Chapter 3 Stresses in Machine Elements

Lesson 1 Simple Stresses

PROF DR BÜLENT EKİCİ
MARMARA UNIVERSITY
2023
 Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student should have adequate knowledge of
• Simple stresses in machine elements; tensile, compressive, bearing and shear
stresses.
• Flexture formula and their limitations.
• Torsion formula and its limitations.
• Design of members subjected to combined bending, torsion and axial loading.
• Buckling of Beams.
• Hertz Contact Stresses
2.1.1 Introduction
Stresses are developed in machine elements due to applied load and
machine design involves ensuring that the elements can sustain the
induced stresses without yielding. Consider a simple lever as shown in
figure-2.1.1.1:

A proper design of the spring would

ensure the necessary force P at the lever
end B. The stresses developed in sections
AB and AC would decide the optimum
cross-section of the lever provided that
the material has been chosen correctly.
• The design of the hinge depends on the stresses developed due to
the reaction forces at A. A closer look at the arrangement would
reveal that the following types of stresses are developed in different
elements:

• It is therefore important to understand the

implications of these and other simple
stresses. Although it is more fundamental to
consider the state of stress at a point and
stress distribution, in elementary design
analysis simple average stresses at critical
cross-sections are considered to be sufficient.
More fundamental issues of stress distribution
in design analysis will be discussed later in this
lecture.
2.1.2 Some basic issues of simple stresses
• Tensile stress
• Compressive stress
Stress at any inclined plane
• Bearing stress

The pressure developed may be

irregular in the above examples but
the expressions give the average
values of the stresses.
• Shear stress
• Critical sections
2.1.3 Bending of beams
• 2.1.3.1 Bending stresses
• We consider that a plane section
remains plane after bending- a basic
assumption in pure bending theory.
• If the rotation of cd with respect to ab
is dφ the contraction of a layer y
distance away from the neutral axis is
given by ds=ysindφ=ydφ (for small
angles sin dφ= dφ)
• The length of red fiber at location y
before bending is ds=rdf. After
bending it stretched with amounth of
dx=ydf.

• Then strain at the arbitrarily selected y

point is;

𝑑𝑥 𝑦𝑑∅ 𝑦
•𝜀= = =
𝑑𝑠 𝜌𝑑∅ 𝜌
r
Axial force on the element dFx= sx dA and considering the linearity in stress variation across the section

we have where σx and σmax are the stresses at distances y and d respectively from the neutral axis

The axial force on the element is thus given by

For static equilibrium total force at any cross-section 1 st Boundary Condition in Pure Bending

This gives What is ∫ ydA , how we call it?

This means that the neutral axis passes through the centroid.
2 nd Boundary Condition in Pure Bending
Again for static equilibrium total moment about NA must be the applied moment M.

This is given by

and this gives

r
PROBLEMS
Problem
Determine the smallest allowable diameter of the shaft which is
subjected to the concentrated forces. The journal bearings at A and B
only support vertical forces. The allowable bending stress is sallow = 150
MPa
The FBD of the shaft is shown in Fig. a.

The shear and moment diagrams are shown in Fig. b

and c, respectively. As indicated on the moment
diagram, Mmax=6 kNm.
The moment of inertia of the cross-section about the
neutral axis is
Problem
The wood beam has a
rectangular cross section
in the proportion shown.
If b 7.5 in., determine the
absolute maximum
bending stress in the
beam.
The FBD of the beam is shown in Fig. a
For 0 < x1< 3 ft

1 400 x1
1200  ( ) x1  V  0
2 3

200 x12
V  1200 
3
The FBD of the beam is shown in Fig. a

For 3 < x2< 6 ft

1 400 x2 x
 ( ) x2 2
2 3 3

1 400 x2 1 400( x2  3)
1200  ( ) x2  ( )( x2  3)  V  0
2 3 2 3
200 x22 200
V  1200   ( x2  3) 2
3 3
For V=0 X2=4.5 ft
The FBD of the beam is shown in Fig. a

For 6 < x2< 9 ft

1 400 x3 1 400( x3  3) 1 400( x3  6)

1200  ( ) x3  ( )( x3  3)  ( )( x3  6)  V  0
2 3 2 3 2 3

200 x32 200 200

V  1200   ( x3  3) 
2
( x3  6) 2
3 3 3
For 0 < x1< 3 ft

1 400 x1 x1
1200 x1  ( ) x1  M  0
2 3 3
200 x13
M  1200 x1 
9

At x1=3 ft M=3000 Ib.ft

 For 3< x2< 6 ft

1 400 x2 x2 1 400( x2  3) ( x2  3)
1200 x2  ( ) x2  ( )( x2  3) M 0
2 3 3 2 3 3

200 x23 200( x2  3) 3

M  1200 x2  
9 9

At x1=4.5 ft M=3450 Ib.ft

At x1=6 ft M=3000 Ib.ft

The shear and moment diagrams are
shown in Fig. b and c, respectively. As
indicated on the moment diagram,
Mmax=3450 Ib.ft. The moment of inertia
of the cross-section is

Convert Ib.ft to Ib.in

• 2.1.3.2 Shear stress in bending
In addition to the pure bending case, beams are often subjected to transverse loads which generate both
bending moments M(x) and shear forces V(x) along the beam. The bending moments cause bending normal
stresses σ to arise through the depth of the beam, and the shear forces cause transverse shear-stress
distribution through the beam cross section as shown in Fig. 1.
If we look at a typical beam section with a transverse stress as in Fig. 1, the
top and bottom surfaces of the beam carries no longitudinal load, hence the
shear stresses must be zero here. In other words, at top and bottom surfaces
of beam section τ = 0. As a consequence of this, in determining the shear
stress distribution, note the shear stress is NOT EQUAL TO:
 Shear Formula
Recall that in the development of the flexure formula, we assumed that the cross section must remain plane and
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam after deformation. Although this is violated when the beam is
subjected to both bending and shear, we can generally assume the cross-sectional warping described above is
small enough so that it can be neglected.
This assumption is particularly true for the most common cases of a slender beam, i.e. one that has a small depth
compared with its length. To determine the shear stress distribution equation, look at a loaded beam as Fig. 2:

Fig. 3 Length of beam dx with normal

stress distribution due to bending
moment

Look at a FBD of the element dx with the bending moment stress distribution only, Fig. 3, in which we do not need to
look transverse forces if only horizontal equilibrium is considered.
Summing the forces horizontally on this infinitesimal element, the stresses due to the bending moments only form a
couple, therefore the force resultant is equal to zero horizontally. Consider now a segment of this element a distance
y above the N.A. up to the top of the element. In order for it to be in equilibrium, a shear stress τxy must be present,
as shown in Fig. 4.

Let the width of the section at a distance y from the N.A. be a function of y and call it “t(y)”. Applying the horizontal
equilibrium equation, gives:
Consider the beam to have a rectangular cross section of width b and height h as in Fig. 5
Example
The beam shown in Figure a is made
from two boards. Determine the
maximum shear stress in the glue
necessary to hold the boards together
along the seam where they are joined.
2.1.4 Torsion of circular members
• A torque applied to a member causes shear stress. In order to
establish a relation between the torque and shear stress developed in
a circular member, the following assumptions are needed:

1. Material is homogeneous and isotropic

2. A plane section perpendicular to the axis of the circular member remains
plane even after twisting i.e. no warping.
3. Materials obey Hooke’s law.
Consider now a circular member subjected to a torque T as shown in
figure 2.1.4.1
The assumption of plane section remaining plane assumes no warping
in a circular member as shown in figure- 2.1.4.2
However, it has been observed experimentally that for non-circular
members warping occurs and the assumption of plane sections
remaining plane does not apply there. This is shown in figure-2.1.4.3.
 Let the point B on the circumference of the member move to point C
during twisting and let the angle of twist be θ. We may also assume
that strain γ varies linearly from the central axis. This gives

where τ is the shear stress developed and G is the modulus

of rigidity. This gives

Consider now, an element of area dA at a radius r as shown in

figure-2.1.4.4. The torque on the element is given by
Combining this with the torque equation we may write

Now ∫ r2dA may be identified as the polar moment of inertia J .

PROBLEM
The motor A develops a torque at gear
B of 450 Ib.ft, which is applied along the
axis of the 2-in.-diameter steel shaft CD.
This torque is to be transmitted to the
pinion gears at E and F. If these gears
are temporarily fixed, determine the
maximum shear stress in segments CB
and BD of the shaft. Also, what is the
angle of twist of each of these
segments? The bearings at C and D only
exert force reactions on the shaft and
do not resist torque. Gst = 12(103) ksi
2.1.5 Buckling
The compressive stress of P/A is applicable only to short members but
for long compression members there may be buckling, which is due to
elastic instability. The critical load for buckling of a column with
different end fixing conditions is given by Euler’s formula ( figure-
2.1.5.1)

where E is the elastic modulus, I the second moment of area, l the column
length and n is a constant that depends on the end condition. For columns
with both ends hinged n=1, columns with one end free and other end fixed
n=0.25, columns with one end fixed and other end hinged n=2, and for
columns with both ends fixed n=4.
Leonhard Euler (1707 – 1783)
Euler Buckling (elastic buckling)

 2 AE
Pcr  I
r
2
 KL 
  A
 r 
• A = Cross sectional area (in2)
• E = Modulus of elasticity of the material (lb/in2)
• K = Stiffness (curvature mode) factor
• L = Column length between pinned ends (in.)
• r = radius of gyration (in.) Source: Emanuel Handmann (wikimedia commons)

 2E
f cr  2
 Fcr
 KL 
 
 r 
University of Michigan, TCAUP
Structures II Slide 49/19
Failure Modes
• Short Columns – fail by crushing
(“compression blocks or piers” Engel)

P
fc   Fc
A
• fc = Actual compressive stress
• A = Cross-sectional area of column (in2)
• P = Load on the column
• Fc = Allowable compressive stress per codes

• Intermediate Columns – crush and buckle

(“columns” Engel)

• Long Columns – fail by buckling

(“long columns” Engel)

 2E
f cr  2
 Fcr
 KL 
 
 r 
• E = Modulus of elasticity of the column material
• K = Stiffness (curvature mode) factor
• L = Column length between pinned ends (in.)
• r = radius of gyration = (I/A)1/2
University of Michigan, TCAUP
Structures II Slide 50/19
V
Hertz Contact Stresses

• Overview
• Hertzian Contact Stresses
• Non-Hertzian Contact Stresses
• Failure modes
• Implications in Opto-Mechanics
• Summary

69
 Overview

• Contact stresses
• Stress developed from
two radii in contact
• Stress
• σ=F/A
• Force is constant
• Area is infinitely small
• Stress approaches infinity
• Deformation occurs until http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcT30f7OpEmou
area is large enough to XxTqMSO4X0Mx0HIx3tWEQqXLnnap

reduce stress to below

elastic limit of parts.

L-3 Insight Technology 70

 Hertzian Contact Stresses

Deformation Caused by Hertzian

Ball with no contact force Contact Stresses

L-3 Insight Technology 71

 Hertzian Contact Stresses

• Hendrick Hertz first published his

work on contact stresses in 1881.
• Work was based on a few
assumptions.
• Frictionless
• Elastic bodies
• Isotropic materials
• Homogeneous materials
• No external shear stress
• Without these assumptions the
equations get out of hand pretty
quickly and an FEA approach to
analysis is required. http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQFrTP2mp
T7mzxryu0OSUB0ifFE5vh8P2ILcHtfo9dx6CjcfYB8CQ

L-3 Insight Technology 72

 Hertzian Contact Stresses
Spherical Bodies

• Spherical Equations

Radius of
deformed
contact area

Maximum
pressure from
force applied Note: For a flat surface R would equal
infinity and for a concave surface like a
spherical hole R would be negative

L-3 Insight Technology 73

 Hertzian Contact Stresses Spherical
Bodies cont.
• Principle and Shear
Stresses

L-3 Insight Technology 74

 Hertzian Contact Stresses
Cylindrical Bodies

• For Cylindrical contacts instead of a circular contact area an elliptical contact area is produced.
The equations below cover this change.

L-3 Insight Technology 75

 Hertzian Contact Stresses
Cylindrical Bodies cont.
• Note: In the cylindrical case the principle stresses are not constant. For more detailed
information on this see Mechanical Engineering Design, Shigley 2004

L-3 Insight Technology 76

 Non-Hertzian Contact Stresses
Adhesive contact between elastic bodies
• Applications where the assumptions listed in the previous slide do not apply fall under Non-
Hertzian contact stresses.
• When two solid surfaces are brought into close proximity, they experience attractive van der
Waals forces. Bradley's van der Waals model[41] provides a means of calculating the tensile
force between two rigid spheres with perfectly smooth surfaces. The Hertzian model of
contact does not consider adhesion possible. However, in the late 1960s, several
contradictions were observed when the Hertz theory was compared with experiments
involving contact between rubber and glass spheres.
• It was observed[5] that, though Hertz theory applied at large loads, at low loads
• the area of contact was larger than that predicted by Hertz theory,
• the area of contact had a non-zero value even when the load was removed, and
• there was even strong adhesion if the contacting surfaces were clean and dry.
• This indicated that adhesive forces were at work. The Johnson-Kendall-Roberts (JKR) model
and the Derjaguin-Muller-Toporov (DMT)L-3models were the first to incorporate adhesion77into
Insight Technology
 Failure Modes

• Permanent Plastic Deformation of parts

• Fatigue damage

http://www.vibanalysis.co.uk/vibcases/vibch13/vibch13p1.jpg

Fatigue damage on bearing. Plastic Deformation of Aluminum

L-3 Insight Technology 78
Stress below the centre of the Line contact axis [x=y=0]

L-3 Insight Technology 79

 Mohr's Circle for stress state at 0.78b below the Cam's Surface

In many cases, surface roughness, friction, lubrication, thermal effects, and residual stresses will result
in conditions that invalidate the results from Hertzian analysis Consequently, the stresses computed
according to Hertz’s analysis must often be regarded as guidelines that are correlated with
experimental failure tests to find allowable stress limits.
Schematic of Orthogonal Shear Stress due to of 'Free Rolling' and 'Traction Rolling'

Orthogonal Shear Stress moving through the contact zone - image to left.
The Hertzian Contact Stress exists beneath the two cylinders. The 'Maximum
Shear Stress' is below the centre of contact. There is also
a 'MaximumOrthogonal Shear Stress' to the left and right of the centre of
contact.
As the cylinders roll, the contact point moves from the left to right,
The Orthogonal Shear Stress at each point in the rollers changes its 'sign' from
'positive' to 'negative', as shown in the plot of Orthogonal Shear Stress.
The absolute value of Orthogonal Shear Stress is not as large as the Maximum
Shear Stress. However, Orthogonal Shear Stress has a range [max – min] that is
larger than the Maximum Shear Stress. The Orthogonal Shear Stress is believed
to be significant with respect to 'Sub-surface Fatigue Cracks'.
The Orthogonal Shear Stress is greatest at approximately:

The Orthogonal Shear Stress is greatest at approximately:

• 0.875b to the left and right of the central axis.
• 0.5b below the surface.
• Its absolute maximum is 0.256*Pmax, which is a range
of 0.512*Pmax.
2.1.6 Stress at a point—its implication in
design
The state of stress at a point is given by nine stress components as
shown in figure 2.1.6.1 and this is represented by the general matrix as
shown below.
Consider now a two dimensional stress element subjected only to
shear stresses. For equilibrium of a 2-D element we take moment of all
the forces about point A ( figure-2.1.6.2) and equate to zero as follows:

This gives τxy=τyx indicating that τxy and τyx are complimentary. On similar
arguments we may write τyz=τzy and τzx=τxz . This means that the state of stress at
a point can be given by six stress components only. It is important to understand
the implication of this state of stress at a point in the design of machine
elements where all or some of the stresses discussed above may act.
For an example, let us consider a cantilever beam of circular cross-
section subjected to a vertical loading P at the free end and an axial
loading F in addition to a torque T as shown in figure 2.1.6.3. Let the
diameter of cross-section and the length of the beam be d and L
respectively.
It is now necessary to consider the most vulnerable section and element. Since the
axial and torsional shear stresses are constant through out the length, the most
vulnerable section is the built-up end. We now consider the three elements A, B and
C. There is no bending stress on the element B and the bending and axial stresses on
the element C act in the opposite direction. Therefore, for the safe design of the
beam we consider the stresses on the element A which is shown in figure 2.1.6.4.
2.1.7 Problems with Answers
Q.1: What stresses are developed in the pin A for the bell crank
mechanism shown in the figure? Find the safe diameter of the pin if the
allowable tensile and shear stresses for the pin material are 350 MPa
and 170 MPa respectively.
A.1:
Q.2: What are the basic assumptions in deriving the bending equation?
The basic assumptions in deriving bending equation are:

a) The beam is straight with a constant area of cross-section and is

symmetrical about the plane of bending.
b) Material is homogeneous and isotropic.
c) Plane sections normal to the beam axis remain plane even after bending.
d) Material obeys Hooke’s law
Q.3: Two cast iron machine parts of cross-sections shown in figüre are
subjected to bending moments. Which of the two sections can carry a
higher moment and determine the magnitude of the applied
moments?
A.3: Assuming that bending takes place about the horizontal axis, the
2nd moment of areas of the two sections are:
Q.4: Under what condition transverse shear stresses are developed in a
beam subjected to a bending moment?
Q.5: Show how the transverse shear stress is distributed in a beam of
solid rectangular cross-section transmitting a vertical shear force.

A.5: Consider a beam with a rectangular cross-section (figure-2.1.7.4). Consider

now a longitudinal cut through the beam at a distance of y1 from the neutral axis
isolating an area ABCD. An infinitesimal area within the isolated area at a distance
y from the neutral axis is then considered to find the first moment of area Q.
Q.6: A 3m long cantilever beam of solid rectangular cross-section of
100mm width and 150mm depth is subjected to an end loading P as
shown in the figure-2.1.7.5. If the allowable shear stress in the beam is
150 MPa, find the safe value of P based on shear alone.
Q.7: What are the basic assumptions in deriving the torsion equation
for a circular member?

A.7: Basic assumptions in deriving the torsion formula are:

a) Material is homogenous and isotropic.
b) A plane section perpendicular to the axis remains plane even after
the torque is applied. This means there is no warpage.
c) In a circular member subjected to a torque, shear strain varies
linearly from the central axis.
d) Material obeys Hooke’s law.
Q.8: In a design problem it is necessary to replace a 2m long aluminium
shaft of 100mm diameter by a tubular steel shaft of the same outside
diameter transmitting the same torque and having the same angle of
twist. Find the inner radius of the steel bar if GAl = 28GPa and GSt =
84GPa.
Q.9: An axially loaded brass strut hinged at both ends is 1m long and is
of a square cross-section of sides 20mm. What should be the
dimension of a steel strut of the same length and subjected to the
same axial loads?
Lesson 2 Compound stresses in machine parts
Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to understand

• Elements of force system at a beam section.

• Superposition of axial and bending stresses.
• Transformation of plane stresses; principal stresses
• Combining normal and shear stresses.
2.2.1 Introduction
The elements of a force system acting at a section
of a member are axial force, shear force and
bending moment and the formulae for these force
systems were derived based on the assumption
that only a single force element is acting at the
section. Figure-2.2.1.1 shows a simply supported
beam while figure-2.2.1.2 shows the forces and
the moment acting at any cross-section X-X of the
beam. The force system can be given as:
Combined effect of these elements at a section may be obtained by the
method of superposition provided that the following limitations are
tolerated:
(a) Deformation is small (figure-2.2.1.3)

If the deflection is large, another additional moment of Pδ would be

developed.
b) Superposition of strains are more fundamental than stress
superposition and the principle applies to both elastic and inelastic
cases.
2.2.2 Strain superposition due to combined effect
of axial force P and bending moment M.
2.2.3 Superposition of stresses due to axial
force and bending moment
2.2.4 Superposition of stresses due to axial
force, bending moment and torsion
2.2.5 Transformation of plane stresses
Example
2.2.7 Problems with Answers
Q.1: A 5mm thick steel bar is fastened to a ground plate by two 6 mm diameter pins as shown in
figure-2.2.7.1. If the load P at the free end of the steel bar is 5
(a) The shear stress in each pin
(b) The direct bearing stress in each pin. KN, find

O
Q.2: A 100 mm diameter off-set link is transmitting an axial pull of 30
KN as shown in the figure- 2.2.7.3. Find the stresses at points A and B.
Q.3: A vertical load Py = 20 KN is applied at the free end of a cylindrical
bar of radius 50 mm as shown in figure-2.2.7.5. Determine the principal
and maximum shear stresses at the points A, B and C.
Q.4: A propeller shaft for a launch transmits 75 KW at 150 rpm and is
subjected to a maximum bending moment of 1KN-m and an axial thrust
of 70 KN. Find the shaft diameter based on maximum principal stress if
the shear strength of the shaft material is limited to 100 MPa.
Summary of this Lesson
The stresses developed at a section within a loaded body and methods
of superposing similar stresses have been discussed. Methods of
combining normal and shear stresses using transformation of plane
stresses have been illustrated. Formulations for principal stresses and
maximum shear stresses have been derived and typical examples are
solved.
Lesson 3 Strain analysis
Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student should learn
• Normal and shear strains.
• 3-D strain matrix.
• Constitutive equation; generalized Hooke’s law
• Relation between elastic, shear and bulk moduli ( E, G, K).
• Stress- strain relation considering thermal effects.
Introduction
No matter what stresses are imposed on an elastic body, provided the
material does not rupture, displacement at any point can have only one
value. Therefore the displacement at any point can be completely given
by the three single valued components u, v and w along the three co-
ordinate axes x, y and z respectively. The normal and shear strains may
be derived in terms of these displacements.
Normal strains
Consider an element AB of length δx ( figure). If displacement of end A
is u, that of end B is This gives an increase in length of
and therefore the strain in x-direction is Similarly, strains in y and z
directions are Therefore, we may write the three normal strain
components as
Shear strain
In the same way we may define the
shear strains. For this purpose
consider an element ABCD in x-y
plane and let the displaced position
of the element be A′B′C′D′ ( Figure).
This gives shear strain in xy plane as
exy= ab where α is the angle made
by the displaced line B′C′ with the
vertical and β is the angle made by
the displaced line A′D′ with the
horizontal. This gives
We may therefore write the three shear strain components as

Therefore, the complete strain matrix

can be written as
Constitutive equation
The state of strain at a point can be completely described by the six
strain components and the strain components in their turns can be
completely defined by the displacement components u, v, and w. The
constitutive equations relate stresses and strains and in linear elasticity
we simply have σ=Eε where E is modulus of elasticity. It is also known
that σx produces a strain of σx/E in x-direction, -nσx/E in y-direction and
-nσx/E in z-direction . Therefore we may write the generalized Hooke’s
law as
It is also known that the shear stress τ = γ G , where G is the shear
modulus and γ is shear strain. We may thus write the three strain
components as

In general each strain is dependent on each stress and we may write

For isotropic material

For isotropic material Rest of the elements in K matrix are zero.

On substitution, this reduces the general constitutive equation to
equations for isotropic materials as given by the generalized Hooke’s
law. Since the principal stress and strains axes coincide, we may write
the principal strains in terms of principal stresses as
From the point of view of volume change or dilatation resulting from
hydrostatic pressure we also have
These equations allow the principal strain components to be defined in
terms of principal stresses.
For isotropic and homogeneous materials only two constants viz. E
and ν are sufficient to relate the stresses and strains.
The strain transformation follows the same set of rules as those used
in stress transformation except that the shear strains are halved
wherever they appear.
Relations between n,E, G and K
The largest maximum shear strain and
shear stress can be given by
Considering now the hydrostatic state of stress and strain
we may write

we may write
Elementary thermoelasticity
So far the state of strain at a point was considered entirely due to
applied forces. Changes in temperature may also cause stresses if a
thermal gradient or some external constraints exist. Provided that the
materials remain linearly elastic, stress pattern due to thermal effect
may be superimposed upon that due to applied forces and we may
write
It is important to note that the shear strains are not affected directly by
temperature changes. It is sometimes convenient to express stresses in
terms of strains. This may be done using the relation Δ =εx+εy+εz.
Substituting the above expressions for εx, εy and εz we have,

Combining this with

We have
we may write the normal and shear stresses as

These equations are considered to be suitable in thermoelastic situations.

Problems with Answers
Q.1: A rectangular plate of 10mm thickness is subjected to uniformly
distributed load along its edges as shown in figure. Find the change in
thickness due to the loading. E=200 GPa, ν = 0.3
Summary of this Lesson
Normal and shear strains along with the 3-D strain matrix have been
defined. Generalized Hooke’s law and elementary thermo-elasticity are
discussed.