Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance Class 12 Notes Physics Chapter 2

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▶Introduction

In the previous chapter, we have learnt about "Electric Charges and Fields". In
this chapter, we shall focus on Electrostatic
Potential and Capacitance. The energy point of view can be used
in electricity and it is especially useful. Energy is also a tool in solving Problems
more easily in many cases than by using forces and electric fields.

Electric energy can be stored in a common device called a capacitor, which is

found in nearly all electronic circuits. A capacitor is used as a storehouse
for energy. Capacitors store the energy in common photo flash units.

▶Electrostatic Potential

The electrostatic potential (V) at any point in a region with the electrostatic field
is the work done in bringing a unit positive charge (without acceleration) from
infinity to that point. If 'W' is the work done in moving a charge ‘q’ from infinity to
a point, then the potential at that point is V = W / q.

▶Electric Potential Difference

Similar to electric potential, the electric potential difference is the work done by
external force in bringing a unit positive charge from point R to point P. i.e.,

VP−VR=UP−URq��-��=��-���

Here VP and VR are the electrostatic potentials at P and R, respectively, and U P and
UR are the potential energies of a charge q when it is at P and at R respectively.
Note: As before, it is not the actual value of potential but the potential
difference that is physically significant. If, as before, we choose the potential to be
zero at infinity, the above equation implies.

Read also: Current Electricity Class 12 Physics Notes Chapter 3

▶Unit for Electric Potential

The unit of measurement for electric potential is the volt, so the electric potential
is often called voltage. A potential of 1 volt (V) equals 1 joule (J) of energy per 1
coulomb (C) of charge.

1V=1JC1�=1��

▶Potential due to a Point Charge

Consider a point charge q placed at point O. Consider any point P in the field of
the above charge. Let us calculate the potential at point P due to the charge q kept
at a point O. Since the work done is independent of the path, we choose a
convenient path, along the radial direction.

Let the distance OP = r.

The electric force at P, due to q will be directed along OP , given by

F=14πεoqqor2�=14�������2
If the work done by moving this positive charge to dr distance is dW then,

dW = F (-dr)

dW=−∫F.dr��=-∫�.��
dW=−∫r∞F.dr��=-∫∞��.��

Hence, the total work done in bringing this charge from (∞) to 'r' will be,

W=−∫r∞14πεoqqor2.dr�=-∫∞�14�������2.��
W=−qqo4πεo∫r∞1r2.dr�=-���4���∫∞�1�2.��
W=−qqo4πεo[−1r]r∞�=-���4���[-1�]∞�
W=14πεoqqor2�=14�������2

Hence, from V = W / qo, electric potential is,

V=14πεoqr�=14�����

This equation is true for any sign of charge q. For q < 0, V < 0, i.e., work done by
the external force per unit positive test charge to bring it from infinity to the point
is negative. Also, this equation is consistent with the choice that the potential at
infinity be zero.

Recommended Books

 NCERT Textbook For Class 12 Physics Part 1 & 2

 CBSE All In One Physics Class 12 2022-23 Edition
 Oswaal CBSE Chapterwise Question Bank Class 12 Physics Book
 Modern's abc Plus of Physics for Class-12 (Part I & II)

Read also: Solutions Class 12 Chemistry Notes Chapter 2

▶Potential due to an Electric Dipole
Consider dipole of length ‘2a’. Let P be a point at distance r 1 from +q and r2 from -
q. Let ‘r’ be the distance of P from the centre ‘O’ of the dipole. Let θ be an angle
between dipole and line OP.

The potential due to +q,

V+=14πεo+qr1�+=14���+��1

The potential due to -q,

V−=14πεo−qr2�-=14���-��2

Therefore total potential,

V=14πεo+qr114πεo−qr2�=14���+��114���-��2
V=q4πεo(1r1−1r2)�=�4���(1�1-1�2)
V=q4πεo(r2−r1r1r2)�=�4���(�2-�1�1�2)___(1)

From ∆ , we get (r2 – r1) = 2a cosθ

we can also take r2 = r1 = r (since ‘2a’ is very small) Substituting these values in
equation (1), we get
 V=q4πεo(2a.cosθr2)�=�4���(2�.cos��2)
V=14πεo(P.cosθr2)�=14���(�.cos��2) (∵ P=2qa)

Case 1: If the point lies along the axial line of the dipole, then θ = 0°

V=14πεo(P.cos0r2)�=14���(�.cos0�2)
V=14πεo(Pr2)�=14���(��2)

Case 2: If the point lies along the equatorial line of the dipole, then θ = 90°

V=14πεo(P.cos90r2)�=14���(�.cos90�2)

V=0

Read also: Conceptual Questions for Class 12 Physics Chapter 2

Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

▶Equipotential Surfaces

An equipotential surface is a surface with a constant value of the potential at all

points on the surface. For a single charge q, the potential is given by

V=14πεoqr�=14�����

This shows that V is a constant if r is constant. Thus, equipotential surfaces of a

single point charge are concentric spherical surfaces centered at the charge.
Example:-

 Surface of a charged conductor.

 All points equidistant from a point charge.

Note:

 An equipotential surface is that at which, every point is at the same

potential. As the work done is given by (VA – VB)q0
 Work done by electric field while a charge moves on an equipotential
surface is zero as VA = VB

▶Relation between Electric Field and Potential Gradient

As we know that

△V=−Wqo△�=-���
Vf−Vi=−Wqo��-��=-��� ___(1)

We know that,

W=−∫F.dr�=-∫�.�� ___(2)

From eq. (1) and (2)

Vf−Vi=−∫F.drqo��-��=-∫�.����
Vf−Vi=−∫qoE.drqo��-��=-∫���.����
Vf−Vi=−∫E.dr��-��=-∫�.��

The above result can also be expressed in differential form as,

E=−dVdr�=-����
The negative sign in the expression signifies that as one moves in the direction of
the electric field, potential decreases.

▶Potential Energy of a System of Charges

(i) Potential energy for a system of a two-point charge

The potential energy of a system of two charges is defined as the work done in
assembling this system of charges at the given position from infinite separation.

Consider two charges q1 and q2 separated by distance r. Imagine q1 to be at A and

q2 at infinity. The electric potential at B due to charge q1 is given by

V=14πεoq1r�=14����1�

which is the work done in bringing unit positive charge from infinity to B.
Therefore the work done in bringing charge q2 from infinity to B is

W = potential difference × charge

W = V × q2

W=14πεoq1q2r�=14����1�2�

This work done is stored as potential energy. Hence potential energy between the
charges q1 and q2 is

U=14πεoq1q2r�=14����1�2�
(ii) Potential energy of a system of more than two charges

Let us find the potential energy of a system of three charges q 1, q2 and q3 at

positions r12 r23, and r31 respectively. The electric potential energy of this system is
the sum of the potential of each pair. Hence we can write

U=U12+U23+U31�=�12+�23+�31
U=14πεoq1q2r12+14πεoq2q3r23+14πεoq3q1r31�=14����1�2�12+14����2�3�23
+14����3�1�31
U=14πεo(q1q2r12+q2q3r23+q3q1r31)�=14���(�1�2�12+�2�3�23+�3�1�31)

(iii) Potential energy of a dipole in an external field

Consider a dipole of dipole moment ‘P’ suspended in a uniform electric field of

intensity ‘E’. Let θ be the angle between P and E. Then we know torque τ = PE
sinθ. Let the dipole be turned through an angle dθ then work done

dW = τdθ
 dW = PE sinθ dθ

Total work done in rotating the dipole from θ1 to θ2

W=∫θ2θ1PEsinθ.dθ�=∫�1�2��sin�.��

W = PE (cosθ1 – cosθ2)

This work done is stored as potential energy.

▶Electrostatics of Conductors

Conductors contain mobile charge carriers. In metallic conductors, these charge

carriers are electrons. In a metal, the outer (valence) electrons part away from their
atoms and are free to move. These electrons are free within the metal but not free
to leave the metal.

Whenever a conductor is placed in an external electric field, the free electrons in

it experience a force due to it and start moving opposite to the field. This
movement makes one side of the conductor positively charged and the other
negatively charged. This creates an electric field in the conductor in a direction
opposite to the external electric field (called induced field).

Important Points about Electrostatics of Conductors

(a) Inside a conductor, an electrostatic field is zero: In the previous chapter, we

have already discussed that “when there is no electric current inside or on the
surface of a conductor, the electric field inside the conductor is everywhere zero”.

(b) At the surface of a charged conductor, the electrostatic field must be

normal to the surface at every point: If the field E is not normal to the surface, it
will have a nonzero component along the surface. Hence the free charge on the
surface will move due to electrostatic force on it. But free charge on the surface in
electrostatics remains at rest. So the electrostatic field at the surface of a charged
conductor must be normal to the surface.

(c) The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static
situation: In the previous chapter, we have already discussed it.

(d) Electrostatic Shielding: In an electrostatic situation, if a conductor contains a

cavity and if no charge is present inside the cavity, then there can be no net charge
anywhere on the surface of the cavity. This means that if you are inside a charged
conducting box, you can safely touch any point on the inside walls of the box
without being electrocuted. This is known as electrostatic shielding.

▶Dielectrics and Polarisation

Dielectrics are non-conducting substances. In contrast to conductors, they have no

(or negligible number of) charge carriers. When a conductor is placed in an
external electric field, the free charge carriers move and charge distribution in the
conductor adjusts itself in such a way that the electric field due to induced charges
opposes the external field within the conductor. This happens until, in the static
situation, the two fields cancel each other and the net electrostatic field in the
conductor is zero.
When a dielectric material is kept in an electric field, the external field induces a
dipole moment by stretching or re-orienting molecules of the dielectric. This
results in the development of net charges on the surface of the dielectric which
produces a field that opposes the external field.

In general, the dielectric can be classified into Polar and Non-polar dielectrics. In a
non-polar molecule, the centers of positive and negative charges coincide. The
molecule thus has no permanent dipole moment. Examples of non-polar
molecules are oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2) molecules which, because of their
symmetry, have no dipole moment. On the other hand, a polar molecule is one in
which the centers of positive and negative charges are separated (even when there
is no external field). Such molecules have a permanent dipole moment. An ionic
molecule such as HCl or a molecule of water (H 2O) are examples of polar
molecules.

The behavior of a non–polar dielectric:- In an external electric field, the positive

and negative charges of a nonpolar molecule are displaced in opposite directions.
The displacement stops when the external force on the constituent charges of the
molecule is balanced by the restoring force. The non-polar molecule thus develops
an induced dipole moment. The dielectric is said to be polarized by the external
field.

The behavior of a polar dielectric:- A dielectric with polar molecules also

develops a net dipole moment in an external field, but for a different reason. In the
absence of an external field, the different permanent dipoles are oriented randomly
due to thermal agitation; so the total dipole moment is zero. When an external field
is applied, the individual dipole moments tend to align with the field.

▶Capacitors and Capacitance

A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator. If two

conductors have a potential difference between them then, as any potential
difference is able to accelerate charges, the system effectively stores energy. Such
a device that can maintain a potential difference, storing energy by storing charge
is called a capacitor. When charges +Q and –Q are given to two plates, a potential
difference is developed between the plates. The capacitance of the arrangement is
defined as C = Q / V
Definition of Capacitance:- Capacitance is defined as the amount of charge
required to raise the potential of a conductor by one volt.

The capacity of an isolated spherical conductor

Consider a sphere with center O and radius r, which is supplied with a charge = +q.
This charge is distributed uniformly over the outer surface of the sphere. Thus, the
potential at every point on the surface is the same and is given by

V=q4πε0r�=�4��0�

As, C = Q / V

C=4πε0r�=4��0�

▶The Parallel Plate Capacitor

The arrangement consists of two thin conducting plates, each of area A and
separated by a small distance d. When charge q is given to the first plate, a charge
–q is induced on the inner face of the other plate and positive on the outer face of
the plate. As this face is connected to the earth, a net negative charge is left on this
plate. Thus, the arrangement is equivalent to two thin sheets of charge. As d is
much smaller than the linear dimension of the plates (d 2 << A), we can use the
result of the electric field by an infinite sheet of charge. The electric field between
the plates is
 E=σ2ε0+σ2ε0�=�2�0+�2�0
E=σε0�=��0......(1)

For uniform field potential difference between the plates.

V=Ed=σdε0�=��=���0.....from eq(1)

V=qdε0A�=���0� as σ = q / A

C=qV=qqdε0A�=��=����0�
C=ε0Ad�=�0��

▶Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance

When a dielectric slab of dielectric constant K is inserted between the plates filling
the entire space between the plates. The plates of the capacitor are given charge +Q
and –Q and hence induced charges –QP and +QP appear on the surfaces of the slab.
So, capacitance is increased to K times when the space between the plates is filled
with a dielectric of dielectric constant K.

▶Combination of Capacitors

(i) Series Grouping

The arrangements shown in the figure are examples of series grouping. When
capacitors can be arranged in a row, so that there is no connection between two
capacitors to any third capacitor, it is called a series combination. Or, when the
same charge flows through each capacitor connected.

1C=1C1+1C2+1C31�=1�1+1�2+1�3

(ii) Parallel Grouping

The arrangements shown in the figure are examples of parallel combinations.

When two or more capacitors are connected between two given points, they are
said to be in parallel. Or, when the capacitor bears the same potential difference
across it.

C=C1+C2+C3�=�1+�2+�3

▶Energy Stored in a Capacitor

During the charging of a capacitor, work has to be done to add a charge to the
capacitor against its potential. This work is stored in the capacitor as electrical
energy. Suppose during the charging of the capacitor its potential at any instant is
given by

V=qC�=��

A small amount of work done in adding a charge dq is given by

dw=qCdq��=����

Total work done in giving a charge Q to the condenser is

w=∫Q0qCdq�=∫0�����
w=[q22C]Q0�=[�22�]0�
w=Q22C�=�22�
U=Q22C=12CV2=12QV�=�22�=12��2=12��

▶Van de Graaff Generator

Van de Graaff generator is a machine that can build up voltages in the order of a
few million volts. The resultant electric fields are used to accelerate charged
particles (protons, electrons, ions) to the high energies required for experiments to
examine the small-scale structure of matter.

If you want more details on the Van de Graaff generator you may click here.

▶Summary

 Electrostatic potential (V) is the scalar way of representing the region

around a charge configuration which is useful in calculating the work
involved when a charge moves around other charges or in a field.

 Potential is a scalar quantity and it may be positive, negative, or zero.

 S.I. unit of potential is volt or joule per coulomb.

 Equipotential surfaces never intersect each other.

 If we go away from a positive charge, potential decreases but if we go away

from a negative charge, potential increases.

 If we move in the direction of the electric field then the potential decreases.

 The capacitor is basically an energy storage device. We keep multiple

plates in it so that large energy can be stored in it without increasing the size
of a capacitor.

 Capacitors are combined in parallel when we require a big amount of

charge at a small potential.

 The capacitance of the earth is approximately 711 μF.

 S.I. unit of capacitance is coulomb/volt or farad (F) in honour of Michael

Faraday.

 When a dielectric material is placed in an electric field the phenomenon of

reorientation of polar molecules or the shifting of the positive and negative
charge distributions in an atom or a nonpolar molecule of the material is
called the polarization of the atom or molecule.

 If a capacitor is charged by a battery of potential V, then work done by the

battery is double the energy stored in the capacitor. The extra energy is lost
as heat and electromagnetic radiation due to the transient current during the
charging process.
 In 1929, Rober J. Van de Graaff designed a machine that could build up
high voltages of the order of a few million volts. This machine acts on the
principle of corona discharge.