CHAPTER V

Dielectric Lens Antennas & Frequency

Independent Antennas

❑ Dielectric Lens Antennas

❑ Reflector Lens Antennas
❑ Log-Periodic Antennas
❑ Fractal Antennas

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Lens Antennas
➢ It is an antenna which consists of EM lens with a feed. In other
words, a lens antenna is a three dimensional EM device whose
refractive index is different from unity.
➢ It acts like a glass lens in optics and they are usually made of
polystyrene or Lucite. They are used to:
▪ Control the aperture illumination.
▪ Produce plane wavefront from spherical wave front.
▪ Collimate the EM rays and produce directional characteristics.
▪ Converge the incoming wavefront at its focus.
Principle: A lens antenna in association with a primary feed antenna in
transmitting mode.
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 Fig: typical lens antenna.

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➢ When the feed antenna is kept at the focal point of the lens antenna, the
diverging rays (spherical wave front) are collimated (parallel rays) forming a
plane wave front after their incidence on the lens and passing through it.
➢ Collimation occurs because of refraction mechanism.
➢ Here again, incoming parallel rays converge at the focal point after passing
through the lens due to refraction mechanism. This is an indication of the
validity of reciprocity theorem.
➢ An antenna can be used as both transmitting antenna and receiving antenna.
While using so, we may come across a question whether the properties of the
antenna might change as its operating mode is changed. Fortunately, we need
not worry about that. The properties of antenna being unchangeable is called
as the property of reciprocity.
➢ Collimation is also possible if the lens has refractive index less than unity.
➢ Lens antennas are used in association with a point source (ideally). But in
practice, it is used with horn-like antennas.
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Types of Lens Antennas
1. Dielectric lens: are also known as the delay lens. Here, outgoing
EM rays are collimated and are retarded or delayed by the lens
material or media.
2. E-plane metal plate lens: In this case, outgoing wavefront is
speeded up by the lens material.

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Salient Features of Dielectric Lens:
1. They are usually made of polystyrene or Lucite and polyethylene. Dielectric
constant of polystyrene 𝜖𝑟 = 2.56, refractive index, n = 1.6. For polyethylene,
𝜖𝑟 = 2.25, n = 1.5.
2. They are bulky and heavy for f < 3 GHz.
3. Uniform illumination for lens antennas is better if focal length is long.
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4. At f < 10 GHz the lens become excessively and undesirably thick.
5. This can be avoided by zoned or stepped dielectric lens as in fig.
𝜆
6. The width w of a stepped lens is: 𝑤 =
𝑛−1
7. The zoned lens of Fig. (b) is mechanically stable.
8. Weight of stepped lens is less. Power dissipation is also less.
9. The main disadvantage of dielectric lens antenna is its frequency sensitivity.

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Advantages
➢ In lens antennas, feed and feed support, do not obstruct the aperture.
➢ It has greater design tolerance.
➢ Larger amount of wave, than a parabolic reflector, can be handled.
➢ Beam can be moved angularly with respect to the axis.

Disadvantages
➢ Lenses are heavy and bulky, especially at lower frequencies.
➢ Complexity in design.
➢ Costlier compared to reflectors, for the same specifications.

Applications
➢ Used as wide band antenna.
➢ Especially used for Microwave frequency applications.
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Log - Periodic Antenna
➢ It is an array antenna which has structural geometry such that its impedance is
periodic with the logarithm of the frequency.
➢ It is a non-linear array in which the spacing of the elements as well as their
dimensions are unequal. However, excitation is uniform.
➢ It is basically called a frequency-independent antenna: The lowest frequency of
operation occurs when the largest element length is comparable to the
wavelength. For all frequencies above this, the pattern and impedance
characteristics are frequency independent.
➢ It can be used to receive a good number of TV channels without any
deterioration of the received field strength.
Salient Features
1. It is a frequency-independent antenna.
2. The input impedance variation of the antenna with the log of frequency is
periodic and hence the name. This is shown in Fig.
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 3. It is a non-uniform array where the spacing b/n the elements are unequal.
4. Its impedance, directional patterns and directivity are constant with f.
5. The gain of a well-designed antenna lies between 7.5 and 12 𝒅𝑩𝒊 .
6. The frequency range, in which the log-periodic antennas operate is around 30
MHz to 3 GHz which belong to the VHF and UHF bands.
7. It has uni-directional characteristics.

Fig: Commercial log-periodic dipole

antenna (21 elements).

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 Fig: Design curve for LPDA for given Directivity (Carrels graph).
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➢ The scale factor, 𝜏 lies between 0 and 1 for a given wedge angle, 𝛼. If 𝛼 is large,
𝜏 is small.
➢ The performance in terms of gain is improved if 𝜏 is small and 𝛼 is large.
➢ The analysis of log-periodic array is described in terms of three regions.

1. Capacitive:
▪ In this region, the elements are shorter than 𝜆Τ2 and they are capacitive.
▪ Hence the current leads the applied voltage by 90°. These elements produce
small backward radiation.
2. Resistive:
▪ Here the dipoles are of 𝜆Τ2 length and they are resistive.
▪ The currents are large and they are in phase with the voltage.
▪ These elements produce considerable forward radiation.

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3. Inductive:
▪ Here elements are of length > 𝜆Τ2 and the currents lag the voltage by 90°.
▪ The element reflects the incident wave in the backward direction.
➢ Large dipoles, acts as reflector to increase gain at lower frequencies and small
dipoles in front, which act as directors to increase gain at higher frequencies.
Design Procedure
➢ Assumes that: the directivity (in dB), input impedance Rin (real), diameter of
elements of feeder line (d) and the lower and upper frequencies of the bandwidth
are specified. It then proceeds as follows:
1. Given 𝐷0 (dB), determine 𝜎 and 𝜏.
2. Determine 𝛼.
3. Determine 𝐵𝑎 and 𝐵𝑑
4. Find 𝐿 and 𝑁 and determine spacing between elements, 𝑆𝑛
5. Finally, evaluate overall average characteristic impedance, (𝑧𝑜 )𝑎𝑣

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➢ The active region bandwidth is given by:

➢ When the designed bandwidth is assumed to be greater than the desired

bandwidth, it is given by:

𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙
here, 𝑩 = 𝒇𝒎𝒊𝒏
is desired bandwidth.
➢ Total length of the array is:

here,

➢ The number of elements in the array is:

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➢ The average characteristic impedance, (𝑧𝑜 )𝑎𝑣 is:

𝐿𝑛
(𝑧𝑜 )𝑎𝑣 = 120 𝑙𝑛 − 2.25
𝑑𝑛

where 𝑑𝑛 , = diameter of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ dipole.

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➢ Another parameter that is usually associated with a log-periodic
dipole array is the spacing 𝜎 factor defined by:

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Fractal Antennas
➢ A fractal antenna is an antenna that uses a fractal, self-similar design to
maximize the effective length, or increase the perimeter (on the outer
structure), of material that can receive or transmit electromagnetic radiation
within a given total surface area or volume.
➢ Fractal antennas are also referred to as multilevel and space filling curves, but
the key aspect lies in their repetition of a motif over two or more scale sizes, or
"iterations".
➢ For this reason, fractal antennas are very compact, multiband or wideband, and
have useful applications in cellular telephone and microwave communications.
➢ One of the main objectives in wireless communication systems is the design of
wideband, or even multiband, low profile, small antennas.
➢ Applications of such antennas include personal communication systems, small
satellite communication terminals, unmanned aerial vehicles, and many
more.
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➢ In order to meet the specification that the antenna be small, some severe
limitations are placed on the design, which must meet the fundamental limits of
electrically small antennas.
➢ It was pointed out that the bandwidth of an antenna enclosed in a sphere of radius
r can be improved only if the antenna utilizes efficiently, with its geometrical
configuration, the available volume within the sphere.
➢ For planar geometries, the bandwidth of the antenna can be improved as the
geometry of the antenna best utilizes the available planar area of a circle of radius
r that encloses the antenna.
➢ Another antenna that can meet the requirements of utilizing the available space
within a sphere of radius r more efficiently is a fractal antenna.
➢ Fractal antennas are based on the concept of a fractal, which is a recursively
generated geometry that has fractional dimensions, as pioneered and
advanced by Benoit B. Mandelbrot.

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➢ He was able to show that many fractals exist in nature and can be used to
accurately model certain phenomena.
➢ In addition, he was able to introduce new fractals to model more complex
structures, including trees and mountains, that possess an inherent self-similarity,
self scaling and self-affinity in their geometrical shape.
➢ Fractal concepts have been applied to many branches of science and engineering,
including fractal electrodynamics for radiation, propagation, and scattering.
➢ These fractal concepts have been extended to antenna theory and design, and
there have been many studies and implementations of different fractal antenna
elements and arrays and many others.
➢ The theory of the basics and advances of fractal antennas is well documented in
some of the stated references and others, instead, a qualitative discussion will be
given here.
➢ Fractals can be classified in two categories:

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1. Deterministic: are those that are generated of several scaled-down and rotated
copies of themselves.
➢ Such fractals can be generated using computer graphics requiring particular
mapping that is repeated over and over using a recursive algorithm.
2. Random Fractals: also contain elements of randomness that allow simulation
of natural phenomena.

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Example:
1. Design a log-periodic dipole antenna which covers (54 to 216) MHz TV
channels. The desired directivity is 7.5 dB and the input impedance is 50 ohms
(ideal for a match to 50 ohm coaxial cable). The elements should be made of
aluminum tubing with 0.75 in. outside diameter for the largest element and the
feeder line and 0.19 in. for the smallest element.
Solution:
Step 1: Determine 𝜎 and 𝜏 for the desired directivity: For directivity = 8 dB,
optimum value of 𝜎 and 𝜏 are: 𝜎 = 0.149 and 𝜏 = 0.822.
Step 2: Determine wedge/ included angle 𝛼.

Step 3: Determine active and designed bandwidth. 𝐵𝑎 and 𝐵𝑑

= 7.66
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Step 4: Total length of the array and total number of elements in the array:

; N = 11.39 (11 or 12 elements)

❖ Longest dipole length is calculated corresponding to lowest frequency = 54 MHz.
𝐿1 = 0.5𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.5 5.55 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟖 𝑚

❖ Again the shortest dipole length is calculated corresponding to highest frequency = 216 MHz.
= 0.5𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟒 𝑚

❖ Length of other elements is calculated by scaling the largest dipole length (2.78 m) until the
smallest dipole length (0.694 m) is obtained using:

❖ Note: One or two elements can be added at both ends in order to improve the performance at
the cut-off.
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➢ Then, determine the spacing between elements (𝑆𝑛 ) using element lengths:
𝑆1 = 0.828 𝑚, 𝑆2 = 0.682 𝑚, 𝑆3 = 0.560 𝑚,
𝑆4 = 0.459 𝑚, 𝑆5 = 0.378 𝑚, 𝑆6 = 0.310 𝑚,
𝑆7 = 0.256 𝑚, 𝑆8 = 0.210 𝑚.
Step 5: Finally, the average characteristic impedance:
𝐿𝑛
(𝑧𝑜 )𝑎𝑣 = 120 𝑙𝑛 − 2.25 ; 𝐿𝑛 = 2.78 𝑚, 𝑑𝑛 = 0.75 𝑖𝑛.
𝑑𝑛
= 328.2 Ω

2.

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 Any Questions?
END !

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