See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/225661769

Desalination with wind and wave power

Chapter in NATO Security through Science Series C: Environmental Security · May 2007
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-5508-9_23

CITATIONS READS

3 3,949

2 authors:

Aníbal T. de Almeida Pedro S. Moura

University of Coimbra University of Coimbra
455 PUBLICATIONS 8,768 CITATIONS 94 PUBLICATIONS 1,901 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

El-Tertiary View project

EETT - Energy Efficiency Training of Trainers View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Pedro S. Moura on 26 January 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

DESALINATION WITH WIND AND WAVE POWER

ANÍBAL T. DE ALMEIDA*
PEDRO S. MOURA
Dep. Electrical Engineering, University of Coimbra, 3030
Coimbra, Portugal

Abstract. Seawater desalination can be an attractive alternative to ensure a

secure source of water. However, the energy requirements for that process
are high and can be a problem, mainly in isolated areas. Renewable
energies are the best way to supply the energy needs, because can be
available near the desalination plants and avoid environmental/availability
problems associated with fossil fuels. In this paper two forms of renewable
energies particularly suited for desalination are described: wind power and
wave power.

Keywords: desalination; energy consumption; renewable energies, wind power;

wave power.

1. Introduction

Desalination is a treatment process that removes salts from water. A typical

desalination plant consists of a water pre-treatment system, the desalination
unit, and a post-treatment system.
The most important desalination processes are split into two main
categories, thermal (or distillation) and membrane processes1. The most
widely used thermal processes for seawater desalination are: multistage-
flash distillation (MSF), multiple effects distillation (MED or ME) and
vapor compression (VC) processes. Membrane processes consist of reverse
osmosis (RO) and electro-dialysis (ED) processes. Electro-dialysis is

______
*
To whom correspondence should be addressed. Aníbal T. de Almeida, Dep. Electrical Engineering,
University of Coimbra, 3030 Coimbra, Portugal, e-mail: [email protected]

305
L. Rizzuti et al. (eds.), Solar Desalination for the 21st Century, 305–325.
© 2007 Springer.
306 SOLAR DESALINATION FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

confined to the desalination of brackish water while reverse osmosis can be

used for either brackish or for seawater desalination.
Osmosis is the movement of a solvent through a semi-permeable
membrane into a solution of higher solute concentration that tends to
equalize the concentrations of solute on the two sides of the membrane.
Reverse osmosis is a method of producing pure water by forcing salt water
through a semi-permeable membrane (which allows some molecules
through, but not others) that salt molecules cannot pass through (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Normal and reverse osmosis. Source: Vision Engineer.

Electro-dialysis is an electro-membrane process in which ions are

transported through ion permeable membranes from one solution to another
under the influence of a potential gradient (Figure 2). The electrical charges
on the ions allow them to be driven through the membranes fabricated from
ion exchange polymers. Applying a voltage between two end electrodes
generates the electrical field required for this process. The membranes used
in electro-dialysis have the ability to selectively transport ions having
positive or negative charge and reject ions of the opposite charge. In this
way changing the concentration, removal, or separation of the salts can be
achieved by electro-dialysis.
In the thermal desalination or distillation the principle is to
reproduce the natural phenomenon of water evaporation and
 DESALINATION WITH WIND AND WAVE POWER 307
condensation as rain, while concentrating this phenomenon both in
space and in time. Used with all types of seawater, thermal
desalination only requires minimal pretreatment. Multiple effects
processes have been optimized in order to reduce the high level of
energy consumption involved in producing the heat required to
vaporize the water.
These improved processes enable the energy released during
condensation to be recovered and reused. Among these one of the most
used process is the mechanical vapor compression (Figure 3), in which the
sea water is evaporated after having been preheated in a heat recovery
exchanger.

Figure 2. Principle of electrodialysis. Source: Astom Corporation.

Desalination processes require significant quantities of energy to

achieve separation of salts from seawater2. This is a highly significant cost,
representing in average 40% of the total costs. The energy consumption is
about 3-8 kWh/m3 of fresh water produced for the reverse osmosis process,
308 SOLAR DESALINATION FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

20-25 kWh/m3 for the distillation process and 0.7-2.5 kWh/m3 for the
electro-dialysis (used mainly for brackish water).

Figure 3. Mechanical vapour compression. Source: French Atomic Energy Commission.

If desalination is accomplished by conventional technologies, then it

will require burning of substantial quantities of fossil fuels, while
desalination with renewable energies offers an interesting possible solution,
avoiding environmental problems. It often happens that the geographical
areas where water is needed are well gifted with renewable energy sources,
be it solar, wind, waves, etc. Thus, the obvious way is to combine those
renewable energy sources with a desalination plant, in order to provide
water resources as required3.
A renewable desalination plant can be designed to operate coupled to
the grid, and off-grid (standalone or autonomous). The latter case poses the
problem of renewable energy variability because most renewable energy
systems lack an inherent energy storage mechanism. However, because
water can be stored cheaply in large quantities and for long periods, this
lack of firmness does not seem to be a serious potential problem in most
locations. With a renewable energy resource, like wind or wave power, the
energy can be provided in form of electric energy or directly as mechanical
energy4,5.
 DESALINATION WITH WIND AND WAVE POWER 309
2. Wind Power

The potential for the increased use of wind energy is huge (Figure 4). The
estimated potential (onshore and offshore) for the wind energy in Europe is
about 4800 TWh per year and worldwide some 53000 TWh per year.

Figure 4. Wind Atlas of the World (wind speed in ms-1). Source: Risoe National Laboratory.

A wind turbine is comprised of a tower (Figure 5), topped by an

enclosure called a nacelle, and the rotor, which is the propeller-like
structure connected to the nacelle. The nacelle houses an electrical
generator, power control equipment and other mechanical equipment
(typically a gearbox), which is connected to the rotor.
Wind energy became a significant research area in the 1970’s during the
energy crisis and the resulting search for renewable energy sources. Modern
wind turbine technology has made significant advances over the last 30
years. Today, attention has remained focused on this technology as an
environm-entally sound and convenient alternative. Generally, individual
wind turbines are grouped into wind farms containing several turbines.
Many wind farms are MW scale, ranging from few MW to tens of MW.
Wind farms or smaller wind projects may be connected directly to utility
distribution systems. The larger wind farms are often connected to the
transmission network.
Wind power is becoming popular in many countries due to the fast and
simple installation and low maintenance requirements once installed. Also,
the land can still be used for animal grazing and some agriculture
310 SOLAR DESALINATION FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

operations. Utility-scale turbines range in size from 50 to 5000 kW. Single

small turbines, below 50 kW, can be used for remote loads.

Figure 5. Horizontal axis wind turbine.

Technology improvements already achieved have lowered wind energy

costs to less than US$1000/kW and wind power is one of the least
expensive forms of renewable energy generation. Each part of the wind
turbine is being subjected to research in order to improve efficiency and
reduce costs. Several organizations are working to improve wind turbine
generators to be more efficient. Some of the new technologies that are
being developed use power electronics devices to allow for variable rotor
speed operation to improve efficiency, and to improve power quality.
The airfoils for the wind turbine blades are also being improved to
increase energy capture, and improvements have been made to the
aerodynamics control devices that are built into the turbine blades to adjust
the aerodynamic driving forces, optimize energy capture, control
mechanical loads and control rotor speed.
The next major development in the wind industry is expected to be in
achieving significant exploitation of the offshore resource. Much higher and
more continuous winds at sea, combined with more advanced technological
development shall compensate the higher investments needed to build
offshore facilities and connect them to the electrical grid. But the economic
viability of offshore wind farms will depend heavily on the quality of sites.
 DESALINATION WITH WIND AND WAVE POWER 311
Offshore turbines will have to be larger (above 2 MW) than their
counterparts on land to compensate for the sizeable additional costs of
laying foundations and the grid connection, and thus to enable economical
operations. Such turbines have to be adapted to marine conditions and
prove their reliability. In the case of the desalination use of the wind
energy, the offshore turbines have an important opportunity due to the
localization of the energy consumption close to the place of generation.
Wind energy conversion devices and some desalination units can be
chosen from a number of alternatives: reverse osmosis, electro-dialysis, and
vapor compression6,7. In all these alternatives, the energy supply can come
from a single wind turbine or from a wind farm.
Due to the random nature of the wind power, appropriate power control
and conditioning systems are required for matching of the input power to
the desalination load. The power supply must provide alternate current for
reverse osmosis and vapor compression, while electro-dialysis requires
direct current.
Power matching requires some form of energy dissipation or storage
devices. Hence, in all cases the power control system may include dump
loads, flywheels, or storage in batteries. A number of such plants have
actually been operated, mainly for research purposes.
Enercon has recently launched a reverse osmosis desalination system
(Figure 6). This technology uses directly the mechanical energy produced
by the wind turbine to drive a high pressure pump and new energy recovery
system.

Figure 6. Basic functionality of Enercon’s reverse osmosis desalination plant. Source:

nercon.
312 SOLAR DESALINATION FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

In this process pressurized seawater flows through a membrane that

retains the dissolved salts, producing drinking water. After passing the
membrane, a three-piston system recycles the energy of the remaining
seawater pressure with virtually no loss (Figure 7). Thus desalination and
energy recovery occur in a continuous complementary process, forming a
cycle.

Figure 7. Enercon’s energy recovery unit. Sorce: Enercon.

In this system, feedwater flows through filters and a UV disinfection

system to the energy recovery. The pump pressure of 20 bar is transferred
to sea water (56 bar) or brackish water (28 bar) and flows to the reverse
osmosis membranes. Here, feedwater separates into drinking water and
brine. Drinking water leaves the system and the brine, still under pressure,
flows back to the energy recovery system to support the process.
The company’s energy recovery unit consists of a low pressure pump
(max. 20 bar) and a three-piston system, which raises the pressure up to 70
bar and simultaneously recovers energy from the pressurized brine. This
system avoids that 75% of the energy input are lost (only 25% of the energy
is used to produce drinking water), decreasing the energy consumption to
less than 2.5 kWh/m3 of desalinated water.
Enercon plants have no fixed operating point, enabling that the water
production range between 12.5% and 100% of nominal capacity by
adjusting the piston speed in the energy recovery system, according to
 DESALINATION WITH WIND AND WAVE POWER 313
demand. This means that output can be adjusted to match water demand,
without shutting down the plant and that the plant can be powered by a
fluctuating energy supply, like wind turbines.

3. Wave Power

Several types of ocean energy sources with different origins exist, the most
developed being: tidal energy, thermal energy, marine currents and ocean
waves. Wave energy can be considered a concentrated form of solar energy,
because winds are generated by the differential heating of the earth, and, as
a result of blowing over large areas of water, part of their kinetic energy is
converted into waves. The power in a wave is proportional to the square of
the amplitude and to the period of the motion, commonly exceeding 40-50
kW per meter of the width of the oncoming wave8. The global wave power
potential was estimated to be more than 2 TW that is the same order of
magnitude of the world consumption of electrical energy. Increased wave
activity is found between the latitudes of 30º and 60º on both hemispheres
i.e. the coasts of the Americas, Europe and Australia/New Zealand, with
annual average power levels between 20 and 70 kW/m or higher (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Global costal wave power estimates. Source: Oceanor.

The power present in ocean waves has been recognized for millennia
although mostly in terms of its destructive potential. The research on wave
energy conversion started in the 1970s when the oil crises provoked the
314 SOLAR DESALINATION FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

exploitation of a range of renewable energy sources. Several research

programmes with government and private support started thenceforth,
mainly in the United Kingdom, Portugal, Ireland, Norway, Sweden and
Denmark, aiming at developing industrially exploitable wave power
conversion technologies in the medium and long term. Different schemes
have proven their applicability on a large scale, under hard operational
conditions, and a number of commercial plants are currently being built in
Europe, Australia, Israel and elsewhere. Recent designs are rated at power
levels ranging from a few kW up to 4 MW. Massive power production can
be achieved by interconnection of large numbers of devices.
The wave energy devices can be divided in three different types:
shoreline, nearshore and offshore devices9,10. Shoreline devices are fixed to
or embedded in the shoreline making easier the installation and
maintenance. Offshore devices exploit the more powerful wave regimes
available in deep water (more than 40 m depth). The above devices are
intended for electricity production but desalination is another potentially
important use of wave energy devices.

3.1. SHORELINE DEVICES

3.1.1. Oscillating Water Column

The oscillating water column (OWC) device is a partially submerged
hollow structure (Figure 9), which is open to the sea below the water line,
enclosing a column of air on top of a column of water. Waves cause the
water column to rise and fall, which alternately compresses and expands the
air column generating a reciprocating flow through a Wells turbine, which
is capable of maintaining constant direction of revolution irrespective of the
direction of the air flow passing through it. The turbine is coupled to an
alternator to generate electricity.
The Energetech device (Figure 10) is an onshore OWC with major improv-
ements in the design of the system, the turbine, and in the project
construction techniques. The system employs a parabolic wall to focus
wave energy on to an OWC chamber. The motion of the waves causes an
oscillatory water motion within the chamber, which in turn forces a high-
speed airflow past a unique controllable turbine, which drives an induction
generator to produce electrical power.
 DESALINATION WITH WIND AND WAVE POWER 315

Figure 9. Oscillating water column device. Source: Daedalus Informatics Ltd.

Figure 10. Energetech device. Source: AEA Technology.

3.1.2. Tapchan
The Tapchan (tapered channel system) device (Figure 11) consists of a
reservoir built into a cliff a few metres above sea level. Leading into its
structure, a gradually narrowing channel with wall heights above mean
water is located. Incoming waves increase in height as they move up the
channel, eventually overflowing the lip of the channel and pouring into the
reservoir. In this way the kinetic energy of the wave is converted into
potential energy, which is subsequently converted into electrical energy by
a turbine coupled to a generator, as the water is fed back to the sea through
a pipe.
316 SOLAR DESALINATION FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

Figure 11. Tapchan device. Source: Oxford University.

3.1.3. Pendulor
The pendulor wave-power device (Figure 12) consists of a rectangular box,
which is open to the sea at one end. An oscillating flap, moving like a
pendulum, is hinged over this opening, so that the action of the waves
causes the flap to swing back and forth, powering a hydraulic pump and a
generator.

Figure 12. Pendulor device Source: EC ATLAS Project.

 DESALINATION WITH WIND AND WAVE POWER 317
3.2. NEAR-SHORE DEVICES

3.2.1. Osprey
Osprey device (Figure 13) is a single chamber OWC, designed for
installation in a water depth of approximately 14 m, with hollow steel
ballast tanks fixed to either side. These tanks focus the waves towards the
opening in the collector chamber. The air flow from this chamber passes
through two vertical stacks mounted on the chamber with contra-rotating
Wells’ turbines. Behind the collector chamber and power module is a
conning tower on which can be mounted a wind turbine.

Figure 13. Osprey device. Source: Wavegen

3.3. OFFSHORE DEVICES

3.3.1. Archimedes Wave Swing

The Archimedes Wave Swing (AWS) wave energy converter (Figure 14)
consists of a bottom-fixed air-filled cylindrical chamber which is fully
submerged beneath the waves. As a wave crest approaches, the water
pressure on the top of the cylinder increases and the upper part or ‘floater’
compresses the air within the cylinder to balance the pressures on both sides
of the chamber. Its volume oscillates due to the reciprocating piston-like
motion of its top part or “floater”. The reverse happens as the wave passes
trough and the cylinder expands. The relative movement between the
floater and the fixed lower part or ‘basement’ is converted directly to
electricity by means of a linear generator.
318 SOLAR DESALINATION FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

Figure 14. Archimedes wave swing device. Source: Teamwork Technology.

3.3.2. McCabe Wave Pump

The McCabe Wave Pump device (Figure 15) consists of three rectangular
steel pontoons, which are hinged together across their beam. The pontoons
move relative to each other with the waves. A damper plate is attached to
the central pontoon, which ensures that it stays still as the fore and aft
pontoons move relatively to the central pontoon by pitching about the
hinges, allowing the system to vary its alignment in order to head into the
oncoming waves. Energy is extracted from the rotation about the hinge
points by linear hydraulic pumps mounted between the central and two
outer pontoons near the hinges.

3.3.3. Floating Wave Power Vessel

The Floating Wave Power Vessel device (Figure 16) is similar to the
Tapchan (tapered channel system) described in 3.1.2. The system is an
overtopping device based in a steel floating platform, supported by ballast
tanks in four sections, containing a sloping ramp, which gathers incoming
waves into a raised internal basin. An anchor system allows the orientation
of the vessel to the most energetic wave direction. The water flows from
this basin back into the sea through low-head turbines.
 DESALINATION WITH WIND AND WAVE POWER 319

Figure 15. McCabe wave pump device. Source: Northern Ireland Assembly.

Figure 16. Floating Wave Power Vessel device. Source: Sea Power International.

3.3.4. Wave Dragon

The Wave Dragon (Figure 17) is an offshore wave energy converter, also of
the overtopping type, utilizing a wave reflector design to focus the waves
towards a ramp and fill a higher-level reservoir. The basic idea of the Wave
Dragon wave energy converter is to use well-known and well-proven
principles from traditional hydropower plants in an offshore floating
platform. The water overtopping Wave Dragon is stored temporarily in a
large reservoir creating a head, i.e. the difference between the "normal"
level of the water surface and the water surface in the reservoir. This water
is let out of the Wave Dragon reservoir through several turbines and thus
generating electricity like in hydro power plants. Wave Dragon is a very
simple construction and has only the turbines as the moving parts, which is
useful for operating offshore under extreme forces and fouling.
320 SOLAR DESALINATION FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

Figure 17. Wave dragon device. Source: Wave Dragon ApS.

3.3.5. Mighty Whale

The Mighty Whale device (Figure 18) is a floating oscillating water column
that also makes use of hull motion for wave energy absorption. Alternately,
floating devices may involve the use of a gyroscope to provide an inertial
reference. The device has the double purpose of extracting wave energy and
providing a calm waters area behind it.

Figure 18. Mighty Whale device. Source: International Energy Agency.

3.3.6. Pelamis
The Pelamis (Latin for sea snake) is a semi-submerged device composed of
hollow cylindrical sections linked by hinged joints (Figure 19). The
sections point into the oncoming waves and move with respect to each other
as the waves pass down their length. As waves run down the length of the
 DESALINATION WITH WIND AND WAVE POWER 321
device and actuate the joints, hydraulic cylinders incorporated in the joints
pump high pressure oil to drive a hydraulic motor via an energy-smoothing
system. Energy is extracted at the joints by hydraulic rams which drive the
electrical generators.

Figure 19. Pelamis device. Source: Ocean Power Delivery.

3.3.7. Salter Duck

The Salter Duck device (Figure 20), generate electricity through the
harmonic motion of the floating part of the device, as opposed to fixed
systems which use a fixed turbine which is powered by the motion of the
wave. The device rise and fall according to the motion of the wave and
electricity is generated through the motion. An important feature of this
device is the capability of converting both the kinetic and potential energies
of the waves, achieving thus very high absorption efficiencies. The latest
‘Duck’ consists of dozens of pistons fixed inside a cylinder which are
pushed in and out by a ring of cams fixed to the moving float. This
arrangement works by using highly specialized digital control hydraulics
which juggles the pressure inside many hydraulic circuits, turning the slow
bi-directional movement of the float into the constant high speed rotation of
a generator.

3.3.8. IPS Buoy

The IPS Buoy device (Figure 21) consists of a flat plate with a curved head,
which is inclined at an angle to the vertical, connected below to a weighted
vertical tube. Inside the tube, which is open to the sea at both ends, there is
a piston which extends upwards to the float. The buoy is held in position by
an elastic mooring enabling it to move freely up and down against a
322 SOLAR DESALINATION FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

damping water mass contained in the long vertical tube underneath the
buoy. Out at sea, the float and tube move up and down more vigorously
than the piston and the relative movement between the buoy itself and the
water mass is transferred by a working piston in the acceleration tube into
an energy conversion system located within the buoy hull.

Figure 20. Salter Duck device. Source: Fujita Research.

Figure 21. IPS Buoy device. Source: University of Edinburgh.

 DESALINATION WITH WIND AND WAVE POWER 323
3.3.9. PS Frog
The PS Frog device (Figure 22) is a large buoyant paddle-shaped upper
part, attached to a cylindrical lower part, which is designed to extract power
from the Pitching and Surging (PS) motion. The upper part forms the
working surface, whilst the lower part contains all the mechanical and
electrical plant including a large reaction mass, which moves with respect
to the hull. Hydraulic rams make the mass move and enable energy to be
extracted via high pressure oil. The device adapts to the changing wave
conditions from instant to instant, so as to resonate and allow it to capture
large amounts of power while being physically small.

Figure 22. PS Frog device. Source: Lancaster University.

3.3.10. AquaBuoy
The AquaBuoy device (Figure 25) combines elements of two prior,
successfully ocean-tested, technologies - the IPS Buoy and the Swedish
Hose-pump. This consists of a slack-moored buoy floating on the surface,
an ‘acceleration tube’, and an hydraulic power take-off on the sea bed. As
the buoy rides the waves, the moving seawater drives a piston inside the
tube, and the motion of the piston in turn drives a hose pump. As the hose
elongates, its internal volume decreases to create a pressurized flow of
seawater, which turns a Pelton wheel in the seabed assembly.
324 SOLAR DESALINATION FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

Figure 23. AquaBuoy device. Source: AquaEnergy Group.

4. Conclusions

Seawater desalination can be an attractive alternative to ensure a secure

source of water. However, the energy requirements for that process are
large and can be a problem, mainly in isolated areas. In some locations,
particularly in islands, renewable energies can be the most sustainable way
to supply the energy needs for desalination, because it can be available
close to the desalination plants and avoid environmental/availability
problems associated with fossil fuels.
Wind and wave power are two of the most abundant forms of renewable
energy, which can be used for water desalination. In the last few years
wind power technology had impressive developments, and is becoming
cost-effective compared with fossil fuel alternatives. Wave power is not yet
a mature technology and there is a variety of conversion systems which
presently available and under development. The huge potential of these
forms of energy can increasingly be used in desalination systems to meet
the growing needs of fresh water in many parts of the world, lacking this
precious resource.

References

1. Mille J. E. r, Review of Water Resources and Desalination Technologies, Sandia

National Laboratories, March 2003.
2. Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, Energy Options for Water
Desalination in Selected ESCWA Member Countries, United Nations, New York, 2001.
 DESALINATION WITH WIND AND WAVE POWER 325
3. Garcıa-Rodrıgue L. z, Renewable energy applications in desalination: state of the art,
Solar Energy, Volume 75, Issue 5, November 2003, Pages 381-393.
4. Kalogirou S. A., Seawater desalination using renewable energy sources, Progress in
Energy and Combustion Science, Volume 31, Issue 3, January 2005, Pages 242-281.
5. Loupasis S., Technical analysis of existing RES desalination schemes, Renewable
Energy Driven Desalination Systems - REDDES, Commission of the European
Communities Directorate-General for Energy and Transport, May 2002.
6. Carvalh P. C. M. o, Coelho L. G. Junior, Analysis of Desalination Plant Types
Connected to Wind Generator and the Possibility of Use in the Brazilian Northeast, RIO
5 - World Climate & Energy Event, 15-17 February 2005, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
7. Zejli, O.-K. Bouhelal, R. Renchrifa, A. Bennouna, Applications of Solar and Wind
Energy Sources to Sea-Water Desalination - Economical Aspects, International
Conference on Nuclear Desalination: Challenges and Options, 16 - 18 October,
Marrakech, Morocco.
8. Centre for Renewable Energy Sources, Wave energy Utilization in Europe, Current
Status and Perspectives, European Thematic Network on Wave Energy, 2002.
9. Thorpe T. W., An Overview of Wave Energy Technologies: Status, Performance and
Costs, Wave Power: Moving towards Commercial Viability, 30 November 1999,
Broadway House, Westminster, London.
10. Thorpe T. W., A Brief Review of Wave Energy, UK Department of Trade and Industry,
May 1999.

View publication stats