1. Write a Python program to change the file extension from .txt to .csv file.

Here's a Python program that changes the file extension from ".txt" to ".csv":

import os

def change_extension(filename, new_extension):

base = os.path.splitext(filename)[0]

new_filename = base + new_extension

return new_filename

def change_file_extension(directory, old_extension, new_extension):

for filename in os.listdir(directory):

if filename.endswith(old_extension):

old_filepath = os.path.join(directory, filename)

new_filepath = os.path.join(directory, change_extension(filename, new_extension))

os.rename(old_filepath, new_filepath)

print(f"Renamed {filename} to {os.path.basename(new_filepath)}")

directory_path = '/path/to/files'

old_extension = '.txt'

new_extension = '.csv'

change_file_extension(directory_path, old_extension, new_extension)

Make sure to replace `'/path/to/files'` with the actual directory path where your files are located. The
program will iterate through all the files in the directory and change the extension of the files with ".txt"
to ".csv".

Note that this program assumes that the files have the ".txt" extension at the end and need to be
changed to ".csv". If your files have different names or extensions, you may need to modify the program
accordingly.

2.Explain command line arguments and write a program to demonstrate command line arguments

Command line arguments are parameters or values that are passed to a program when it is run from the
command line. These arguments provide additional information or configuration to the program,
allowing it to perform specific tasks or behave differently based on the provided input.
Command line arguments can be useful for accepting user input, specifying file paths, enabling or
disabling certain features, setting program options, and more.

Here's an example program that demonstrates command line arguments in Python:

import sys

arguments = sys.argv

arg_count = len(arguments) - 1

print(f"Number of arguments: {arg_count}")

if arg_count > 0:

print("Arguments:")

for i in range(1, len(arguments)):

print(f"Argument {i}: {arguments[i]}")

In this program, we import the `sys` module, which provides access to the command line arguments via
the `sys.argv` list. The `sys.argv` list contains the script name (index 0) and any additional arguments
passed to the program.

The program first determines the number of arguments by subtracting 1 from the length of `sys.argv`. It
then prints the count of arguments. If there are arguments present, it loops through the list starting from
index 1 (to exclude the script name) and prints each argument along with its index.

When you run this program from the command line, you can pass arguments after the script name. For
example:

$ python command_line_args.py arg1 arg2 arg3

Output:

Number of arguments: 3

Arguments:

Argument 1: arg1

Argument 2: arg2

Argument 3: arg3

In this example, "arg1", "arg2", and "arg3" are the command line arguments that were passed to the
program.
3.Write a python program to copy the contents of one file to another file.

Here's a Python program that copies the contents of one file to another file:

def copy_file(source_file, destination_file):

with open(source_file, 'r') as source:

with open(destination_file, 'w') as destination:

for line in source:

destination.write(line)

source_file_path = '/path/to/source/file.txt'

destination_file_path = '/path/to/destination/file.txt'

copy_file(source_file_path, destination_file_path)

Replace `'/path/to/source/file.txt'` with the actual path of the source file you want to copy, and
`'/path/to/destination/file.txt'` with the path where you want to create the destination file.

The program uses the `open()` function to open both the source file (in read mode, `'r'`) and the
destination file (in write mode, `'w'`). It then iterates over each line in the source file and writes it to the
destination file using the `write()` method.

After running the program, the contents of the source file will be copied to the destination file.

4.Describe the characteristics of the CSV format.

The CSV (Comma-Separated Values) format is a popular file format used for storing and exchanging
tabular data. It is a simple and widely supported format that consists of plain text, with data values
separated by commas (or other delimiters) and organized into rows and columns.

Here are the characteristics of the CSV format:

1. Structure: CSV files represent tabular data in a simple structure. Each line in the file typically
represents a row of data, and the values within a row are separated by a delimiter, usually a comma.
Each row can have the same number of fields or columns.

2. Delimiters: While the name suggests "comma-separated values," other delimiters can be used as well,
such as semicolons, tabs, or pipes. The choice of delimiter may vary depending on the application or
region. It's important to ensure consistency in delimiter usage throughout the file.

3. Text Encoding: CSV files are typically encoded using UTF-8 or ASCII, allowing for compatibility across
different systems and software.
4. Header Row: CSV files often include a header row as the first line, which contains the names or labels
for each column. The header row provides a description of the data in the corresponding columns.

5. Quotes and Escaping: CSV files may use quotation marks to enclose field values that contain special
characters, including the delimiter itself or line breaks. Additionally, double quotation marks within a
quoted field are often escaped by doubling them (e.g., `"This ""word"" is quoted"`).

6. Missing Values: CSV format does not have a standardized way to represent missing or empty values.
Common practices include leaving the field empty or using a specific placeholder value (e.g., `NA`,
`NULL`, or an empty string).

7. Escape Characters: Some CSV implementations support escape characters for handling special cases,
such as representing delimiter characters within field values. For example, backslashes (`\`) may be used
to escape the delimiter or quotes.

8. Data Types: CSV files do not explicitly specify data types for the values. All values are typically treated
as strings. It is up to the consumer of the CSV file to interpret and convert the values to appropriate data
types if necessary.

9. Software Support: The CSV format is widely supported by spreadsheet applications, database systems,
and programming languages. Virtually all programming languages provide libraries or built-in functions
to read and write CSV files.

10. Lightweight and Human-Readable: CSV files are lightweight and easy to create, edit, and view using
simple text editors. The plain text format makes it human-readable and facilitates data exchange
between different systems.

CSV files are commonly used for various purposes, including data export/import, data exchange between
applications, and as an intermediate format for data processing and analysis.

5.Write a python program to read a file line by line store it into an array.

Here's a Python program that reads a file line by line and stores each line in an array:

def read_file_lines(file_path):

lines = []

with open(file_path, 'r') as file:

for line in file:

lines.append(line.strip()) # Remove leading/trailing whitespace and add line to the array

return lines

file_path = '/path/to/file.txt'
lines_array = read_file_lines(file_path)

print(lines_array)

Replace `'/path/to/file.txt'` with the actual path of the file you want to read.

The program defines a function `read_file_lines()` that takes the file path as input and returns an array
(`lines`) containing each line of the file. Within the function, the file is opened in read mode (`'r'`), and a
loop iterates over each line in the file. The `strip()` method is used to remove any leading or trailing
whitespace from each line before appending it to the `lines` array.

After running the program, the lines of the file will be stored in the `lines_array` variable, and it will be
printed to the console. Each line of the file will be represented as an element in the array.

6.Discuss in brief about exception handling in python with examples.

Exception handling in Python allows you to handle and manage runtime errors or exceptional situations
that may occur during program execution. It provides a way to gracefully handle errors and prevent the
program from crashing. In Python, exceptions are raised when an error occurs, and they can be caught
and handled using try-except blocks.

Here's a brief overview of exception handling in Python with examples:

1. try-except block:

The try-except block is used to catch and handle exceptions. The code that may raise an exception is
placed inside the try block, and the code that handles the exception is placed inside the except block.

try:

result = 10 / 0 # Division by zero raises ZeroDivisionError

except ZeroDivisionError:

print("Error: Division by zero is not allowed.")

In this example, the code inside the try block performs a division by zero, which raises a
ZeroDivisionError. The except block catches the exception and executes the code inside it, printing an
error message.

2. Handling multiple exceptions:

You can handle multiple exceptions using multiple except blocks or a single except block with multiple
exception types.

try:

file = open("nonexistent.txt")
 result = 10 / 0

except FileNotFoundError:

print("Error: File not found.")

except ZeroDivisionError:

print("Error: Division by zero is not allowed.")

In this example, the first except block catches a FileNotFoundError if the file does not exist, and the
second except block catches a ZeroDivisionError if division by zero occurs.

3. Handling all exceptions:

You can use a generic except block without specifying the exception type to catch and handle any
exception that occurs.

try:

result = 10 / 0

except:

print("An error occurred.")

In this case, the except block will catch any exception that occurs, regardless of its type.

4. Handling exceptions with additional information:

You can access additional information about the exception using the `as` keyword to assign the exception
instance to a variable.

try:

file = open("nonexistent.txt")

except FileNotFoundError as e:

print("Error:", str(e))

In this example, the FileNotFoundError instance is assigned to the variable `e`, and the error message is
printed.

5. finally block:

The finally block is executed regardless of whether an exception occurs or not. It is used to perform
cleanup operations or release resources.
try:

file = open("data.txt")

result = 10 / 5

except FileNotFoundError:

print("Error: File not found.")

finally:

file.close()

In this example, the file is closed in the finally block, ensuring that it is properly closed even if an
exception occurs.

Exception handling in Python allows you to handle different types of errors and take appropriate actions
based on the situation, improving the robustness and reliability of your programs.

7.What are the two types of files? Explain the different file operations.

In general, there are two main types of files: text files and binary files. These types of files represent
different formats and contain data in different ways.

1. Text Files:

Text files store data as plain text, using characters from a character encoding system such as ASCII or
Unicode. They are human-readable and editable using a simple text editor. Text files typically contain
alphabets, numbers, symbols, and line breaks.

Common operations for text files include:

- Reading: You can read the contents of a text file using functions like `open()` and `read()`. Reading can
be done line by line or the entire file at once.

- Writing: You can write data to a text file using functions like `open()` with the `'w'` or `'a'` mode and the
`write()` method. Writing can be done line by line or by providing the entire content.

- Appending: Appending data to an existing text file can be done using the `'a'` mode in the `open()`
function or the `write()` method with the `append` mode.

- Modifying: To modify the contents of a text file, you need to read the file, make the necessary changes
in memory, and then write the modified content back to the file.

2. Binary Files:

Binary files store data in a binary format, representing information using a sequence of bytes. They are
not human-readable and require specific programs or algorithms to interpret and process the data
correctly. Binary files can contain various types of data, including images, audio, video, executables, and
more.

Common operations for binary files include:

- Reading: Binary files can be read using functions like `open()` with the `'rb'` mode and the `read()`
method. Reading is typically done in chunks or by specifying the number of bytes to read.

- Writing: Writing data to a binary file is done using functions like `open()` with the `'wb'` mode and the
`write()` method. Data is written as a sequence of bytes.

- Appending: Appending data to an existing binary file is similar to writing, but you need to use the `'ab'`
mode to open the file in append mode.

- Modifying: Modifying binary files requires reading the file, making changes to the data in memory, and
then writing the modified data back to the file.

It's important to choose the appropriate file type and corresponding operations based on the nature of
the data and how it needs to be processed.

8.Write a python program to count the number of words, lines, and characters in a given file.

Certainly! Here's a Python program that counts the number of words, lines, and characters in a given file:

def count_file_stats(file_path):

num_words = 0

num_lines = 0

num_chars = 0

with open(file_path, 'r') as file:

for line in file:

num_lines += 1

words = line.split() # Split the line into words

num_words += len(words)

num_chars += len(line)

return num_words, num_lines, num_chars

file_path = '/path/to/file.txt'
word_count, line_count, char_count = count_file_stats(file_path)

print(f"Number of words: {word_count}")

print(f"Number of lines: {line_count}")

print(f"Number of characters: {char_count}")

Replace `'/path/to/file.txt'` with the actual path of the file you want to count the statistics for.

The program defines a function `count_file_stats()` that takes the file path as input and returns the
number of words, lines, and characters in the file. It initializes counters for words (`num_words`), lines
(`num_lines`), and characters (`num_chars`).

Inside the function, the file is opened in read mode (`'r'`), and a loop iterates over each line in the file.
For each line, the number of lines is incremented, the line is split into words using the `split()` method,
and the number of words is updated by adding the length of the list of words. Additionally, the number
of characters is increased by the length of the current line.

After counting the statistics, the program prints the number of words, lines, and characters to the
console.

When you run the program, it will read the specified file and provide the counts of words, lines, and
characters in the output.

9.Explain any two types of modules in detail

Here are two types of modules in Python: built-in modules and external modules.

1. Built-in Modules:

Built-in modules are modules that come pre-installed with the Python programming language. These
modules provide a wide range of functionality and can be readily used without requiring any external
installation. Some common examples of built-in modules include `math`, `random`, `datetime`, and `os`.

a. `math` module:

The `math` module provides mathematical functions and constants for various mathematical operations.
It includes functions for basic arithmetic, trigonometry, logarithmic operations, and more. Here's an
example of using the `math` module to calculate the square root of a number:

import math

num = 16

square_root = math.sqrt(num)

print(square_root) # Output: 4.0

In this example, the `sqrt()` function from the `math` module is used to calculate the square root of the
number `16`.

b. `datetime` module:

The `datetime` module allows working with dates, times, and combinations of both. It provides classes
and functions to manipulate, format, and perform calculations on dates and times. Here's an example of
using the `datetime` module to work with dates:

import datetime

current_datetime = datetime.datetime.now()

print(current_datetime) # Output: 2023-07-15 09:25:00.123456

formatted_datetime = current_datetime.strftime('%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S')

print(formatted_datetime) # Output: 2023-07-15 09:25:00

In this example, the `datetime` module is used to get the current date and time using the `now()`
function. The `strftime()` function is then used to format the datetime object into a desired string
format.

2. External Modules:

External modules are modules that are created by third-party developers and are not included in the
Python standard library. These modules extend the functionality of Python by providing additional
features and capabilities. They need to be installed separately before they can be used. Some popular
external modules include `numpy`, `pandas`, `matplotlib`, and `requests`.

a. `numpy` module:

The `numpy` module is widely used for numerical computing and provides powerful tools for working
with arrays, matrices, and mathematical operations. It offers efficient data structures and functions for
numerical computations. Here's a simple example:

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])

mean = np.mean(arr)

std_dev = np.std(arr)

print(mean) # Output: 3.0

print(std_dev) # Output: 1.4142135623730951

In this example, the `numpy` module is imported as `np`, and a numpy array is created using the `array()`
function. Then, the `mean()` and `std()` functions from `numpy` are used to calculate the mean and
standard deviation of the array.

b. `requests` module:

The `requests` module allows making HTTP requests and working with web APIs. It simplifies the process
of sending HTTP requests and handling responses. Here's an example of using the `requests` module to
send an HTTP GET request and retrieve data from a web API:

import requests

response = requests.get('https://api.example.com/data')

data = response.json()

print(data)

In this example, the `requests` module is used to send an HTTP GET request to
`https://api.example.com/data`. The response is then obtained, and the `json()` method is called to
parse the response content as JSON data.

External modules provide a vast array of functionalities, enabling Python to be used for various
purposes, such as scientific computing, data analysis, web development, and more. They significantly
extend the capabilities of the language beyond what the built-in modules offer.

10.Difference between Raising and User defined exceptions in python.

In Python, there are two ways to handle exceptions: by raising built-in exceptions or by defining custom
(user-defined) exceptions.

1. Raising Exceptions:

Raising exceptions refers to the act of deliberately triggering an exception during program execution. It
allows you to indicate that an exceptional situation has occurred and to handle it accordingly. Python
provides a set of built-in exceptions that cover common error scenarios, such as `ValueError`,
`TypeError`, `FileNotFoundError`, etc. These exceptions are raised using the `raise` statement followed by
the exception type.

Example of raising a built-in exception:

def divide(x, y):

if y == 0:

raise ValueError("Division by zero is not allowed.")

return x / y
try:

result = divide(10, 0)

except ValueError as e:

print("Error:", str(e))

In this example, the `ValueError` exception is raised if the divisor (`y`) is zero. The program explicitly
triggers the exception using the `raise` statement. The exception is then caught and handled in the
`except` block.

2. User-Defined Exceptions:

User-defined exceptions allow you to create your own custom exceptions to represent specific error
conditions or exceptional situations that are not covered by the built-in exceptions. By defining custom
exceptions, you can provide more descriptive error messages and handle specific scenarios in a more
meaningful way. To define a custom exception, you typically create a new class that inherits from the
base `Exception` class or any of its subclasses.

Example of a user-defined exception:

class InvalidInputError(Exception):

pass

def validate_input(value):

if not isinstance(value, int):

raise InvalidInputError("Invalid input. Expected an integer.")

try:

validate_input("abc")

except InvalidInputError as e:

print("Error:", str(e))

In this example, a custom exception called `InvalidInputError` is defined by creating a new class that
inherits from the `Exception` class. The `validate_input()` function raises this exception if the input value
is not an integer. The raised exception is caught and handled in the `except` block.

User-defined exceptions provide flexibility and allow you to define and handle exceptions tailored to
your specific needs. They help improve code readability, maintainability, and error handling capabilities
by encapsulating custom error scenarios.
11.Explain in detail about Python Files, its types, functions and operations that can be performed on
files with examples

Python Files:

Files in Python are used to store and manipulate data. They allow reading from and writing to external
files on the computer's file system. Python provides built-in functions and methods to perform various
operations on files, such as opening, reading, writing, closing, deleting, and more.

Types of Files in Python:

1. Text Files: Text files store data as plain text using characters from a character encoding system, such as
ASCII or Unicode. They are human-readable and editable using a simple text editor.

2. Binary Files: Binary files store data in a binary format, representing information using a sequence of
bytes. They are not human-readable and require specific programs or algorithms to interpret and
process the data correctly.

Common File Operations and Functions:

1. Opening a File:

To work with a file, you need to open it first using the `open()` function. It takes the file path and the
mode as arguments. The mode can be `'r'` (read mode), `'w'` (write mode), `'a'` (append mode), or a
combination of modes.

file = open("file.txt", "r")

2. Reading from a File:

Once a file is opened in read mode, you can read its contents using various methods like `read()`,
`readline()`, or `readlines()`.

- `read()`: Reads the entire content of the file as a single string.

content = file.read()

print(content)

- `readline()`: Reads a single line from the file and moves the file pointer to the next line.

line = file.readline()

print(line)

- `readlines()`: Reads all lines from the file and returns them as a list of strings.

lines = file.readlines()
print(lines)

3. Writing to a File:

To write to a file, it should be opened in write mode (`'w'`) or append mode (`'a'`). The `write()` method
is used to write content to the file.

file = open("file.txt", "w")

file.write("Hello, world!")

4. Appending to a File:

To append content to an existing file, open it in append mode (`'a'`) and use the `write()` method.

file = open("file.txt", "a")

file.write("Appending new content.")

5. Closing a File:

After reading from or writing to a file, it is important to close it using the `close()` method. This releases
system resources and ensures data integrity.

file.close()

6. With Statement:

The `with` statement is a convenient way to automatically close a file after its usage. It guarantees that
the file will be properly closed, even if an exception occurs.

with open("file.txt", "r") as file:

content = file.read()

print(content)

7. Renaming and Deleting a File:

Python provides functions like `os.rename()` to rename a file and `os.remove()` to delete a file.

import os

os.rename("old_file.txt", "new_file.txt")

os.remove("file.txt")

These are some of the common file operations and functions in Python. They allow you to work with
files effectively, enabling reading, writing, manipulation, and organization of data stored in files.
12.Explain about reading and writing files in python

Reading and writing files in Python is a common task for working with external data. Here's an
explanation of how to read from and write to files in Python:

1. Reading Files:

To read from a file, you need to open it in read mode (`'r'`) using the `open()` function. The file is then
assigned to a file object, which can be used to access the file's contents.

a. Reading the Entire File:

The `read()` method is used to read the entire contents of a file as a string.

file = open("file.txt", "r")

content = file.read()

print(content)

file.close()

In this example, the file named "file.txt" is opened in read mode, and its contents are read using the
`read()` method. The contents are then printed to the console.

b. Reading Line by Line:

The `readline()` method reads a single line from the file and moves the file pointer to the next line.

file = open("file.txt", "r")

line1 = file.readline()

line2 = file.readline()

print(line1)

print(line2)

file.close()

In this example, the file is opened in read mode, and the `readline()` method is used twice to read two
lines from the file. Each line is stored in a separate variable and printed to the console.

c. Reading All Lines as a List:

The `readlines()` method reads all lines from the file and returns them as a list of strings.

file = open("file.txt", "r")

lines = file.readlines()

for line in lines:

print(line)

file.close()

In this example, all lines from the file are read using the `readlines()` method and stored in the `lines`
variable as a list of strings. The lines are then printed using a loop.

2. Writing Files:

To write to a file, you need to open it in write mode (`'w'`) or append mode (`'a'`) using the `open()`
function. The file is assigned to a file object that can be used to write content to the file.

a. Writing Content:

The `write()` method is used to write content to a file.

file = open("file.txt", "w")

file.write("Hello, world!")

file.close()

In this example, the file named "file.txt" is opened in write mode, and the `write()` method is used to
write the string "Hello, world!" to the file. The file is then closed.

b. Appending Content:

To append content to an existing file, open it in append mode (`'a'`) using the `open()` function and use
the `write()` method.

file = open("file.txt", "a")

file.write("Appending new content.")

file.close()

In this example, the file is opened in append mode, and the `write()` method is used to append the string
"Appending new content." to the file.

3. Using the "with" Statement:

To ensure that a file is properly closed after its usage, it's recommended to use the `with` statement. The
`with` statement automatically handles closing the file, even if an exception occurs.

with open("file.txt", "r") as file:

 content = file.read()

print(content)

In this example, the file is opened using the `open()` function within a `with` statement. The file object is
automatically closed when the `with` block is exited, ensuring proper cleanup.

It's important to close files using the `close()` method or by utilizing the `with` statement to release
system resources and maintain data integrity.

These are the basic operations for reading from and writing to files in Python. They allow you to handle
external data efficiently and interact with files in a controlled manner.

13.Explain in detail about user defined exception in python with an example.

In Python, user-defined exceptions allow you to create custom exceptions to represent specific error
conditions or exceptional situations that are not covered by the built-in exceptions. User-defined
exceptions help improve code readability, maintainability, and error handling capabilities by
encapsulating custom error scenarios.

To define a user-defined exception, you typically create a new class that inherits from the base
`Exception` class or any of its subclasses. This custom class can then be raised and caught like any other
exception.

Here's an example that demonstrates the creation and usage of a user-defined exception:

class InsufficientBalanceError(Exception):

def __init__(self, message):

self.message = message

def __str__(self):

return self.message

class BankAccount:

def __init__(self, balance):

self.balance = balance

def withdraw(self, amount):

if amount > self.balance:

raise InsufficientBalanceError("Insufficient balance in the account.")

else:
 self.balance -= amount

# Usage example

account = BankAccount(1000)

try:

account.withdraw(1500)

except InsufficientBalanceError as e:

print("Error:", str(e))

In this example, we define a custom exception called `InsufficientBalanceError`. It is a subclass of the

base `Exception` class. The `InsufficientBalanceError` class overrides the `__init__()` method to initialize
the exception message and the `__str__()` method to provide a string representation of the exception
when it is raised and printed.

We also have a `BankAccount` class that has a `withdraw()` method. If the requested withdrawal amount
exceeds the available balance, the `withdraw()` method raises an `InsufficientBalanceError` exception
with an appropriate error message.

In the usage example, an instance of the `BankAccount` class is created with a balance of 1000. When an
attempt is made to withdraw 1500, the `withdraw()` method raises the `InsufficientBalanceError`
exception. The exception is then caught using an `except` block, and the error message is printed to the
console.

By defining and using user-defined exceptions, you can handle specific error conditions or exceptional
situations in a more meaningful and customized way. This helps in better organizing and managing errors
in your code, enhancing its clarity and maintainability.

14.Write a python code to check the given number is prime or not using modules

Sure! Here's a Python code that checks whether a given number is prime or not using a user-defined
module:

1. Create a new Python file called `prime_checker.py`.

2. In `prime_checker.py`, define a function named `is_prime()` that takes a number as an argument and
checks whether it is prime or not.

3. Inside the `is_prime()` function, implement the logic to determine whether the number is prime. A
number is considered prime if it is greater than 1 and has no divisors other than 1 and itself. You can use
a loop to check divisibility by numbers from 2 to the square root of the given number.

4. Return `True` if the number is prime and `False` otherwise.

5. Save the `prime_checker.py` file.

Here's the code for `prime_checker.py`:

import math

def is_prime(num):

if num <= 1:

return False

for i in range(2, int(math.sqrt(num)) + 1):

if num % i == 0:

return False

return True

Now, you can use the `is_prime()` function from the `prime_checker` module to check whether a given
number is prime or not in another Python script.

Here's an example usage in a separate Python file:

from prime_checker import is_prime

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

if is_prime(num):

print(f"{num} is prime.")

else:

print(f"{num} is not prime.")

In this example, we import the `is_prime()` function from the `prime_checker` module. The user is
prompted to enter a number, and the `is_prime()` function is called to check whether the number is
prime or not. The result is then printed to the console.

Note: Make sure the `prime_checker.py` file is in the same directory as the Python script that uses the
`is_prime()` function, or you can include the path to the `prime_checker.py` file using appropriate import
statements.

15.Explain about the different types of Exceptions in Python.

In Python, exceptions are raised when an error or exceptional situation occurs during program execution.
They allow you to handle and recover from errors gracefully. Python provides a wide range of built-in
exceptions that cover common error scenarios. Here are some of the different types of exceptions in
Python:

1. `Exception` (Base Exception):

The base class for all exceptions in Python. It is typically not directly raised but serves as a superclass for
more specific exception classes.

2. `ZeroDivisionError`:

Raised when division or modulo operation is performed with a divisor of zero.

3. `TypeError`:

Raised when an operation or function is performed on an object of an inappropriate type.

4. `ValueError`:

Raised when a function receives an argument of the correct type but with an invalid value.

5. `FileNotFoundError`:

Raised when an attempt is made to access a file that does not exist.

6. `IndexError`:

Raised when a sequence (such as a list or string) is indexed with an out-of-range index.

7. `KeyError`:

Raised when a dictionary is accessed with a key that does not exist.

8. `NameError`:

Raised when a local or global name is not found.

9. `SyntaxError`:

Raised when there is a syntax error in the code.

10. `AttributeError`:

Raised when an attribute reference or assignment fails.

These are just a few examples of the many built-in exceptions available in Python. Each exception has a
specific purpose and indicates a particular error condition. By catching and handling these exceptions,
you can take appropriate actions, provide meaningful error messages, and gracefully handle exceptional
situations in your code.
You can also create custom (user-defined) exceptions by defining new exception classes that inherit from
the built-in `Exception` class. Custom exceptions allow you to represent specific error conditions or
exceptional situations that are not covered by the built-in exceptions, adding clarity and customization to
your error handling approach.