronics derives its name from electron present in all materials.
The electronic devices are capable of performing following functions:
1.Rectification
2.Amplification
3.Control
4.Generation
5.conversion of light to electricity
6.conversion of electricity into light
ELECTRON
⚫ An electron is an negatively charged particle having negible mass.

⚫ The charge of the electron, e=1.602 x 10-19 coulomb

⚫ The mass of the electron,m= 9.0 x 10-31 kg

⚫ Valence electron-The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as

valence electrons.
CONTD...
⚫ The free electrons in the outermost orbit are known as valence electrons.
⚫ The valence electrons which are loosely attached to the nucleus are known as free
electrons.
⚫ These valence electrons determine the properties of the material that whether it is a
conductor or semiconductor or insulator
⚫ The conductors have less than four valence electrons and examples- sodium and
magnesium.
⚫ The insulators have more than four valence electrons and examples -nitrogen, neon, and
sulphur.
⚫ The semiconductors have four valence electrons and examples -silicon and germanium.
ENERGY BAND
▪ Electron in orbit contain kinetic and electric potential energy.

▪ Orbit of atom are referred to as energy levels.

▪ Random movement of electron in orbit is influenced by the combination of the

electric field of atom and other nearby atoms.
Energy Band Theory
⚫ The energy bands present in the solids are as below:
⚫ Valence band
⚫ Conduction band
⚫ Forbidden gap
⚫ Valence band: The energy band formed due to a merging of energy levels associated with the
valence electrons in the last shell is called as valence band.
⚫ Conduction band: The energy band formed due to the merging of energy levels associated with the
free electrons is called as conduction band.
⚫ Forbidden gap: The energy gap which divides the conduction band and valence band are known as
forbidden band or forbidden gap. The energy associated with forbidden band is called as energy
gap and is denoted by and is measured in electron volt (eV). Therefore, 1ev = 1.62* 10^-19. In the
conductors, the forbidden gap overlap and the energy gap will be large in the insulators. In the
semiconductors, the energy gap will be very small.
CONTD...
⚫ Forbidden gap plays a major role for determining the electrical conductivity of
material. Based on the forbidden gap materials are classified in to three types,
they are
⚫ Insulators
⚫ Conductors
⚫ semiconductors
INSULATORS
⚫ The materials which does not allow
the flow of electric current through
them are called as insulators.
Insulators are also called as poor
conductors of electricity.
⚫ Normally, in insulators the valence band is fully occupied with electrons due to
sharing of outer most orbit electrons with the neighboring atoms. Where as
conduction band is empty, I.e, no electrons are present in conduction band.
⚫ The forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band is very large
in insulators. The energy gap of insulator is approximately equal to 15 electron
volts (eV).
CONDUCTORS
⚫ The materials which easily allow the
flow of electric current through them
are called as conductors.
⚫ Metals such as copper, silver, iron,
aluminum etc. are good conductors
of electricity.
CONTD...

⚫ In a conductor, valence band and conduction band overlap each other as shown in
figure. Therefore, there is no forbidden gap in a conductor.
⚫ A small amount of applied external energy provides enough energy for the valence band
electrons to move in to conduction band. Therefore, more number of valence band
electrons can easily moves in to the conduction band.
⚫ When valence band electrons moves to conduction band they becomes free electrons.
The electrons present in the conduction band are not attached to the nucleus of a atom.
⚫ In conductors, large number of electrons are present in conduction band at room
temperature, I.e, conduction band is almost full with electrons. Where as valence band
is partially occupied with electrons. The electrons present in the conduction band moves
freely by carrying the electric current from one point to othe
SEMICONDUCTORS
⚫ The material which has electrical
conductivity between that of a conductor
and an insulator is called as
semiconductor. Silicon, germanium and
graphite are some examples of
semiconductors.
⚫ A unique feature of the semiconductors is
that they are bipolar in nature and in them,
the current is transported by the electrons
and holes.
⚫ .
CONTD...
⚫ In semiconductors, the forbidden gap between valence band and conduction band is
very small. It has a forbidden gap of about 1 electron volt (eV).
⚫ At low temperature, the valence band is completely occupied with electrons and
conduction band is empty because the electrons in the valence band does not have
enough energy to move in to conduction band. Therefore, semiconductor behaves as
an insulator at low temperature.
⚫ However, at room temperature some of the electrons in valence band gains enough
energy in the form of heat and moves in to conduction band.
⚫ When the temperature is goes on increasing, the number of valence band electrons
moving in to conduction band is also increases. This shows that electrical
conductivity of the semiconductor increases with increase in temperature. I.e. a
semiconductor has negative temperature co-efficient of resistance.
⚫ The resistance of semiconductor decreases with increase in temperature.
CONTD...
⚫ In semiconductors, electric current is carried by two types of charge carriers
they are electrons and holes.
⚫ The absence of electron in a particular place in an atom is called as hole.
⚫ Hole is a electric charge carrier which has positive charge. The electric
charge of hole is equal to electric charge of electron but have opposite polarity.
CONTD...
CONTD...
CURRENT CONDUCTION IN MATERIALS
⚫ In semiconductors, both free electrons and holes are present. Free electrons are
the negatively charged particles. So they carry a negative charge (electric
current). Holes are the positively charged particles. So they carry a positive
charge (electric current).
⚫ Thus, both free electrons and holes conduct electric current in semiconductors.
⚫ In conductors, holes are negligible. So the free electrons conduct electric
current.
CURRENT FLOW IN SEMICONDUCTOR
CURRENT FLOWS IN CONDUCTOR
CONTD...
⚫ When a voltage is applied to a conductor or
semiconductor, electric current starts flowing.
⚫ In conductors, positively charged protons are
held in a fixed position and the negatively
charged electrons move from one place to
another place by carrying the charge. Thus,
electrons conduct electric current in conductors.
⚫ In semiconductors, both free electrons and holes
carry charge from one place to another place.
Thus, electrons and holes conduct electric current
in semiconductors.
⚫ When voltage is applied, the electrons (negative
charges) move from negative end of the battery
to the positive end of the battery. So the electrons
(negative charges) current direction is from
negative to positive.
CONTD...
⚫ On the other hand, holes (positive charges) move from positive end of the
battery to the negative end of the battery. So the holes (positive charges)
current direction is from positive to negative.
⚫ The conventional current direction is from positive to negative (same as the
current direction of positive charges).
⚫ The charge of a positively charged particle (hole) is equal to the charge of a
negatively charged particle (free electron) but opposite in polarity.
⚫ A flow of negative charges in a circuit will produce the current same as the
flow of positive charges produce. So it does not matter whether the current
is flowing from positive to negative or negative to positive, the generated
current will be same.
INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR
⚫ The material which has electrical
conductivity between that of a
conductor and that of an insulator is
called as semiconductor. Silicon,
germanium and graphite are some
examples of semiconductors.
Semiconductors are the foundation
of modern electronics, including
transistors, Light-Emitting diodes,
solar cells etc
 CONTD...
⚫ In semiconductors, the forbidden gap between valence band and conduction band is very small. It has
a forbidden gap of about 1 electron volt (eV).
⚫ At low temperature, the valence band is completely occupied with electrons and conduction band is
empty because the electrons in the valence band does not have enough energy to move in to
conduction band. Therefore, semiconductor behaves as an insulator at low temperature.
⚫ However, at room temperature some of the electrons in valence band gains enough energy in the
form of heat and moves in to conduction band. When the valence electrons moves in to conduction
band they becomes free electrons. These electrons are not attached to the nucleus of a atom, So they
moves freely.
⚫ The conduction band electrons are responsible for electrical conductivity. The measure of ability to
conduct electric current is called as electrical conductivity.
⚫ When the temperature is goes on increasing, the number of valence band electrons moving in to
conduction band is also increases. This shows that electrical conductivity of the semiconductor
increases with increase in temperature. i.e. a semiconductor has negative temperature co-efficient of
resistance. The resistance of semiconductor decreases with increase in temperature.
⚫ In semiconductors, electric current is carried by two types of charge carriers they are electrons and
holes.
HOLE
⚫ The absence of electron in a
particular place in an atom is called
as hole.
⚫ Hole is a electric charge carrier
which has positive charge.
The electric charge of hole is equal
to electric charge of electron but
have opposite polarity.
CONTD...
⚫ When a small amount of external energy is applied, then the electrons in the
valence band moves in to conduction band and leaves a vacancy in valence
band. This vacancy is called as hole.
⚫ Hole
⚫ The absence of electron in a particular place in an atom is called as hole.
⚫ Hole is a electric charge carrier which has positive charge. The electric
charge of hole is equal to electric charge of electron but have opposite polarity.
CONTD...
⚫ When a small amount of external energy is applied, then the electrons in the
valence band moves in to conduction band and leaves a vacancy in valence
band. This vacancy is called as hole.
⚫ Hole
⚫ The absence of electron in a particular place in an atom is called as hole.
⚫ Hole is a electric charge carrier which has positive charge. The electric
charge of hole is equal to electric charge of electron but have opposite polarity.
CONTD....
CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
⚫ Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. Silicon and
germanium are the most common examples of intrinsic semiconductors. Both
these semiconductors are most frequently used in the manufacturing of
transistors, diodes and other electronic components.
⚫ Intrinsic semiconductor is also called as undoped semiconductor or I-type
semiconductor. In intrinsic semiconductor the number of electrons in the
conduction band is equal to the number of holes in the valence band. Therefore
the overall electric charge of a atom is neutral.
Atomic structure of silicon
⚫ Silicon is a substance consisting of atoms which all have the same number of protons.
The atomic number of silicon is 14 i.e. 14 protons. The number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom is called atomic number. Silicon atom has 14 electrons (two
electrons in first orbit, eight electrons in second orbit and 4 electrons in the outermost
orbit.
⚫ Atomic structure of germanium
⚫ Germanium is a substance consisting of atoms which all have the same number of
protons. The atomic number of germanium is 32 i.e. 32 protons. The number of protons
in the nucleus of atom is called atomic number. Germanium has 32 electrons ( 2
electrons in first orbit, 8 electrons in second orbit, 18 electrons in third orbit and 4
electrons in the outermost orbit.
CONTD...
Covalent bonding in silicon
⚫ The outermost shell of atom is capable to hold up to eight electrons. The atom which has eight electrons in the
outermost orbit is said to be completely filled and most stable. But the outermost orbit of silicon has only four
electrons. Silicon atom needs four more electrons to become most stable. Silicon atom forms four covalent
bonds with the four neighboring atoms. In covalent bonding each valence electron is shared by two atoms.When
silicon atoms comes close to each other, each valence electron of atom is shared with the neighboring atom and
each valence electron of neighboring atom is shared with this atom. Likewise each atom will share four valence
electrons with the four neighboring atoms and four neighboring atoms will share each valence electron with this
atom. Therefore, total eight electrons are shared.
⚫ Covalent bonding in germanium
⚫ The outermost orbit of germanium has only four electrons. Germanium atom needs four more electrons to
become most stable. Germanium atom forms four covalent bonds with the four neighboring atoms. In covalent
bonding each valence electron is shared by two atoms.
⚫ When germanium atoms comes close to each other each valence electron of atom is shared with the neighboring
atom and each valence electron of neighboring atom is shared with this atom. Likewise each atom will share
four valence electrons with the four neighboring atoms and four neighboring atoms will share each valence
electron with this atom. Therefore, total eight electrons are shared.
CONTD...
CURRENT CONDUCTION IN INTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTOR
Extrinsic semiconductors

⚫ The semiconductor in which impurities are added is called extrinsic

semiconductor. When the impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, it
becomes an extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding impurities to the
semiconductor is called doping. Doping increases the electrical conductivity of
semiconductor.
⚫ Extrinsic semiconductor has high electrical conductivity than intrinsic
semiconductor. Hence the extrinsic semiconductors are used for the
manufacturing of electronic devices such as diodes, transistors etc. The number
of free electrons and holes in extrinsic semiconductor are not equal.
Types of impurities
⚫ Two types of impurities are added to the
semiconductor. They are pentavalent and
trivalent impurities.
⚫ Pentavalent impurities
⚫ Pentavalent impurity atoms have 5 valence
electrons. The various examples of pentavalent
impurity atoms include Phosphorus (P), Arsenic
(As), Antimony (Sb), etc. The atomic structure
of pentavalent atom (phosphorus) and trivalent
atom (boron) is shown in below fig.Phosphorus
is a substance consisting of atoms which all have
the same number of protons. The atomic number
of phosphorus is 15 i.e. 15 protons. The number
of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called
atomic number. Phosphorus atom has 15
electrons (2 electrons in first orbit, 8 electrons in
second orbit and 5 electrons in the outermost
orbit).
CONTD...
⚫ Trivalent impurity atoms have 3 valence electrons. The various examples of
trivalent impurities include Boron (B), Gallium (G), Indium(In),
Aluminium(Al).
⚫ Boron is a substance consisting of atoms which all have the same number of
protons. The atomic number of boron is 5 i.e. 5 protons. Boron atom has 5
electrons (2 electrons in first orbit and 3 electrons in the outermost orbit)
CONTD...
⚫ Based on the type of impurities added, extrinsic semiconductors are classified
in to two types.
⚫ N-type semiconductor
⚫ P-type semiconductor
N-type semiconductor

⚫ When pentavalent impurity is added to an intrinsic or pure

semiconductor (silicon or germanium), then it is said to be an n-type
semiconductor. Pentavalent impurities such as phosphorus, arsenic, antimony
etc are called donor impurity.
CONTD...
⚫ Let us consider, pentavalent impurity phosphorus is added to
silicon as shown in below figure. Phosphorus atom has
5 valence electrons and silicon has 4 valence electrons.
Phosphorus atom has one excess valence electron than silicon.
The four valence electrons of each phosphorus atom form
4 covalent bonds with the 4 neighboring silicon atoms. The fifth
valence electron of the phosphorus atom cannot able to form the
covalent bond with the silicon atom because silicon atom does
not have the fifth valence electron to form the covalent bond.
⚫ Thus, fifth valence electron of phosphorus atom does not
involve in the formation of covalent bonds. Hence, it is free to
move and not attached to the parent atomThis shows that each
phosphorus atom donates one free electron. Therefore, all the
pentavalent impurities are called donors. The number of free
electrons are depends on the amount of impurity (phosphorus)
added to the silicon. A small addition of impurity (phosphorus)
generates millions of free electrons..
Conduction in n-type semiconductor

⚫ Let us consider an n-type semiconductor as

shown in below figure. When voltage is
applied to n-type semiconductor; the free
electrons moves towards positive terminal of
applied voltage. Similarly holes moves
towards negative terminal of applied
voltage.In n-type semiconductor, the
population of free electrons is more whereas
the population of holes is less. Hence in
n-type semiconductor free electrons are
called majority carriers and holes are called
minority carriers. Therefore, in a n-type
semiconductor conduction is mainly because
of motion of free electrons.
Charge on n-type semicondctor

⚫ n-type semiconductor has large number of free electrons. So, the total electric
charge of n-type semiconductor is negative. But this assumption is wrong.
Even though n-type semiconductor has large number of free electrons, but
these free electrons is given by the pentavalent atoms that are electrically
neutral. Therefore, the total electric charge of n-type semiconductor is also
neutral.
P-type semiconductor
⚫ When the trivalent impurity is added to an intrinsic or pure
semiconductor (silicon or germanium), then it is said to be an
p-type semiconductor. Trivalent impurities such as Boron (B),
Gallium (G), Indium(In), Aluminium(Al) etc are called acceptor
impurity.
⚫ Let us consider, trivalent impurity boron is added to silicon as
shown in below figure. Boron atom has three valence
electrons and silicon has four valence electrons. The three
valence electrons of each boron atom form 3 covalent
bonds with the 3 neighboring silicon atoms.In the fourth
covalent bond, only silicon atom contributes one valence
electron, while the boron atom has no valence electron to
contribute. Thus, the fourth covalent bond is incomplete with
shortage of one electron. This missing electron is called hole.
⚫ This shows each boron atom accept one electron to fill the hole.
Therefore, all the trivalent impurities are called acceptors. A
small addition of impurity (boron) provides millions of holes.
Conduction in p-type semiconductor

⚫ Let us consider a p-type semiconductor as shown

in below figure. When voltage is applied to p-type
semiconductor; the holes in valence band moves
towards negative terminal of applied
voltage. Similarly free electrons move towards
positive terminal of applied voltage. In p-type
semiconductor, the population of holes in valence
band is more, whereas the population of free
electrons in conduction band is less. So, current
conduction is mainly because of holes in valence
band. Free electrons in conduction band
constitute little current. Hence in p-type
semiconductor, holes are called majority carriers
and free electrons are called minority carriers.
DIFFERENCE
N TYPE P TYPE

• Occur simultaneously in two ways: • Occur simultaneously in two ways:

i. Flow of free electron in the i. Flow of holes in the valence
conduction band which is band which is the majority
the majority current carrier current carrier,
ii. Flow of holes in valence ii. Flow of free electron in the
band which is the minority conduction band which is the
current carrier. minority current carrier.
Law of mass action
The law of mass action states that the product of number of electrons in the
conduction band and the number of holes in the valence band is constant at a
fixed temperature and is independent of amount of donor and acceptor
impurity added.
Mathematically it is represented as
np = ni 2= constant

Where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration

n is number of electrons in conduction band
p is number of holes in valence band
A semiconductor material at 300 K have
thermal-equilibrium concentration of electron
4
is n 0 = 5x10 cm -3 .Find its hole
13
concentration.Given [n i =2.3x10 cm -3 ]
Drift current
The flow of charge carriers, which is due to the applied voltage or electric field is
called drift current.
In a semiconductor, there are two types of charge carriers, they are electrons and
holes. When the voltage is applied to a semiconductor, the free electrons move
towards the positive terminal of a battery and holes move towards the negative
terminal of a battery.
Electrons are the negatively charged particles and holes are the positively charged
particles. As we already discussed that like charges repel each other and unlike
charges attract each other. Hence, the electrons (negatively charged particle) are
attracted towards the positive terminal of a battery and holes (positively charged
particle) are attracted towards the negative terminal.
⚫ In a semiconductor, the electrons
always try to move in a straight
line towards the positive terminal
of the battery. But, due to
continuous collision with the
atoms they change the direction
of flow. Each time the electron
strikes an atom it bounces back
in a random direction. The
applied voltage does not stop the
collision and random motion of
electrons, but it causes the
electrons to drift towards the
positive terminal.
⚫ Diffusion current
⚫ The process by which, charge carriers (electrons or holes) in a semiconductor
moves from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration is
called diffusion.
⚫ The region in which more number of electrons is present is called higher
concentration region and the region in which less number of electrons is present is
called lower concentration region. Current produced due to motion of charge
carriers from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration is
called diffusion current. Diffusion process occurs in a semiconductor that is
non-uniformly doped.
⚫ Consider an n-type semiconductor that is non-uniformly doped as shown in below
figure. Due to the non-uniform doping, more number of electrons is present at left
side whereas lesser number of electrons is present at right side of the semiconductor
material. The number of electrons present at left side of semiconductor material is
more. So, these electrons will experience a repulsive force from each other.
⚫ The electrons present at left side of the semiconductor material will moves to right side, to reach
the uniform concentration of electrons. Thus, the semiconductor material achieves equal
concentration of electrons. Electrons that moves from left side to right side will constitute
current. This current is called diffusion current. In p-type semiconductor, the diffusion process
occurs in the similar manner.
⚫ Both drift and diffusion current occurs in semiconductor devices. Diffusion current occurs
without an external voltage or electric field applied. Diffusion current does not occur in a
conductor. The direction of diffusion current is same or opposite to that of the drift current.