Fluid Dynamics I M Usman Hamid

FLUID DYNAMICS I
MUHAMMAD USMAN HAMID
Available at MathCity.org
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Contents
Introduction: Definition of Fluid, basics equations, Methods of analysis,

dimensions and units. Fundamental concepts, Fluid as a continuum, velocity field,
stress field, viscosity, surface tension, description and classification of fluid
motions.
Fluid Statics: The basic equation of fluid static, The standard atmosphere,
pressure variation in a static fluid, fluid in rigid body motion. Basic equation in
integral form for a control volume, basic laws for a system, relation of derivatives
to the control volume formulation, conservation of mass, momentum equation for
inertial control volume, momentum equation for control volume with rectilinear
acceleration, momentum equation for control volume with arbitrary acceleration,
the angular momentum principle, the first law of thermodynamics, the second law
of thermodynamics.
Introduction to differential analysis of fluid motion: conservation of mass,

stream function for two dimensional incompressible flow, motion of a fluid
element (kinematics), momentum equation.
Books Recommended
 Fox R. W. & McDonald A. T. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics.

 White F. M. Fluid Mechanics.
 Schichting H. Boundary Layer Theory.
 Milne-Thomson L. M. Theoretical Hydrodynamics.
For video lectures

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INTRODUCTION
Fluid Mechanics or Hydrostatics
As the name implies, fluid mechanics is the study of fluids at rest or in motion. It
has traditionally been applied in such areas as the design of canal, levee, and dam
systems; the design of pumps, compressors, and piping and ducting used in the
water and air conditioning systems of homes and businesses, as well as the piping
systems needed in chemical plants; the aerodynamics of automobiles and sub- and
supersonic airplanes; and the development of many different flow measurement
devices such as gas pump meters.
Or The branch of science which is concerned with the study of motion of fluids
or those bodies in contact with fluids is called fluid mechanics or hydrostatics.
Or The study of forces and flows in fluid is called mechanics.
There are three categories of fluid mechanics;
Fluid statistics: Fluid statistics is the study of fluids at rest.
Fluid Kinematics:
Fluid Kinematics is the study of fluids in motion without considering the force
which causes the motion. e.g. Speed, Velocity etc.
Fluid Dynamics:
Fluid Dynamics is the study of fluids in motion. It used to analyze flow of air over
an aeroplane wing or over a surface of automobile.
Why we study the fluid mechanics?
We casually look around most things seem to be solids but when one thinks of the
oceans, the atmosphere and on out into space it becomes rather obvious that a large
portion of the earth surface and of the entire universe is in a fluid state. Therefore,
it becomes essential for sciences and engineers to know something about fluid
mechanics.
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Applications (Scope) of Fluid Mechanics:
There are many applications of fluid mechanics make it one of the most important
and fundamental in almost all engineering and applied scientific studies such as
applied mathematics, plasma physics, geo-physics, bio physics and physical
chemistry etc. The experimental aspects of fluid mechanics are the studied through
various discipline of engineering. The flow of fluids in pipes and channel makes
fluid mechanics of importance to civil engineer. They utilize the results of fluid
mechanics to understand the transport of river, irrigation channels, the pollution of
air and water & to design pipe line systems, flood control systems and dams etc.
The study of fluid machinery such as pumps, fans, blowers, air compressors heat
exchangers, jet and rocket engines, gas turbines, power plants, pollution control
equipment etc.
Fluid
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear

(tangential) stress no matter how small the shear stress may be. Fluids comprise the
liquid and gas (or vapor) phases of the physical forms in which matter exists.
Or a fluid as any substance that cannot sustain a shear stress when at rest.
Or a fluid is something which has the property of flowing freely
Note: The distinction between a fluid and the solid state of matter is clear if you
compare fluid and solid behavior. A solid deforms when a shear stress is applied,
but its deformation does not continue to increase with time.
Properties of a fluid are of at least four classes
1. Kinematic Properties: Linear Velocity, Angular Velocity, Vorticity,

Acceleration and Strain Rate.
2. Transport Properties: Viscosity, Thermal Conductivity, Mass Diffusivity.
3. Thermodynamic Properties: Pressure, Density, Temperature, Enthalpy,
Entropy, Specific Heat, Bulk Modulus, Coefficient of Thermal Expansion.
4. Other Miscellaneous Properties: Surface Tension, Vapor Pressure, Surface
Accommodation Coefficient.
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Motion of fluid particles
A fluid consists of innumerable (countless) whose relative position never fix

whenever fluid is in motion the particle moves along certain line depending upon
the characteristics of fluid and shape of the passage through which the fluid
particle moves. It is necessary to observe the motion of fluid particle at various
time and point.
Fluid mechanics have two method of fluid motion
(i) Lagrange‘s method (ii) Eulerian Method
Basic Equations (Laws)
Analysis of any problem in fluid mechanics necessarily includes statement of the

basic laws governing the fluid motion. The basic laws, which are applicable to any
fluid, are:
1. The conservation of mass.
2. Newton's second law of motion.
3. The principle of angular momentum.
4. The first law of thermodynamics,
5. The second law of thermodynamics.
Note: All basic laws are always required to solve any one problem. On the other
hand, in many problems it is necessary to bring into the analysis additional
relations that describe the behavior of physical properties of fluids under given
conditions.
Dimensional Analysis of Fluid Flow: It is a mathematical technique used to

predict physical parameters that influence the flow in fluid mechanics, heat transfer
in thermodynamics and so forth. The analysis involves the fundamental units of
dimensions MLt (mass, length and time)
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Example First Law Application to Closed System
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System and Surroundings
A system is defined as a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass where the region of

physical space beyond the system boundaries is called surroundings. The system
boundaries separate the system from the surroundings. The boundaries of the
system may be fixed or movable; however, no mass crosses the system boundaries.
In the familiar piston-cylinder assembly from thermodynamics, the gas in

the cylinder is the system. If the gas is heated, the piston will lift the weight; the
boundary of the system thus moves. Heat and work may cross the boundaries of
the system, but the quantity of matter within the system boundaries remains fixed.
No mass crosses the system boundaries.
Control Volume and Control Surface
A control volume is an arbitrary volume in space through which fluid flows.

There are two types of control volume. i.e. Finite size control volume. e.g. Pipe
and Differentiable size control volume. e.g. Cube. Both types of control volume
are used to drive conservation principles of mass, energy and momentum. Finite
size control volume is further divided into two categories. i.e. Deformable
Control Volume ( Such volume in which control surface is allow to change its
shape) and Non - Deformable Control Volume (Such volume in which control
surface is not allow to change its shape)
The geometric boundary of the control volume is called the control surface. The
control surface may be real or imaginary; it may be at rest or in motion.
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Example Mass Conservation Applied To Control Volume
Thermodynamic Process:
Thermodynamic Process in fluid flow is a steady state of flow into and out of a
vessel with definite wall properties. The internal state of vessel contents is not the
primary concern. The quantities of primary concern describe the state of the inflow
and outflow materials, and on the side, the transfer of heat, work and kinetic and
potential energies for the vessel. Flow processes are of interest in engineering.
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Historical development of Fluid Mechanics
Some basic properties of fluids are
Density Mass per unit volume is called density
∆ = rate of change And
Where (x,y,z) are the coordinates of a point and is the temperature.
Specific Weight
It is defined as the weight per unit volume and is denoted by
Specific Volume It is defined as volume per unit mass. Its formula is
Pressure Force per unit area is called pressure. Its formula is
Where F is normal force due to fluid in elementary area.
Viscosity It is the property of fluid by which it offers the resistance to sheer (the
tangent force per unit area) acting on it i.e. the property of fluid which control the
flow of fluid. Viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature and viscosity of
gases increases with temperature.
Bulk modulus and compressibility (bulk compressibility modulus or modulus

of elasticity)
It is denoted as i.e. variation of its density. After arranging

where K is called Bulk Modulus. Pressure and density changes in liquids are
related by the bulk compressibility modulus, or modulus of elasticity,
If the bulk modulus is independent of temperature, then density is only a function

of pressure (the fluid is barotropic).
Buoyancy Force: When a body is immersed in a liquid, or floating on its surface,

the net vertical force acting on it due to liquid pressure is called the Buoyancy
Force, and is denoted by
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Methods of Description (Motion of Particles)
A fluid consists of innumerable (countless) whose relative position never fix

whenever fluid is in motion the particle moves along certain line depending upon
the characteristics of fluid and shape of the passage through which the fluid
particle moves. It is necessary to observe the motion of fluid particle at various
time and point. Fluid mechanics have two method of fluid motion
(i) Lagrange‘s Method (ii) Eulerian Method
Lagrange’s Method (Flow of Single Particle)
This method deals with the study of flow patterns of the individual particles. In this
method the path traced by the particle under consideration with the passage of time
is studied in detail.
Eulerian Method This method deals with the study of flow patterns of all
particles simultaneously at one section. In this method the path traced by all
particles at one section and one time are studied in detail.
The general example for both methods is the study of movement of vehicles on a
busy road. The Lagrangian deals with the study of the movement of only one
vehicle through a specific distance. And The Eulerian deals with the study of the
movement of all vehicles at one section and one time.
In study of fluid mechanics, Eulerian method is commonly used because of its

mathematical simplicity. Moreover in fluid mechanics, movement of individuals is
not important.
Rigid Body: Solid body in which deformation is zero. Rigid body is a system of
particles whose distance from one another is fixed.
Rigid Body Motion: Solid body in which deformation is zero. Rigid body is a
system of particles whose distance from one another is fixed. Motion of rigid body
is studied under the influence of forces. The general motion of rigid body consists
of a combination of translation and rotation. Its equation of motion can be derived
from the equation of motion of its constituent particles.
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Example Free Fall Of Ball In Air
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DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Engineering problems are solved to answer specific questions. It goes without

saying that the answer must include units (it makes a difference whether a pipe
diameter required is one meter or one foot).
Dimension is specific form used to refer any measurable quantity.
If we refer physical quantities such as length, time, mass, and temperature as

dimensions in terms of a particular system of dimensions, all measurable quantities
are subdivided into two groups—primary quantities and secondary quantities.
 Primary quantities are those quantities for which we set arbitrary scales of
measure. e.g. Mass(Kg), Length(Meter), Time(Second)
 Secondary quantities are those quantities whose dimensions are expressible
in terms of the dimensions of the primary quantities. e.g. Velocity,
Acceleration, Torque, Momentum etc.
Units
Units are the arbitrary names (and magnitudes) assigned to the primary dimensions
adopted as standards for measurement. For example, the primary dimension of
length may be measured in units of meters, feet, yards, or miles. These units of
length are related to each other through unit conversion factors.
(1 mile = 5280 feet = 1609 meters).
Systems of Dimensions
Any valid equation that relates physical quantities must be dimensionally

homogeneous; each term in the equation must have the same dimensions. We have
three basic systems of dimensions, corresponding to the different ways of
specifying the primary dimensions.
a. Mass [M], length [L], time [t], temperature [T].
b. Force [F], length [L], time [t], temperature [T].
c. Force [F], mass [M], length [L], time [t], temperature [T].
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In system a, force [F] is a secondary dimension and the constant of proportionality

in Newton's second law is dimensionless. In system b, mass [M] is a secondary
dimension, and again the constant of proportionality in Newton's second law is
dimensionless. In system c, both force [F] and mass [M] have been selected as
primary dimensions. In this case the constant of proportionality, gc, (not to be
confused with g, the acceleration of gravity!) in Newton's second law (written
⃗ ⃗ ) is not dimensionless. The dimensions of gc must in fact be [ ]
for the equation to be dimensionally homogeneous. The numerical value of the
constant of proportionality depends on the units of measure chosen for each of the
primary quantities.
Note
We recognize that Newton's second law (F ma) relates the four dimensions, F,
M, L, and t. Thus force and mass cannot both be selected as primary dimensions
without introducing a constant of proportionality that has dimensions (and units).
Length and time are primary dimensions in all dimensional systems in common
use. In some systems, mass is taken as a primary dimension. In others, force is
selected as a primary dimension; a third system chooses both force and mass as
primary dimensions
Systems of Units
There is more than one way to select the unit of measure for each primary
dimension.
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We shall present only the more common engineering systems of units for each of
the basic systems of dimensions.
a . MLtT
SI, which is the official abbreviation in all languages for the Systeme International
d'Unites, is an extension and refinement of the traditional metric system. More than
30 countries have declared it to be the only legally accepted system.
In the SI system of units, the unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), the unit of length is
the meter (m), the unit of time is the second (s), and the unit of temperature is the
kelvin (K). Force is a secondary dimension, and its unit, the newton (N), is defined
from Newton's second law as
1 N = 1 kg • m/s2
In the Absolute Metric system of units, the unit of mass is the gram, the unit of
length is the centimeter, the unit of time is the second, and the unit of temperature
is the kelvin. Since force is a secondary dimension, the unit of force, the dyne, is
defined in terms of Newton's second law as
1 dyne = 1 g • cm/s2
b. FLtT
In the British Gravitational system of units, the unit of force is the pound (lbf), the
unit of length is the foot (ft), the unit of time is the second, and the unit of
temperature is the degree Rankine (1K = 1.8 °R). Since mass is a secondary
dimension, the unit of mass, the slug, is defined in terms of Newton's second law
as 1 slug = 1 lbf • s2/ft
c . FMLtT
In the English Engineering system of units, the unit of force is the pound force
(lbf), the unit of mass is the pound mass (lbm), the unit of length is the foot, the
unit of time is the second, and the unit of temperature is the degree Rankine. Since
both force and mass are chosen as primary dimensions, Newton's second law is
written as ⃗ ⃗
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A force of one pound (1 lbf) is the force that gives a pound mass (1 lbm) an
acceleration equal to the standard acceleration of gravity on Earth, 32.2 ft/s2. From
Newton's second law we see that
or
The constant of proportionality, gc, has both dimensions and units. The dimensions
arose because we selected both force and mass as primary dimensions; the units
(and the numerical value) are a consequence of our choices for the standards of
measurement
Since a force of 1 lbf accelerates 1 lbm at 32.2 ft/s2, it would accelerate 32.2 lbm
at 1 ft/s2. A slug also is accelerated at 1 ft/s2 by a force of 1 lbf. Therefore,
1 slug = 32.2 lbm
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Example
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Useful Conversions
1 meter = 3.280 ft , 1Slug =14.5939kg = 32.2 lbm , g = 32.2 ft/s2
lbf = 4.68N , 1K = 1.8 °R , 1gallon = 3.78541 liter
Conversion in MLtT with Dimensions
Quantity Formula Unit (SI System) Dimension

Power
* +
Pressure
[ ]
Modulus of
Elasticity [ ]
Momentum
[ ]
K.E
* +
Question: Convert the pressure 1Pa to Pounds force per square inches.
………..(i)
Since
Also
And
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Question: Convert viscosity of to
Since
Also
Now
Question: Convert Energy of to
Since
Also
Now
Since
Also
Now
Since 1gallon = 3.78541 liter
Also
Now
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Question: Convert Stress to
Since
Also
And
Question: Power into
Since And
Also
And
Now
Question: Modulus of Elasticity into
Since Modulus of Elasticity =
then
Modulus of Elasticity
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Question: Convert 300kWh in BG.
Since and
Then
Question: Convert 40 m2hr in BG.
Since Also
Then
Question: Convert 50Ns/ m2 in BG.
Since
Also
Then
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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
In Chapter 1 we discussed in general terms what fluid mechanics is about, and

described some of the approaches we will use in analyzing fluid mechanics
problems. In this chapter we will be more specific in defining some important
properties of fluids, and ways in which flows can be described and characterized.
Fluid As A Continuum
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Continuum is smoothly varying and continuously distributed body of matter –

no holes or discontinuities. The concept of a continuum is the basis of classical
fluid mechanics. The continuum assumption is valid in treating the behavior of
fluids under normal conditions. It only breaks down when the mean free path of the
molecules becomes the same order of magnitude as the smallest significant
characteristic dimension of the problem. This occurs in such specialized problems
as rarefied gas flow (e.g., as encountered in flights into the upper reaches of the
atmosphere).
As a consequence of the continuum assumption, each fluid property is assumed to

have a definite value at every point in space. Thus fluid properties such as density,
temperature, velocity, and so on, are considered to be continuous functions of
position and time.
To illustrate the concept of a property at a point, consider how we determine the

density at a point. A region of fluid is shown in Figure. We are interested in
determining the density at the point C, whose coordinates are x0, y0, and z0.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Thus the average density in volume ̅
is given by ̅.
In general, because the density of the fluid may not be uniform, this will not
be equal to the value of the density at point C. To determine the density at point C,
we must select a small volume, ̅ , surrounding point C and then determine the
ratio ̅
.
The question is, how small can we make the volume ̅ ? We can answer this
question by plotting the ratio ̅
, and allowing the volume to shrink continuously
in size.
Assuming that volume ̅ is initially relatively large (but still small compared with
the volume, V) a typical plot of ̅ might appear as in Figure (b) In other words,
̅ must be sufficiently large to yield a meaningful, reproducible value for the
density at a location and yet small enough to be called a point. The average density
tends to approach an asymptotic value as the volume is shrunk to enclose only
homogeneous fluid in the immediate neighborhood of point C. If ̅ becomes so
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small that it contains only a small number of molecules, it becomes impossible to

fix a definite value for ; the value will vary erratically as molecules cross into
̅
and out of the volume. Thus there is a lower limiting value of ̅ , designated ̅
in Figure (b), allowable for use in defining fluid density at a point.
The density at a "point" is then defined as ̅ ̅ ̅
Since point C was arbitrary, the density at any other point in the fluid could be
determined in the same manner. If density was measured simultaneously at an
infinite number of points in the fluid, we would obtain an expression for the
density distribution as a function of the space coordinates, = (x, y, z), at the
given instant.
The density at a point may also vary with time (as a result of work done on or by
the fluid and/or heat transfer to the fluid). Thus the complete representation of
density (the field representation) is given by = (x,y,z,t)
Since density is a scalar quantity, requiring only the specification of a magnitude

for a complete description, the field represented by = (x,y,z,t) is a scalar field.
The density of a liquid or solid may also be expressed in dimensionless form

as the specific gravity, SG, defined as the ratio of material density to the
maximum density of water, which is 1000 kg/m3 at 4°C (1.94 slug/ft3at 39°F). For
example, the SG of mercury is typically 13.6—mercury is 13.6 times as dense as
water. The specific gravity of liquids is a function of temperature; for most liquids
specific gravity decreases with increasing temperature.
Specific weight, , is defined as weight per unit volume; weight is mass times
acceleration of gravity, and density is mass per unit volume, hence . For
example, the specific weight of water is approximately 9.81 kN/m (62.4 lbf/ft3).
3
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Local and Partial Rate of Change
Let us suppose that particle of fluid move from point at time ‗t‘ to point
in a time . Let be a scalar function
define in a region of a motion of fluid. The motion of particle from P to Q is given
by
( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ )
⃗⃗
Where is total or material rate of change, is local rate of change and ⃗⃗ is

partial or convective rate of change. Above result shows that action of the operator
on the function is same as the action of operator ⃗⃗ on the function.
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Example A velocity field ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ is given as

, and then find
Local acceleration, Convective acceleration and Total acceleration at
Solution
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Since ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗
⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Now ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗
Then in components form ⃗
(⃗ )
Using
Using
(⃗ )
(⃗ )
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Using
⃗
( )
Then we can get ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ⃗ ̂
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
Now
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
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Velocity of fluid particle or Velocity of fluid at a point.
And therefore, velocity of a fluid particle denoted as ‗ ⃗⃗ ‘.

⃗
⃗⃗ ……………(i)
In Cartesian coordinates
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ and ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
On comparing
⃗
The expression ⃗⃗ gives the velocity at a point P and in time ‗t‘
and also shows that velocity depends upon ⃗ and ‗t‘ i.e.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
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Velocity Field
In continuum mechanics the flow velocity in fluid dynamics, is a vector field used
to mathematically describe the motion of a continuum. The length of the flow
velocity vector is the flow speed, and is a scalar. It is also called velocity field.
In dealing with fluids in motion, we shall be concerned with the description of a

velocity field. Consider the following Figure.
Velocity field implies a distribution of velocity in a given region. At a given instant

the velocity field, ⃗⃗ , is a function of the space coordinates x, y, z. The velocity at
any point in the flow field might vary from one instant to another. Thus the
complete representation of velocity (the velocity field) is given by spatial and time
coordinates as ⃗⃗
Velocity is a vector quantity, requiring a magnitude and direction for a complete

description, so the velocity field ⃗⃗ is a vector field. The velocity
vector ⃗⃗ , , also can be written in terms of its three scalar components. Denoting the
components in the x, y, and z directions by u, v, and w, then
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ………….(i)
In general, each component , u, v, and w, will be a function of x, y, z, and t.
Since ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
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⃗
⃗⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
On comparing
If properties at every point in a flow field do not change with time, the flow is
termed steady. Stated mathematically, the definition of steady flow is
where represents any fluid property. Hence, for steady flow,
⃗⃗
or = (x, y, z) and or ⃗⃗
In steady flow, any property may vary from point to point in the field, but all
properties remain constant with time at every point.
Flow Field: The term uniform flow field (as opposed to uniform flow at a
cross section) is used to describe a flow in which the velocity is constant, i.e.,
independent of all space coordinates, throughout the entire flow field.
Remark: Sometimes we want a visual representation of a flow. Such a

representation is provided by timelines, pathlines, streaklines, and streamlines.
 Timeline: If a number of adjacent fluid particles in a flow field are marked

at a given instant, they form a line in the fluid at that instant; this line is
called a timeline. Subsequent observations of the line may provide
information about the flow field. For example, in discussing the behavior of
a fluid under the action of a constant shear force (Section 1-2) timelines
were introduced to demonstrate the deformation of a fluid at successive
instants.
 Pathline: A pathline is the path or trajectory traced out by a moving fluid
particle. To make a pathline visible, we might identify a fluid particle at a
given instant, e.g., by the use of dye or smoke, and then take a long exposure
photograph of its subsequent motion. The line traced out by the particle is a
pathline. This approach might be used to study, for example, the trajectory
of a contaminant leaving a smokestack.
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 Streakline: On the other hand, we might choose to focus our attention on a

fixed location in space and identify, again by the use of dye or smoke, all
fluid particles passing through this point. After a short period of time we
would have a number of identifiable fluid particles in the flow, all of which
had, at some time, passed through one fixed location in space. The line
joining these fluid particles is defined as a streakline.
 Streamlines: The imaginary line drawn in the fluid where the velocity along
the tangent. Streamlines are lines drawn in the flow field so that at a given
instant they are tangent to the direction of flow at every point in the flow
field. Since the streamlines are tangent to the velocity vector at every point
in the flow field, there can be no flow across a streamline. Streamlines are
the most commonly used visualization technique. For example, they are used
to study flow over an automobile in a computer simulation.
 Stream Tube: An element of the fluid bounded by the number of a
streamlines which confine the flow, is called Stream Tube.
 Filament lines: The instantaneous pictures of the position of all particles
which have passed through a given point at previous time are called filament
line. For example, the line finds by smoke particle exerted from a nozzle of
rocket.
 Potential and Equipotential lines: We know that there is always a loss of
head of fluid particles as we proceed along the flow line. If we draw the line
joining the points of equipotential on the adjacent flow lines, we get the
potential lines. The points where lines A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H are the potential
line and i,j,k,l,m,n are the equipotential line.
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 Flow nets: The intersection of potential line and stream line of two set of
lines are called flow line i.e. intersection with the help of flow nets we can
analysis of the behavior of certain phenomenon which cannot be
mathematical means. Such a phenomenon is generally analyzed and studied
with the joint flow nets.
Difference between stream line and path line
i) The stream line is not in general same as the path line.

ii) Stream line show how each particle is moving at given instant of time
whereas path line represents the motion of fluid particle at each instant.
iii) If the flow is steady the stream lines remain unchanged as the time
progressed and hence they are also the path line.
iv) For a steady flow stream lines, path lines and streak lines are coincide in
a flow field, whereas in general they are quite distinct.
Remark
 Solid: Solid has definite shape, which is retain until an external force is
applied to after it. In other words, a solid is a substance that deforms when
sheer stress is applied, but it does not continue to deform.
 Liquid: Liquid takes the shape of a vessel into which it is poured. It is
considered to have incompressible flow.
 Gas: Gas completely filled up the vessel into which it contains.
Note
 We can determine the state of moving fluid with the help of five quantities.
i.e. three components of velocity ⃗⃗ , Pressure and .
 Equation of Streamline in Space:
 Equation of Streamline in Plane:
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Conservative Force
A force is said to be conservative if ⃗⃗ ⃗
Then ⃗ ⃗⃗ where is scalar function.
In case of velocity field ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
We define scalar function (Potential Function) such that
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ then ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ )
Now as ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ then this implies ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
Comparing coefficient
With potential function defined in this way the Irrotational condition
Is satisfied identically.
In cylindrical coordinates ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ then ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ implies
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
Comparing coefficient
With potential function defined in this way the Irrotational condition
Is satisfied identically.
Where negative sign in ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ shows that flow takes place from higher
potential to lower potential.
33
Example If and then investigate the type of flow.
Solution Since we know that, for ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ [ ] ( ) ̂ ( ) ̂ ( )̂
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗
Hence flow is Irrotational.
Example
If and then investigate the type of flow.
̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ [ ] ( ) ̂ ( ) ̂ ( )̂
⃗⃗ ( ) ̂ ( ) ̂ ( )̂ ⃗⃗
Hence flow is rotational.

̂ ̂
Example If ⃗⃗ then determine equation of streamline.
Here and
Then using equation of streamlines (say)
We get equation of circle.
Hence streamlines are circle.
34
In steady flow, the velocity at each point in the flow field remains constant with
time and, consequently, the streamline shapes do not vary from one instant to the
next. This implies that a particle located on a given streamline will always move
along the same streamline. Furthermore, consecutive particles passing through a
fixed point in space will be on the same streamline and, subsequently, will remain
on this streamline. Thus in a steady flow, pathlines, streaklines, and streamlines are
identical lines in the flow field.
The shapes of the streamlines may vary from instant to instant if the flow is
unsteady. In the case of unsteady flow, pathlines, streaklines, and streamlines do
not coincide.
Example: Streamlines And Pathlines In Two-Dimensional Flow
35
36
Question: A velocity field is given by ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂, where and

. Find the equation of the streamlines at any time t. Plot several
streamlines in the first quadrant at , and .
Solution
For streamline
When When
When
37
38
 Surface Forces: All forces acting on the boundary of the medium through
direct contact: e.g. Pressure and Frictional force.
 Body Forces: All forces acting on the boundary of the medium without
direct contact: e.g. Gravitational and Electromagnetic force.
39
Stress Field (Surface and body forces are discussed in this phenomenon)
In our study of fluid mechanics, we will need to understand what kinds of forces
act on fluid particles. Each fluid particle can experience: surface forces (pressure,
friction) that are generated by contact with other particles or a solid surface; and
body forces (such as gravity and electromagnetic) that are experienced throughout
the particle.
The gravitational body force acting on an element of volume, d ̅ , is given by

⃗ ̅ , where is the density (mass per unit volume) and ⃗ is the local
gravitational acceleration. Thus the gravitational body force per unit volume is ⃗
and the gravitational body force per unit mass ⃗.
Surface forces on a fluid particle lead to stresses. The concept of stress is useful for
describing how forces acting on the boundaries of a medium (fluid or solid) are
transmitted throughout the medium. For example, when you stand on a diving
board, stresses are generated within the board. On the other hand, when a body
moves through a fluid, stresses are developed within the fluid. The difference
between a fluid and a solid is, as we've seen, that stresses in a fluid are mostly
generated by motion rather than by deflection.
Imagine the surface of a fluid particle in contact with other fluid particles, and
consider the contact force being generated between the particles. Consider a
portion, ⃗, of the surface at some point C. The orientation of ⃗ is given by the
unit vector, ̂, shown in Figure. The vector ̂ is the outwardly drawn unit normal
with respect to the particle.
40
The force, ⃗ , acting on ⃗ may be resolved into two components, one normal to
and the other tangent to the area.
A normal stress is then defined as Normal component of force per unit area is
called Normal stress. i.e.
And a shear stress is then defined as Tangent component of force per unit area is
called sheer stress. i.e.
Subscript n on the stress is included as a reminder that the stresses are associated
with the surface through C, having an outward normal in the ̂ direction. The
fluid is actually a continuum, so we could have imagined breaking it up any
number of different ways into fluid particles around point C, and therefore
obtained any number of different stresses at point C.
In dealing with vector quantities such as force, we usually consider components in

an orthogonal coordinate system. In rectangular coordinates we might consider the
stresses acting on planes whose outwardly drawn normals (again with respect to
the material acted upon) are in the x, y, or z directions.
Now check the following figure;
41
In Figure we consider the stress on the element , whose outwardly drawn

normal is in the x direction. The force, ⃗ , has been resolved into components
along each of the coordinate directions. Dividing the magnitude of each force
component by the area, , and taking the limit as approaches zero, we
define the three stress components shown in Fig.(b):
We have used a double subscript notation to label the stresses. The first subscript
(in this case, x) indicates the plane on which the stress acts (in this case, a surface
perpendicular to the x axis). The second subscript indicates the direction in which
the stress acts.
Consideration of area element would lead to the definitions of the stresses,

, „ and , use of area element would similarly lead to the definitions
of , „ and .
Although we just looked at three orthogonal planes, an infinite number of planes

can be passed through point C, resulting in an infinite number of stresses
associated with planes through that point. Fortunately, the state of stress at a point
can be described completely by specifying the stresses acting on any three
mutually perpendicular planes through the point. The stress at a point is specified
by the nine components
Where has been used to denote a normal stress, and to denote a shear stress.
42
Viscosity
It is the measure of resistance against the motion of fluid. It is denoted by . It is

also called absolute viscosity and dynamic viscosity.
Explanation
Where do stresses come from? For a solid, stresses develop when the material is
elastically deformed or strained; for a fluid, shear stresses arise due to viscous flow
(we will discuss a fluid's normal stresses shortly). Hence we say solids are elastic,
and fluids are viscous (and it's interesting to note that many biological tissues are
viscoelastic, meaning they combine features of a solid and a fluid). For a fluid at
rest, there will be no shear stresses. We will see that each fluid can be categorized
by examining the relation between the applied shear stresses and the flow
(specifically the rate of deformation) of the fluid.
43
Consider the behavior of a fluid element between the two infinite plates shown in
Figure. The upper plate moves at constant velocity, , under the influence of a
constant applied force, . The shear stress, , applied to the fluid element is
given by
Where is the area of contact of a fluid element with the plate, and is the
force exerted by the plate on that element. During time interval , the fluid
element is deformed from position MNOP to position M'NOP'. The rate of
deformation of the fluid is given by
Deformation rate =
We want to express in terms of readily measurable quantities. This can be done

easily. The distance, , between the points M and is given by
Alternatively, for small angles,
Equating these two expressions for gives
Taking the limits of both sides of the equality, we obtain
Thus, the fluid element of Figure, when subjected to shear stress, , experiences
a rate of deformation (shear rate) given by .
44
45
TYPES OF FLUID
Flow
The quantity of fluid passing through a point per unit time is called flow.
Viscous Flow
Fluid that has non-zero viscosity or finite viscosity and can exert sheer stress on
the surface is called viscous fluid or real fluid.
Inviscous Flow Fluid having zero viscosity is called inviscid fluid.
Compressibility
Compressibility is the measure of change in fluid w.r.t volume and density under
the action of external forces.
Compressible fluid
A type of fluid in which change occur due to volume and density changes by the
action of pressure (temperature) is called compressible fluid. Examples: gases.
Incompressible fluid
A type of fluid in which no change occur due to volume and density changes by
the action of pressure (temperature) is called incompressible fluid.
Steady and Unsteady Flow
The flow in which the properties and the conditions are associated with motion of
fluid particles is independent of time. i.e. . Such a flow is said to be steady
flow. On the other hand, the flow in which the properties and the conditions are
associated with motion of fluid particles is independent of time. i.e. . Such a
flow is said to be Unsteady flow.
Coquette Flow The flow of viscous fluid in the space between any two surface,
one of which is moving tangentially relative to the other. The relative motion of the
surface imposes a sheer stress on the fluid and induces flow.
46
Uniform and Non – Uniform Flow
The flow in which the velocity of the fluid particle at all section of the particle of
pipe and channel are equal i.e. constant. On the other hand, the fluid particles are
said to be non-uniform it the velocity of the particles is not equal i.e. not constant.
Laminar and Non-Laminar flow or Stream line flow and Turbulent flow
A flow in which fluid particle have definite path of particle and the two paths of
two individuals does not cut each other is called Laminar or stream line flow. How
a viscous flow can be laminar or turbulent, respectively. A laminar flow is one in
which the fluid particles move in smooth layers, or laminas. The velocity of
laminar flow is ̅ ̂
On the other hand, if the flow of each other particle does not trace out a
definite path. The path of individuals particle also crosses each other is called non
– laminar or turbulent flow. ; a turbulent flow is one in which the fluid particles
rapidly mix as they move along due to random three-dimensional velocity
fluctuations. The velocity of turbulent flow is ⃗ ̅ ̂ ̂ ̂
Rotational flow & Irrational flow:
Rotational flow is that flow in which fluid particles rotate about their own axis
have the same angular velocity.
On the other hand, the fluid particle does not rotate about their own axis and retain
their original orientation is called irrational flow.
Compressible and Non-compressible flow:
A flow in which volume and density of fluid changes during the flow is said to be
compressible flow. On the other hand, if volume and density of fluid does not
change during the flow is said to be non-compressible flow or incompressible flow.
The most common example of compressible flow concerns the flow of gases, while
the flow of liquids may frequently be treated as incompressible.
47
Internal and External Flow System
Internal flows of system are those where fluid flows through confined spaces such
as pipe and open channels. Or Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces are
called internal or duct flows. While External flows of system are those where
confining boundaries are at relatively larger or infinite distances, such as
atmosphere through which aero planes, missiles and space vehicles travel, or ocean
water through which submarines move. Flows over bodies immersed in an
unbounded fluid are termed external flows. Both internal and external flows may be
laminar or turbulent, compressible or incompressible.
Ideal fluid
Ideal fluid is a fluid in which both inviscid and incompressible fluid is involved is
called Ideal fluid or it is a perfect fluid. These are non-Newtonian fluid. In ideal
fluid the viscosity is zero. There is no internal resistance between them. It is
incompressible, Irrotational and non – viscous (inviscid) fluid.
Real Fluid
A fluid in which the finite viscosity exists and therefore we can exert tangential or
sheering stress on a surface with which it is in contact. Real fluid is called viscous
fluid. Real fluid can be further divided into Newtonian fluid and Non-Newtonian
fluid.
Newton's Law of viscosity According to this law
Shear Stress is directly proportional to deformation rate
i.e. Where is called absolute or dynamic viscosity.
is also called Coefficient of Viscosity of Newtonian Fluid.
Absolute or dynamic viscosity
Force needed by a fluid to overcome its own internal molecular friction so that the
fluid will flow.
Or Tangential force per unit area need to move fluid in one horizontal plane
with respect to other plane with the unit velocity.
48
Dimension of Absolute or dynamic viscosity
Since the dimensions of force, F, mass, M, length, L, and time, ‗t‘, are related by
Newton's second law of motion, the dimensions of , can also be expressed as
[M/Lt].
* + * +
Since * +
* + * +
 In the British Gravitational system, the units of viscosity are lbf • s/ft 2
Or slug/(ft • s).
 In the Absolute Metric system, the basic unit of viscosity is called a poise
[1 poise = 1 g/(cm • s)];
 In the SI system the units of viscosity are kg/(m • s) or Pa • s
(1 Pa • s = 1 N • s/m2)
Kinematic viscosity:
In fluid mechanics the ratio of absolute viscosity, , to density, , is called

kinematic viscosity and is represented by the symbol . i.e.
Since density has dimensions [M/L3], the dimensions of are [L2/t]. In the
Absolute Metric system of units, the unit for is a stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2/s).
Newtonian Fluids
Fluids in which shear stress is directly proportional to rate of deformation are

Newtonian fluids. Water and air are Newtonian fluid. This is a fluid in which
viscosity is independent of the velocity gradient due to single variable. They obey
law of viscosity. i.e. where is called absolute or
dynamic viscosity.
If we draw the graph then we get a straight line. Blood, milk, jellies, butter, water,
air, and gasoline are example of Newtonian fluid.
49
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Fluids in which shear stress is not directly proportional to deformation rate are
non-Newtonian. The term non-Newtonian is used to classify all fluids in which
shear stress is not directly proportional to shear rate. This is a fluid in which
viscosity at a given temperature and pressure for which a viscosity is a function of
velocity gradient is not a straight line. Non-Newtonian fluids are very important in
fluid mechanics.
Although we will not discuss these much in this text, many common fluids exhibit
non-Newtonian behavior. Two familiar examples are toothpaste and Lucite paint.
The latter is very "thick" when in the can, but becomes "thin" when sheared by
brushing. Toothpaste behaves as a "fluid" when squeezed from the tube. However,
it does not run out by itself when the cap is removed. There is a threshold or yield
stress below which toothpaste behaves as a solid. Strictly speaking, our definition
of a fluid is valid only for materials that have zero yield stress.
Non-Newtonian fluids commonly are classified as having time-independent

or time-dependent behavior. Examples of time-independent behavior are shown in
the rheological diagram of Figure.
50
Remark
 To ensure that has the same sign as , we may write by
Power‘s Law ( ) | |
The term | | is referred to as the apparent viscosity.

 Fluids in which the apparent viscosity decreases with increasing
deformation rate (n < 1) are called pseudoplastic (or shear thinning)
fluids. Most non-Newtonian fluids fall into this group; examples include
polymer solutions, colloidal suspensions, and paper pulp in water.
 Fluids in which the apparent viscosity increases with increasing deformation
rate (n > 1) the fluid is termed dilatant (or shear thickening) fluids.
Suspensions of starch and of sand are examples of dilatant fluids.
 A "fluid" that behaves as a solid until a minimum yield stress, , is
exceeded and subsequently exhibits a linear relation between stress and rate
of deformation is referred to as an ideal or Bingham plastic. The
corresponding shear stress model is
Clay suspensions, drilling muds, and toothpaste are examples of substances
exhibiting this behavior.
 The study of non-Newtonian fluids is further complicated by the fact that the
apparent viscosity may be time-dependent.
 Thixotropic fluids show a decrease in apparent viscosity | |
with time under a constant applied shear stress; many paints are thixotropic.
 Rheopectic fluids show an increase in apparent viscosity | |
with time.
 After deformation some fluids partially return to their original shape when
the applied stress is released; such fluids are called viscoelastic. (Many
biological fluids work this way).
51
52
53
Example
Methyl Iodide at a thickness of 10mm and having a viscosity 0.005Pas at a

temperature of 20 C is flowing over a flat plate. The velocity distribution of thin
film may be considered as parabolic. Determine the shear stress at y = 0,5 and
10mm from the plate surface.
Solution
Since the velocity distribution is parabolic therefore
……………(1)
Boundary conditions are
i. At y = 0, u = 0 (No slip condition)

ii. At y = 0.01m, u = 0.1m/s
iii. At y = 0.01m (free surface),
Using (i) in (1) we get A = 0 so (1) becomes ……………(2)
Using (ii) in (2) we get ……………(3)
54
……………(4)
Using (iii) in (4) we get
……………(5)
Using (5) in (3) we get
using in (5)
Using A,B,C in (1)
Since we know that therefore
Question:
Compute the sheer stress in a SAE 30 oil at 20C if and .
Solution: Using formula
Here we use from table for SAE 30 oil at 20C
55
Example
A flat plate 4ft by 4ft slides down an inclined plane at angle of 30 to the horizontal
at a velocity of 30ft per minute. The inclined plane is lubricated by a thin film of
oil having viscosity of 0.001lbf/ft2. Find the thickness of the film if the mass of the
plate is 1Slug.
Solution
Area =
Velocity = and also 1Slug
Using ( ) and
We have ( ) ………….(1)
Since we know that ⃗
Resolving in components
( )
56
Example
An infinite plate is move over a second plate on a layer of a liquid. For a small
gape width we assume a linear velocity distribution in a liquid. The liquid viscosity
is and its specific gravity is 0.88. Then find;
i. Kinematic viscosity of liquid.

ii. Shear stress on lower plate.
iii. Indicate the direction of shear stress.
Solution
Specific Gravity =
i.
ii.
iii. Direction is always positive because plane is positive. And shear
stress is positive.
57
Example
The velocity distribution for laminar flow between parallel plats is given by
( ) where ‗h‘ is the distance separating the plates and origin is
placed mid – way between the plates. Consider the flow of water at 15 with
and then
Calculate the shear stress on upper plate and give the direction, sketch the variation
of shear stress across the channel.
Solution
Given ( )
[ ( ) ]
* ( ) ( )+
Since we know that
Therefore for upper plate ( )
58
( )
( )
Direction of shear stress will be positive and in x – direction.
Change in stress is linear because ( )
Example
A crude oil with specific gravity and

flow steadily when a surface inclined at below the horizontal in the film
of thickness
The velocity profile is given by ( ) where the coordinate ‗x‘

along the surface and ‗y‘ is normal to surface. Calculate the magnitude and
direction of shear stress that acts on the surface.
59
Solution
We have to find shear stress on surface y = 0
Since we know that
Then * ( ( ) )+ ( )
………….(i)
Also Specific Gravity =
( )
( )
Direction of Shear Stress is Positive.
60
Question
The velocity distribution for laminar flow between parallel plates is given by
( ) where ‗h‘ is distance separating the plates and origin is placed
mid-way between the plates. Consider the flow of water at 15 with maximum
speed 0.05ft/s and h = 0.1mm. Calculate the force on 1ft2 section of lower plate.
Solution
We have to find shear stress on surface y = 0
Since we know that and ( )
Then * ( ( ( ) ))+ ( ( ))
Therefore for lower plate ( ( )) ( )
( )
( )
Now ( )
61
Surface tension
Whenever a liquid is in contact with other liquids or gases, or in this case a

gas/solid surface, an interface develops that acts like a stretched elastic membrane,
such phenomenon is known as surface tension.
There are two features to this membrane: the contact angle , and the magnitude of
the surface tension, (N/m or lbf/ft). Both of these depend on the type of liquid
and the type of solid surface (or other liquid or gas) with which it shares an
interface.
When your car needs waxing: Water droplets tend to appear somewhat flattened
out. After waxing, you get a nice ―beading‖ effect. We define a liquid as ―wetting‖
a surface when the contact angle . By this definition, the car‘s surface was
wetted before waxing, and not wetted after. This is an example of effects due to
surface tension.
In the car-waxing example, the contact angle changed from being smaller than 90°,
to larger than 90°, because, in effect, the waxing changed the nature of the solid
surface. Factors that affect the contact angle include the cleanliness of the surface
and the purity of the liquid.
Other examples of surface tension effects arise when you are able to place a needle
on a water surface and, similarly, when small water insects are able to walk on the
surface of the water.
In engineering, probably the most important effect of surface tension is the creation
of a curved meniscus that appears in manometers or barometers, leading to a
(usually unwanted) capillary rise (or depression).
62
FLUID STATICS
We defined a fluid as a substance that will continuously deform, or flow, whenever

a shear stress is applied to it. It follows that for a fluid at rest the shear stress must
be zero. We can conclude that for a static fluid (or one undergoing "rigid-body"
motion) only normal stress is present—in other words, pressure. We will study the
topic of fluid statics (often called hydrostatics, even though it is not restricted to
water) in this chapter.
Although fluid statics problems are the simplest kind of fluid mechanics problems,
this is not the only reason we will study them. The pressure generated within a
static fluid is an important phenomenon in many practical situations. Using the
principles of hydrostatics, we can compute forces on submerged objects, develop
instruments for measuring pressures, and deduce properties of the atmosphere and
oceans. The principles of hydrostatics also may be used to determine the forces
developed by hydraulic systems in applications such as industrial presses or
automobile brakes.
In a static, homogeneous fluid, or in a fluid undergoing rigid-body motion, a fluid

particle retains its identity for all time, and fluid elements do not deform. We may
apply Newton's second law of motion to evaluate the forces acting on the particle.
Static Equilibrium
A fluid body is said to be at rest or in static equilibrium if sum of all components

of applied forces acting on it in the direction of arbitrary axis is zero. It is also
means that there is no rotation of a fluid body that is sum of moments about that
arbitrary axis must also be zero.
Hydrostatics Pressure: Pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point

within the fluid, due to the force of gravity.
63
The Basic Equation Of Fluid Statics/ Pressure Field Equation
According to this equation; A fluid element in static equilibrium under the action
of pressure and gravity results a set of equation after applying Newton's second law
of motion. Mathematically it can be written as follows;
Or
Where is the specific weight of the fluid .The objective of equation is to obtain
an equation for the determination of pressure field within a fluid.
Restrictions
i. Static fluid
ii. Gravity is only body force
iii. z – axis is vertical and upward.
Explanation
Let us consider a fluid element in a large body of a fluid in a static equilibrium

having dimensions dx,dy and dz. The fluid element is stationary relative to
stationary coordinate axis. Let ‗p‘ be the pressure at the center of the element. The
pressure at various faces of element can be computed with the help of Taylor‘s
theorem at point ‗O‘. Since area of each face is infinitesimal divisible size. We can
assume pressure at the center of face is uniformly distributed. Given figure show
differentiable fluid element in x,y and z direction.
64
Therefore the surface force for each face of the fluid element can be determined by
the product of the pressure at center of the face at its area. The unit vector is
introduced to indicate the direction. Now we will write different forces as follows;
Pressure at left face of differential element ( )
Pressure at right face of differential element
Pressure force at left face ( ) ̂
Pressure at right face ( ) ̂
∑ ⃗ Total Pressure acting at fluid element ̂ ̂ ̂
∑ ⃗ *( ) ̂ ( ) ̂ + *( ) ̂
( ) ̂ + *( ) ̂ ( ) ( ̂ )+
∑ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
∑ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ⃗⃗
∑ ⃗
⃗⃗
………….(1)
Where is the rate of change of pressure with distance is called pressure

gradient.
Physical Significance of Gradient of Pressure/ description of PG.
Physically the gradient of pressure is the negative of the surface force per unit
volume due to pressure. Higher the Pressure Gradient, the faster is the fluid flow.
For example fresh water has a pressure gradient of 0.433 ps/ft which means 0.433
of fluid column acts on 1ft of TVG.
65
Now for body force ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗
We combine the formulations for surface and body forces that we have developed
to obtain the total force acting on a fluid element. Thus
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗
⃗⃗
⃗ ………….(2)
For a fluid particle, Newton‘s second law gives ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗. Then

⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗
⃗ and For a static fluid, ⃗ . Thus ⃗⃗
and
Where is the net pressure per unit volume at a point and ⃗ is the body force
per unit volume at a point.
Above is a vector equation, which means that it is equivalent to three component

equations that must be satisfied individually. The component equations are
‗x‘ direction
‗y‘ direction
‗z‘ direction
Above system of Equations describe the pressure variation in each of the three
coordinate directions in a static fluid. It is convenient to choose a coordinate
system such that the gravity vector is aligned with one of the coordinate axes. If
the coordinate system is chosen with the z axis directed vertically upward, then
, and . Under these conditions, the component equations
become
Implies
Where is the specific weight of the fluid .The objective of equation is to obtain
an equation for the determination of pressure field within a fluid.
66
Incompressible Liquids: Manometers
Hydrostatic Form of an Incompressible ( ) Fluid
For incompressible fluid
Since therefore ∫ ∫
where
where then
Equation indicates that the pressure difference between two points in a static
incompressible fluid can be determined by measuring the elevation difference
between the two points. Devices used for this purpose are called manometers.
Special Case: if is a datum (arbitrary reference point) then
implies
Remember Since we know that
Constant
In general Constant where
Constant
Where Pressure energy per unit volume
Electron Head and Static Head
67
Quantity Formula Unit (SI System) Dimension

Pressure
[ ]
Specific Weight
[ ]
Pressure energy per unit [ ]
volume
Example Systolic and Diastolic Pressure
The normal blood pressure of a human is 120/80 mm Hg. By modeling a

sphygmo-manometer pressure gage as a U-tube manometer, convert these
pressures to psig.
Solution:
68
Remember
Manometers are simple and inexpensive devices used frequently for pressure
measurements. Because the liquid level change is small at low pressure
differential, a U-tube manometer may be difficult to read accurately. The
sensitivity of a manometer is a measure of how sensitive it is compared to a
simple water-filled U-tube manometer. Specifically, it is the ratio of the deflection
of the manometer to that of a water filled U-tube manometer, due to the same
applied pressure difference Δp. Sensitivity can be increased by changing the
manometer design or by using two immiscible liquids of slightly different density.
69
The Standard Atmosphere
Scientists and engineers sometimes need a numerical or analytical model of the
Earth‘s atmosphere in order to simulate climate variations to study, such type of

atmosphere is known as The Standard Atmosphere for example, effects of global
warming.
There is no single standard model. An International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

has been defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO); there is
also a similar U.S. Standard Atmosphere.
The temperature profile of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere is shown in Figure.
70
Sea level conditions of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere are summarized in the
following Table
Example Multiple-Liquid Manometer
Water flows through pipes A and B. Lubricating oil is in the upper portion of the
inverted U. Mercury is in the bottom of the manometer bends. Determine the
pressure difference, pA pB, in units of lbf/in.2
71
72
Gases
In many practical engineering problems density will vary appreciably with altitude,
and accurate results will require that this variation be accounted for.
The density of gases generally depends on pressure and temperature. The ideal gas
equation of state, ……………(i)
Where R is the gas constant and T the absolute temperature.
In the U.S. Standard Atmosphere the temperature decreases linearly with altitude
up to an elevation of 11.0 km. For a linear temperature variation with altitude
given by – .
As we know that using (i)
( – ) ( – )
∫ ∫ ( – )
– –
| | | – | ( ) ( ) ( )
–
( ) ( ) ( )
73
Example
The Empire State Building in New York city, one of the tallest city in the world,
raises the height of approximately 1250ft. Estimate ratio of the pressure at its base
assuming the air to be at the common temperature 59 . Compare this result with
that obtained assuming the air to be incompressible with = 0.0765lbf/ft3 at
14.7lbf/m2 (Value of air at standard condition)
Solution
Consider ideal gas equation,
Where R is the gas constant and T the absolute temperature.
Using basic hydrostatic equation where is variable.
using (i)
∫ ∫
Where g and R are assumed to be constant over the elevation change from to .
Since the temperature has constant value over the range from to
(isothermal condition) then we have;
| | | | ( )
Where since
74
Also
[ ] [ ]
Consider air to be incompressible
∫ ∫
| | | |
Note that there is a little difference between two results, since pressure difference
of top and bottom building is small. It follows that variation in fluid density is
small and therefore compressible and incompressible analysis yields essentially the
same result.
75
Example Pressure and Density Variation in the Atmosphere
The maximum power output capability of an internal combustion engine decreases

with altitude because the air density and hence the mass flow rate of air decrease.
A truck leaves Denver (elevation 5280 ft) on a day when the local temperature and
barometric pressure are 80°F and 24.8 in. of mercury, respectively. It travels
through Vail Pass (elevation 10,600 ft), where the temperature is 62°F. Determine
the local barometric pressure at Vail Pass and the percent change in density.
76
77
BASIC EQUATIONS IN INTEGRAL FORM FOR A CONTROL VOLUME
We will examine the control volume approach in this chapter. The agenda for this
chapter is to review the physical laws as they apply to a system; develop some
math to convert from a system to a control volume description; and obtain
formulas for the physical laws for control volume analysis.
Basic laws for a system
The basic laws we will apply are conservation of mass, Newton‘s second law, the
angular-momentum principle, and the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
For converting these system equations to equivalent control volume formulas, it
turns out we want to express each of the laws as a rate equation.
Newton's Second Law
For a system moving relative to an inertial reference frame, Newton's second law
states that the sum of all external forces acting on the system is equal to the time
⃗⃗
rate of change of linear momentum of the system, ⃗
Where the linear momentum of the system is given by
⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗
The Angular-Momentum Principle / Angular-Momentum of fluid flow
The angular-momentum of fluid remains constant when the net torque acting on it
is zero. The angular-momentum principle for a system states that the rate of
change of angular momentum is equal to the sum of all torques acting on the
⃗⃗
system, ⃗
Where the angular momentum of the system is given by
⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗
Torque can be produced by surface and body forces, and also by shafts that cross
the system boundary, ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
78
The First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of conservation of energy for a

system,
The equation can be written in rate form as ̇ ̇
Where the total energy (entropy) of the system is given by
∫ ∫ And
In ̇ ̇ , ̇ (the rate of heat transfer) is positive when heat is added

to the system from the surroundings; ̇ (the rate of work) is positive when work is
done by the system on its surroundings. In , u is the specific
internal energy, V the speed, and z the height (relative to a convenient datum) of a
particle of substance having mass dm.
Example: The increase in the energy of a potato in an oven is equals to the amount
of heat transferred to it.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
If an amount of heat, , is transferred to a system at temperature T, the second

law of thermodynamics states that the change in entropy, dS, of the system satisfies
On a rate basis we can write ̇
∫ ∫
Example: A cold object in contact with a hot one never gets colder, transferring
heat to the hot object and making it hotter.
79
Relation of System Derivatives to the Control Volume Formulation
Intensive and Extensive Properties
Intensive property is a physical property of a system that does not depends on the
system size or amount of the material in the system. e.g. Hardness. It is represented
by .
While Extensive property is a physical property of a system that depends

on the system size or amount of the material in the system. e.g. Mass and Volume.
It is represented by .
And their equation is ∫ ∫
The basic equation for relation of system derivative to control volume is

∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
It is the fundamental relation between the rate of change of any arbitrary extensive
property, , of a system and the variations of this property associated with a
control volume. Some authors refer to above equation as the Reynolds Transport
Theorem. Where
80
Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation)
The first physical principle to which we apply this conversion from a system to a
control volume description is the mass conservation principle:
According to this law; For a system Mass is constant. i.e. Fluid mass can neither
created nor destroyed.‖
………….(A)
Where ∫ ∫ ………….(1)
Now using ∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ………….(2)
Where ∫ ∫ ………….(3)
To derive the control volume formulation of conservation of mass, we set from (1)
& (3) and
With this substitution, we obtain ∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
From (A), we arrive (after rearranging) at the control volume formulation of the
conservation of mass:
∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ Integral Form
In this equation the first term represents the rate of change of mass within the
control volume; the second term represents the net rate of mass flux out through
the control surface. Equation 4.12 indicates that the rate of change of mass in the
control volume plus the net outflow is zero. The mass conservation equation is
also called the continuity equation. In common-sense terms, the rate of increase of
mass in the control volume is due to the net inflow of mass.
Remember: In a continuous motion the equation of continuity expresses the fact

that increase in the mass of fluid with any closed surface drawn in the fluid at any
time must be equal to the access of the mass that flows ‗in‘ over the mass of that
flows ‗out‘. Inward flow is equal to outward flow.
81
Special Cases
Case – I: Consider first the case of an incompressible fluid, in which density

remains constant. When is constant, it is not a function of space or time.
Consequently, for incompressible fluids, we may write
∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
The integral of over the control volume is simply the volume of the control
volume. Thus, on dividing through by , we write ∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
For a non-deformable control volume of fixed size and shape, V = constant. Then
∫ and the conservation of mass for incompressible flow through a
fixed control volume becomes ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Where ⃗⃗ ⃗ is called volume flow rate or volume rate of flow. Then volume rate
through a section of an area A is given by ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ then average
∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
velocity could be written as ⃗⃗ Volume flow rate per unit area.
Case – II: A useful special case is when we have (or can approximate) uniform
velocity at each inlet and exit. In this case ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ simplifies to
∑ ⃗⃗ ⃗
General Case: Consider now the general case of steady, compressible flow
through a fixed control volume. Since the flow is steady, this means that at most
. By definition, no fluid property varies with time in a steady flow.
Consequently, ∫ and, hence, for steady flow, the statement of
conservation of mass reduces to ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
A useful special case is when we have (or can approximate) uniform velocity at
each inlet and exit. In this case, ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ simplifies to ∑ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Thus, for steady flow, the mass flow rate into a control volume must be equal to
the mass flow rate out of the control volume.
82
83
84
85
86
87
Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume
The Control Volume Form of Newton's Second Law
We wish to develop a mathematical formulation of Newton's second law suitable

for application to a control volume. In this section our derivation will be restricted
to an inertial control volume fixed in space relative to coordinate system xyz that is
not accelerating relative to stationary reference frame XYZ.
In deriving the control volume form of Newton's second law, the procedure is
analogous to the procedure followed in deriving the mathematical form of the
conservation of mass for a control volume.
Recall that for a system moving relative to an inertial reference frame, Newton's
second law states that the sum of all external forces acting on the system is equal to
⃗⃗
the time rate of change of linear momentum of the system, ⃗
⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗
And the resultant force, ⃗ , includes all surface and body forces acting on the
system, ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
The system and control volume formulations are related using Equation
∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
To derive the control volume formulation of Newton's second law, we set
⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ then we get

⃗⃗
∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Since, the system and the control volume coincided at t0, then
⃗ ⃗
88
⃗⃗
Also using ⃗
In light of above two equations may be combined to yield the control volume
formulation of Newton's second law for a nonaccelerating control volume
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
For cases when we have uniform flow at each inlet and exit, we can use
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ∑ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
This equation states that the sum of all forces (surface and body forces) acting on a
nonaccelerating control volume is equal to the sum of the rate of change of
momentum inside the control volume and the net rate of flux of momentum out
through the control surface.
The momentum equation is a vector equation. As with all vector equations, it may
be written as three scalar component equations. The scalar components of
Equation, relative to an xyz coordinate system, are
∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Or, for uniform flow at each inlet and exit,
∫ ∑ ⃗⃗ ⃗
∫ ∑ ⃗⃗ ⃗
∫ ∑ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Note that, for the mass conservation equation, the control surface integrals can be
replaced with simple algebraic expressions when we have uniform flow at a each
inlet or exit, and that for steady flow the first term on the right side is zero.
89
Differential Control Volume Analysis
We have considered a number of examples in which conservation of mass and the

momentum equation have been applied to finite control volumes. However, the
control volume chosen for analysis need not be finite in size.
Application of the basic equations to a differential control volume leads to

differential equations describing the relationships among properties in the flow
field. In some cases, the differential equations can be solved to give detailed
information about property variations in the flow field. For the case of steady,
incompressible, frictionless flow along a streamline, integration of one such
differential equation leads to a useful (and famous) relationship among speed,
pressure, and elevation in a flow field. This case is presented to illustrate the use of
differential control volumes.
Let us apply the continuity and momentum equations to a steady

incompressible flow without friction, as shown in Figure. The control volume
chosen is fixed in space and bounded by flow streamlines, and is thus an element
of a stream tube. The length of the control volume is ds.
Because the control volume is bounded by streamlines, flow across the bounding
surfaces occurs only at the end sections. These are located at coordinates s and
, measured along the central streamline.
90
Properties at the inlet section are assigned arbitrary symbolic values. Properties at
the outlet section are assumed to increase by differential amounts. Thus at s + ds,
the flow speed is assumed to be , and so on. The differential changes, ,
, and , all are assumed to be positive in setting up the problem.
Now let us apply the continuity equation and the J - component of the momentum
equation to the control volume of Figure.
∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ………..(1)
Assumptions: (1) Steady flow. (2) No flow across bounding streamlines.
(3) Incompressible flow, = constant.
Then
So
Or ………..(2)
On expanding the left side and simplifying, we obtain
But is a product of differentials, which may be neglected compared with

or . Thus ………..(3)
Streamwise Component of the Momentum Equation
∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ………..(4)
Assumption: (4) No friction, so FSB is due to pressure forces only.
The surface force (due only to pressure) will have three terms:
( ) ………..(5)
91
The first and second terms in Equation (5) are the pressure forces on the end faces
of the control surface. The third term is , the pressure force acting in the s
direction on the bounding stream surface of the control volume. Its magnitude is
the product of the average pressure acting on the stream surface, , times the
area component of the stream surface in the s direction, .
Equation (5) simplifies to ………..(6)
The body force component in the s direction is
( )
But , so that ( ) ………..(7)
The momentum flux will be
∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Since there is no mass flux across the bounding stream surfaces. The mass flux
factors in parentheses and braces are equal from continuity, so
∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ………..(8)
Substituting 6,7,8 into 4 (the momentum equation) gives
Dividing by and noting that products of differentials are negligible compared

with the remaining terms, we obtain
( ) or ( )
For incompressible flow, this equation may be integrated to obtain
Or, dropping subscript s,
92
This Equation is a form of the Bernoulli equation. It is such a useful tool for flow
analysis and because an alternative derivation will give added insight into the need
for care in applying the equation.
This equation is subject to the restrictions:
1. Steady flow.
2. No friction.
3. Flow along a streamline,
4. Incompressible flow.
By applying the momentum equation to an infinitesimal stream tube control

volume, for steady incompressible flow without friction, we have derived a relation
among pressure, speed, and elevation. This relationship is very powerful and
useful.
This equation is widely used in aerodynamics to relate the pressure and velocity in
a flow (e.g., it explains the lift of a subsonic wing). It could also be used to find the
pressure at the inlet of the reducing elbow analysis or to determine the velocity of
water leaving the sluice gate.
93
Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Rectilinear Acceleration
For an inertial control volume (having no acceleration relative to a stationary frame

of reference), the appropriate formulation of Newton's second law is given by
∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ …………(1)
Relating the system derivatives to the control volume formulation, the flow field,
V(x, y, z, t), was specified relative to the control volume's coordinates x, y, and z.
⃗⃗
we have ∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ …………(2)
⃗⃗
Also we know ⃗ …………(3)
Where ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ …………(4)
Thus, if we denote the inertial reference frame by XYZ, then Newton's second law
⃗⃗
states that ⃗ …………(5)
Since the time derivatives of ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ are not equal when the control volume
reference frame xyz is accelerating relative to the inertial reference frame, thus
⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗
is not valid for an accelerating control volume.
To develop the momentum equation for a linearly accelerating control volume, it is

necessary to relate ⃗⃗ of the system to ⃗⃗ of the system. We begin by writing
Newton's second law for a system
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ …………(6)
The velocities with respect to the inertial {XYZ) and the control volume
coordinates (xyz) are related by the relative-motion equation
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ …………(7)
where ⃗⃗ is the velocity of the control volume reference frame.
94
Since we are assuming the motion of xyz is pure translation, without rotation,
relative to inertial reference frame XYZ, then
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Where
Substituting from Eq. 7 into Eq. 6 gives

⃗⃗
⃗ ∫ (⃗ ⃗ )
⃗⃗
⃗ ∫ ⃗ ∫
⃗⃗
Or ⃗ ∫ ⃗
⃗⃗
Or ⃗ ∫ ⃗ …………(8)
⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗
And the force, ⃗ , includes all surface and body forces acting on the system.
Since ∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
To derive the control volume formulation of Newton's second law, we set
⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ then
⃗⃗
∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ …………(9)
95
Combining Eq. 8 (the linear momentum equation for the system) and Eq. 9 (the
system-control volume conversion), and recognizing that at time t0 the system and
control volume coincide, Newton's second law for a control volume accelerating,
without rotation, relative to an inertial reference frame is
⃗ ∫ ⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Since , this equation becomes
∫ ⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
In this equation represents all surface forces acting on the control volume.
The momentum equation is a vector equation. As with all vector equations, it may
be written as three scalar component equations. The scalar components of Equation
are
∫ ⃗ ∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
∫ ⃗ ∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
∫ ⃗ ∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
96
Equation for Fixed Control Volume / The Angular-Momentum Principle
The angular-momentum principle for a system states that the rate of change of
angular momentum is equal to the sum of all torques acting on the system,
⃗⃗
⃗ ……………(1)
Where the angular momentum of the system is given by
⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ……………(2)
Torque can be produced by surface and body forces, and also by shafts that cross
the system boundary,
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ……………(3)
The position vector, ⃗, locates each mass or volume element of the system with
respect to the coordinate system. Where ⃗ is the surface force exerted on the
system. The relation between the system and fixed control volume formulations is
∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Where ∫
If we set ⃗⃗ and ⃗ ⃗⃗ then
⃗⃗
∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ …………(4)
Combining Eqs. (1), (3), and (4), we obtain
⃗ ⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Since the system and control volume coincide at time t0, then ⃗ ⃗ then
⃗ ⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
This is a general formulation of the angular-momentum principle for an inertial

control volume.
97
The First Law of Thermodynamics (Control Volume Form)
The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of conservation of energy for a

system,
The equation can be written in rate form as ̇ ̇
∫ ∫
And
In ̇ ̇ , ̇ (the rate of heat transfer) is positive when heat is added

to the system from the surroundings; ̇ (the rate of work) is positive when work is
done by the system on its surroundings. In , u is the specific
internal energy, V the speed, and z the height (relative to a convenient datum) of a
particle of substance having mass dm.
Since ∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
To derive the control volume formulation of 1st law of thermodynamics, we set
and then
∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Since the system and the control volume coincide at t0,
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
Thus ∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Note that for steady flow the first term on the right side of above equation is zero.
98
The Second Law of Thermodynamics (Control Volume Form)
If an amount of heat, , is transferred to a system at temperature T, the second

law of thermodynamics states that the change in entropy, dS, of the system satisfies
On a rate basis we can write ̇
∫ ∫
Since ∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
To derive the control volume formulation of 1st law of thermodynamics, we set
and then
∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Since the system and the control volume coincide at t0,
̇
Or ∫ ( )
̇
Thus ∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ∫ ( )
99
INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID MOTION
In Previous Chapter, we developed the basic equations in integral form for a

control volume. Integral equations are useful when we are interested in the gross
behavior of a flow field and its effect on various devices. However, the integral
approach does not enable us to obtain detailed point-by-point knowledge of the
flow field. For example, the integral approach could provide information on the lift
generated by a wing; it could not be used to determine the pressure distribution that
produced the lift on the wing.
To obtain detailed knowledge, we must apply the equations of fluid motion in

differential form. In this chapter we shall develop differential equations for the
conservation of mass and Newton's second law of motion. Since we are interested
in formulating differential equations, our analysis will be in terms of infinitesimal
systems and control volumes.
Conservation of Mass
In previous Chapters, we developed the field representation of fluid properties. The

property fields are defined by continuous functions of the space coordinates and
time. The density and velocity fields were related through conservation of mass in
integral form. In this chapter we shall derive the differential equation for
conservation of mass in rectangular and in cylindrical coordinates. In both cases
the derivation is carried out by applying conservation of mass to a differential
control volume.
Equation of Continuity or Law of Conservation of Mass:
―Law of conservation of mass state that fluid mass can neither created nor
destroyed.‖
The equation of continuity gives the law of conservation of mass in analytical

form or mathematical form ⃗⃗ where ⃗⃗ is the velocity of fluid.
Therefore, in a continuous motion the equation of continuity expresses the fact that
increase in the mass of fluid with any closed surface drawn in the fluid at any time
must be equal to the access of the mass that flows ‗in‘ over the mass of that flows
‗out‘. Inward flow is equal to outward flow.
100
Equation of Continuity in Cartesian coordinate OR differential form of

continuity or Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation) in Rectangular
Coordinate System
In rectangular coordinates, the control volume chosen is an infinitesimal cube with

sides of length as shown in Figure. The density at the center, O, of the
control volume is assumed to be and the velocity there is assumed to be
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
To evaluate the properties at each of the six faces of the control surface, we use a
Taylor series expansion about point O. For example, at the right face,
( ) ( )( )
Neglecting higher-order terms, we can write ( )
And ( )
Where are all evaluated at point O.
The corresponding terms at the left face are
( )( ) ( )
101
And ( )( ) ( )
We can write similar expressions involving and for the front and back faces
and and for the top and bottom faces of the infinitesimal cube . These
can then be used to evaluate the surface integral in following Equation
∫ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ …………(1)
102
The result of all this work is ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ( )
This expression is the surface integral evaluation for our differential cube.
Now as ∫ is the rate of change of mass in the control volume therefore
( )
Hence, we obtain (after canceling ) a differential form of the mass

conservation law
( )
( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
⃗⃗
Special Cases: Two flow cases for which the differential continuity equation may
be simplified are worthy of note.
Case – I: For an incompressible fluid, and then ; density is

neither a function of space coordinates nor a function of time. For an
incompressible fluid, the continuity equation simplifies to ⃗⃗
Thus the velocity field, ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ , for incompressible flow must satisfy
⃗⃗ .
Case – II: For steady flow, all fluid properties are, independent of time. Thus
and at most . For steady flow, the continuity equation can be
written as ⃗⃗ .
103
D Alembert s Euler’s acceleration formula for a fluid flow in plane polar

coordinates with ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
Since we have ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
Where ̇ ̇ then ̈ ̇ ̇ ̈
̂ ̂ ̂
̂ ̂ ̂ then
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
̂
̂̇ ̂ ̇ ̂
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
̂
̂̇ ̂ ̇ ̂
Now differentiating ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ with respect to time we get acceleration.
⃗⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ̂ ̈ ( ̇ ̂ ) ̂ ( ̇ ̇ ̈) ( ̇ ̂ )
⃗ ̂ ̈ ̇ ( ̇ ̂ ) ̂ ( ̇ ̇ ̈) ( ̇ )( ̇ ̂ )
⃗ ̈ ̂ ̇ ̇ ̂ ̇ ̇ ̂ ̈ ̂ ̇ ̂
⃗ ̈ ̂ ̇ ̇ ̂ ̈ ̂ ̇ ̂
⃗ ( ̈ ̇ ) ̂ ( ̈ ̇ ̇) ̂
⃗ ̂ ̂
Where ̈ ̇ and ̈ ̇ ̇
104
Equation of continuity for an incompressible, Irrotational fluid
For an incompressible fluid we have ⃗⃗ ………(i)
For an Irrotational fluid we have and ⃗⃗ ………(ii)
Example: Integration of Two-Dimensional Differential Continuity Equation
105
Example
Two components of velocity in an incompressible velocity field are given by

and determine third component assuming that origin
is at stagnation point (velocity of fluid = 0)
Solution
Since flow is incompressible therefore ⃗⃗
integrating w.r.to ‗z‘ ………….(1)
Since velocity is at stagnation point therefore ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Example
If and describe a certain flow (compressible or incompressible)

field. Determine whether or not equation of continuity is satisfied. Also investigate
the type of flow mode (compressible or incompressible).
Solution When not given then it will be constant.
Since the velocity field state in problem is of 2 dimensional characters. Then

velocity in third dimension can be safely assumed to be zero. The velocity
components are independent of time therefore the flow is steady and is not state
in problem hence we can assume flow field is incompressible.
For steady and incompressible flow ⃗⃗
Equation of Continuity is satisfied.
As velocity components are functions of space coordinates, so flow field is

not uniform in character. The velocity gradient in x – direction the flow field is
positive and constant and in in y – direction it is negative and constant.
106
̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ [ ] ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗ after solving
Since ⃗⃗ therefore given field is Irrotational.
Example Show that the velocity components and

represent the possible incompressible fluid.
Solution For incompressible fluid ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
⃗⃗ ( ) ( ) ( )
⃗⃗
Hence the velocity components and

Example
̂
Test whether the motion specified by ⃗⃗ is possible motion for
incompressible flow, so determine equation of streamline.
̂
⃗⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ) ( ) ( )
For equation of streamline
an equation of circle.
107
Example
Find a two dimensional in the xy – plane the x component of velocity

. Determine a possible y component for an incompressible flow. How many
y components are possible?
⃗⃗
The simple expression of can be obtain by putting
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ and number of expression for ⃗⃗ could satisfy the

differential continuity equation under the given conditions.
Example

where , x,y are measured in feet. Determine a
possible y component for steady and an incompressible flow.
Solution For steady and incompressible fluid ⃗⃗
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ( ) ̂
⃗⃗ ̂ ( ) ̂ where ,
108
Example

where , x, is measured in meter. Determine a possible ‗y‘ component
for steady and an incompressible flow.
⃗⃗ ( )
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
Example
Find a two dimensional in the xy – plane the y component of velocity

. Determine x component of velocity for steady and an incompressible
flow.
⃗⃗ ( ) ( )
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
109
Example

. Determine y component of velocity for steady and an
incompressible flow.
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
Example
Show that the velocity components

⃗⃗ ( ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ( ) ̂)
⃗⃗ ( )
⃗⃗
Hence the velocity components

110
Example
Show that the velocity components represent

the possible incompressible fluid.
⃗⃗ ( ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂)
⃗⃗
⃗⃗
Hence the velocity components do not

Example
Show that the velocity components and

⃗⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂
̂)
⃗⃗
⃗⃗
Hence the velocity components and

do not represent the possible incompressible fluid.
111
Equation of Continuity or Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation) in

Cylindrical Coordinate System
A suitable differential control volume for cylindrical coordinates is shown in

Figure.
The density at the center, O, of the control volume is assumed to be and the
velocity there is assumed to be ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
Where ̂ ̂ ̂ are unit vectors in the and directions, respectively, and

are the velocity components in the and directions, respectively. To
evaluate ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ , we must consider the mass flux through each of the six
faces of the control surface. The properties at each of the six faces of the control
surface are obtained from a Taylor series expansion about point O. The details of
the mass flux evaluation are shown in Table (given below). Velocity components
are all assumed to be in the positive coordinate directions and we have
again used the convention that the area normal is positive outwards on each face,
and higher-order terms have been neglected.
We see that the net rate of mass flux out through the control surface is given by (in
table)
∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗ * +
112
The mass inside the control volume at any instant is the product of the mass per
unit volume, , and the volume, . Thus the rate of change of mass inside
the control volume is given by
∫ ⃗⃗
In cylindrical coordinates the differential equation for conservation of mass is then
∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ⃗
* +
( ̂ ̂ ̂ ) ( ̂ ̂ ̂ )
⃗⃗
For an incompressible fluid, = constant, and Equation reduces to
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Thus the velocity field, V{x, y, z, t), for incompressible flow must satisfy ⃗⃗
For steady flow, Equation reduces to
⃗⃗
113
Example Differential Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
114
Stream Function for Two-Dimensional Incompressible Flow
It is a function that describe pattern of flow.
Or It is discharge per unit thickness. Denoted by
There are various ways to define the stream function. We start with the two
dimensional version of the continuity equation for incompressible flow.
⃗⃗
……….(1) For 2 – dimension
If we introduce and ……….(2)
Then (2) satisfied (1) ( ) ( )
Thus stream functions are defined as using continuity equation
and
Using equation of streamline
where
Advantages of stream function:
i. Stream function is taken only for a flow in plane.

ii. We have the simplified analysis by having to determine only unknown
function rather than two functions.
iii. Using stream function we can find stream lines
115
Description of a stream function describing stream lines in a cylinder
The figure shows that computed streamlines around a cylinder. In this case we
move with the object and flow proceeds from left to right. Since the streamline is
traced out by moving a particle at every point along the path the velocity is tangent
to path. Since there is no normal component of the velocity along the path, mass
cannot cross a streamline.
* +
Certain conditions to define stream function
 Stream function is defined for any two or three dimensional flow.

 Stream function is defined for three dimensional axial symmetric flows.
 For two dimensional flow streamlines are perpendicular to equipotential
lines.
 Stream function is defined for incompressible (divergence free) flow in 2
dimension.
116
Example
Compute the velocity components in the fluid flow describing the stream function
given as to verify the velocity
component by satisfying the continuity equation of two dimensional flow.
Solution
Given that
The stream functions are defined as using continuity equation
( ) ( (( ) ))
(( ) )( )
(( ) )
(( ) )
Also
( ) ( (( ) ))
(( ) )
To verify equation of continuity ⃗⃗
( (( ) )) ( (( ) ))
Hence verified.
117
Example Stream Function for Flow in a Corner
118
Volume Flow Rate
Volume flow rate measure the amount of volume that passes through an area per
unit time. The volume flow rate equation is where
Volume Flow Rate
Area Occupied By Flow Material
Average Velocity
119
Question
Show that volume flow rate between two streamlines can be written as the
difference between the constant values of the stream function defining the two
streamlines
Solution
Flow rate across AB ∫ ∫ ……………(1)
Since therefore
Along AB ‗x‘ is constant therefore and we have
(1) Implies Flow rate across AB ∫
Flow rate across BC ∫ ∫ ……………(2)
Since therefore
Along BC ‗y‘ is constant therefore and we have
(2) Implies Flow rate across BC ∫ ∫
120
Question
A 2 Dimensional incompressible flow field is given as determine

the stream function , also indicate that whether or not the given flow field is
Irrotational, if it is Irrotational determine velocity potential.
Solution: Given that then
…….(1) and …….(2)
Integrating (1) with respect to ‗y‘ …….(3)
Differentiating (3) with respect to ‗x‘
using (2)
Now we have to show that ⃗⃗ with ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ | | after Simplification
Hence flow is Irrotational.
Now ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ gives
…….(1) and …….(2)
Integrating (1) with respect to ‗x‘ …….(3)
Differentiating (3) with respect to ‗y‘
using (2)
121
Question
̂ ̂
Whether ⃗⃗ is of potential kind? If so determine velocity potential.
Solution:
̂ ̂
We have to show that ⃗⃗ with ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ | | after Simplification
| |
Hence flow is Irrotational. And the given velocity is of potential kind.
Now ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ gives
…….(1) and …….(2)
Integrating (1) with respect to ‗x‘ ( ) …….(3)
Differentiating (3) with respect to ‗y‘
using (2)
122
Motion of a Fluid Particle (Kinematics)
There are four types of motion of a fluid element;
i. Translation: Motion in which the particle moves from one point to

another. Orientation not changed.
ii. Rotation: Motion which can occur about any or all of the x, y or z axes.
In this orientation changed.
iii. Linear Deformation: Motion in which the particle‘s sides stretch
(expansion/dilation) or contract (contraction/reduction).
 Linear deformation of a fluid element occurs when it passes through
the zone of accelerated or decelerated.
 Dilation or expansion of fluid element occurs when it passes through
deaccelerated flow region.
 Contraction or reduction of fluid element occurs when it passes
through an accelerated flow region.
 Decrease or increase in magnitude of normal stress is responsible for
dilation or contraction of the fluid element.
iv. Angular Deformation: Motion in which the angles (which were initially
90 for our particle) between the sides change. It is also called stress
deformation.
Fluid Translation: Acceleration of a Fluid Particle in a Velocity Field
The translation of a fluid particle is obviously connected with the velocity field
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ . We will need the acceleration of a fluid particle for use in
⃗⃗
Newton's second law. It might seem that we could simply compute this as ⃗ .
This is incorrect, because ⃗⃗ is a field, i.e., it describes the whole flow and not just
the motion of an individual particle.
The problem, then, is to retain the field description for fluid properties and obtain
an expression for the acceleration of a fluid particle as it moves in a flow field.
Stated simply, the problem is:
Given the velocity field, ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ , find the acceleration of a fluid particle,

⃗⃗ .
123
Consider a particle moving in a velocity field. At time t, the particle is at the

position x, y, z and has a velocity corresponding to the velocity at that point in
space at time t, ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
At , the particle has moved to a new position, with coordinates
, and has a velocity given by
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Now ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗ where
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
We may write ⃗
The derivative, , is commonly called the

substantial derivative to remind us that it is computed for a particle of
"substance." It often is called the material derivative or particle derivative.
124
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
The physical significance of the terms in ⃗ is
It recognizes that a fluid particle moving in a flow field may undergo acceleration
for either of two reasons. This is a steady flow in which particles are convected
toward the low-velocity region (near the―corner‖), and then away to a high velocity
region. If a flow field is unsteady a fluid particle will undergo an additional local
acceleration, because the velocity field is a function of time.
The convective acceleration may be written as a single vector expression using the
gradient operator . Thus
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗ )
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Hence ⃗ ⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗)
For a two-dimensional flow, say ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ , Equation reduces to

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗
For a one-dimensional flow, say ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ , Equation reduces to

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗
Finally, for a steady flow in three dimensions, Equation becomes

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗
Which, as we have seen, is not necessarily zero. Thus a fluid particle may undergo
a convective acceleration due to its motion, even in a steady velocity field.
125
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Equation ⃗ is a vector equation. As with all
vector equations, it may be written in scalar component equations. Relative to an
xyz coordinate system, the scalar components of Equation are written
The components of acceleration in cylindrical coordinates may be obtained by

expressing the velocity, ⃗⃗ , in cylindrical coordinates. Thus,
126
Example
Following the fluid particle, calculate the y component of the acceleration for a
particle where velocity vector is given by ⃗⃗ in ft/Sec at a
point
Solution
The y component of the acceleration for given fluid is
Using ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
127
Fluid Rotation
The average angular velocity of any two mutually perpendicular linear elements of
the particle is called rotation. It is denoted by ⃗⃗.
A fluid particle moving in a general three-dimensional flow field may rotate about
all three coordinate axes. Thus particle rotation is a vector quantity and, in general,
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ where is the rotation about the x axis, is the rotation
about the y axis, and , is the rotation about the z axis. The positive sense of
rotation is given by the right-hand rule.
Mathematical expression for Fluid Rotation
To demonstrate the development of rotational character of flow field, let us

consider a fluid element of rectangular shapes with sides in 2D flow field. It
is assume that velocity vector increases within the direction of increasing
coordinate axis.
Velocity components on the boundaries of a fluid element.
128
Rotation of fluid element in 2 dimension
Consider the motion of fluid element in xy plane view of the particle at time t. the
component of velocity at every point in the flow field are given by
Now if velocities at points ‘a‘ and ‗b‘ are different from O then in time interval
the two mutually perpendicular lines ‗oa‘ and ‗ob‘ will rotate as show in figure ‗2‘.
Rotation of line ‘oa’
The rotation of the line ‗oa‘ of length is due to the variation of ‗y‘ component.
If ⃗⃗ is the y – component of the velocity at point O then by Taylor Series
expansion of velocities at point ‗a‘ can be written as;
𝜃
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝜔
𝑡
The angular velocity of line ‗oa‘ is given by 𝑠
𝑠 𝑟𝜃 𝜃
𝑟
⁄
…………..(1) 𝜂
Then 𝛼
𝑥
Since ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⁄
…………..(2)
129
Rotation of line ‘ob’
The rotation of the line ‗ob‘ of length is due to the variation of ‗x‘ component.
If ⃗⃗ is the x – component of the velocity at point O then by Taylor Series
expansion of velocities at point ‗b‘ can be written as;
𝜃
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ 𝜔
𝑡
𝑠
The angular velocity of line ‗ob‘ is given by 𝑠 𝑟𝜃 𝜃
𝑟
⁄ 𝜉
…………..(3) Then 𝛽
𝑦
Since ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⁄
…………..(4)
Here negative sign shows that rotates in clockwise direction.
The rotation of fluid elements about z – axis is the average angular velocity of two
mutually perpendicular line elements in xy – plane.
( )
In the similar manner we can find the rotation of fluid element in x – axis or y –
axis (yz – plane, xz – plane) respectively as follows;
( ) and ( )
Then we have from the relation ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ (( ) ̂ ( ) ̂ ( ) ̂)
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ⃗⃗) Required Mathematical expression for Fluid Rotation
130
Vorticity: The vorticity is a measure of the rotation of a fluid element as it moves

in the flow field. It is represented by or and ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
In cylindrical coordinates the vorticity is
⃗⃗ ̂ ( ) ̂ ( ) ̂( )
Circulation: The circulation, , is defined as the line integral of the tangential

velocity component about any closed curve fixed in the flow, ⃗⃗ ⃗
Where ⃗ is an elemental vector tangent to the curve and having length ds of the
element of arc; a positive sense corresponds to a counterclockwise path of
integration around the curve.
Relationship between Circulation and Vorticity
We can develop a relationship between circulation and vorticity by considering the

rectangular circuit shown in Figure,
Where, the velocity components at O are assumed to be , and the velocities

along segments and can be derived using Taylor series approximations.
For the closed curve oacb, ( ) ( )
( )
Then ⃗⃗ ⃗ ∫ ∫ ( ⃗⃗)
This Equation is a statement of the Stokes Theorem in two dimensions. Thus the
circulation around a closed contour is equal to the total vorticity enclosed within it.
131
Example Free and Forced Vortex Flows
132
133
Momentum Equation/ Law of Conservation of Momentum
A dynamic equation describing fluid motion may be obtained by applying

Newton's second law to a particle. To derive the differential form of the
momentum equation, we shall apply Newton's second law to an infinitesimal fluid
particle of mass .
Recall that For a system moving relative to an inertial reference frame, Newton's
second law states that the sum of all external forces acting on the system is equal to
⃗⃗
the time rate of change of linear momentum of the system, ⃗
⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗
Consider a differential fluid element of mass , using Newton‘s second law

⃗⃗
⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗ * + ………………(1)
We now need to obtain a suitable formulation for the force, ⃗ , or its components,
acting on the element.
We shall consider the x component of the force acting on a differential element of

mass and volume ⃗⃗ . Only those stresses that act in the x
direction will give rise to surface forces in the direction. If the stresses at the
center of the differential element are taken to be and , then the stresses
acting in the x direction on all faces of the element (obtained by a Taylor series
expansion about the center of the element) are as shown in Figure.
134
To obtain the net surface force in the x direction, , we must sum the forces in
the x direction. Thus,
On simplifying, we obtain ( )
When the force of gravity is the only body force acting, then the body force per
unit mass is ⃗. The net force in the x direction, , is given by
( ) ………………..(2)
135
We can derive similar expressions for the force components in the y and z
directions:
( ) ………………..(3)
( ) ………………..(4)
These are the required forms of momentum equation in the x, y and z directions.
Differential form of Momentum Equation
To find differential momentum equation along x – axis
( ) ( )
we obtain the differential equations of motion, for any fluid satisfying the
continuum assumption.
( )
Similarly
Above Equations are the differential equations of motion for any fluid satisfying
the continuum assumption. Before the equations can be used to solve for u, v, and
w, suitable expressions for the stresses must be obtained in terms of the velocity
and pressure fields.
136
Newtonian Fluid: Navier - Stokes Equations
For a Newtonian (viscous) fluid the viscous stress is directly proportional to the
rate of shearing strain (angular deformation rate). The stresses may be expressed in
terms of velocity gradients and fluid properties in rectangular coordinates as
follows:
Where is the local thermodynamic pressure. Above equations are called

constitutive equations. Thermodynamic pressure is related to the density and
temperature by the thermodynamic relation usually called the equation of state.
If these expressions for the stresses are introduced into the differential equations of
motion
( )
Similarly
137
We obtain
These equations of motion are called the NavierStokes equations. The equations
are greatly simplified when applied to incompressible flow with constant viscosity.
Under these conditions the equations reduce to other forms as follows;
138
This form of the NavierStokes equations is probably most famous set of equations
in fluid mechanics, and has been widely studied. These equations form a set of four
coupled nonlinear partial differential equations for u, v, w, and . In principle,
these four equations describe many common flows; the only restrictions are that
the fluid be Newtonian (with a constant viscosity) and incompressible.
Cases for Newtonian Fluid: Navier - Stokes Equations
Write Navier Stokes equation for
i. Compressible flow
ii. Incompressible flow ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
iii. Inviscous flow
Case – I: Navier - Stokes Equation for Compressible flow
Since we have
( ) (⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
( ) ( ) …………………(1)
139
Also
( ) ( ) (⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
( ) ( ) …………………(2)
And
( ) ( ) (⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
( ) ( ) …………………(3)
Case – II: Navier - Stokes Equation for Incompressible flow ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Since we have
( ) (⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
( ) ( )
140
( ) ( )
( ) after putting ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) (⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
( ) ( ) ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Similarly
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Case – III: Navier - Stokes Equation for Inviscid flow (Euler’s

Equation of motion)
Since we have
141
( ) (⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
( ) ( )
( ) using
Similarly
( )
( )
And in vector form we get Euler equation of motion

⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗⃗
142
Momentum Equation For Frictionless Flow: Euler's Equation of Motion
Euler's equation after neglecting the viscous terms is given as follows;

̅
⃗
This equation states that for an inviscid fluid the change in momentum of a fluid
particle is caused by the body force (assumed to be gravity only) and the net
pressure force.
Derivation
Consider finite size control volume through which inviscid fluid is flowing.
Applying Newton‘s Second Law of Motion in x,y,z coordinates
For x axis; ∑ ……………(i)
Now using the fact Total force = Surface (Pressure Force) + Body Force
The sum of force acting on the fluid particle in x direction is
∑ *( ) ( )+
∑ ( )
∑ ……………(ii)
Since mass of fluid particle
∑ ……………(iii)
143
Comparing (ii) and (iii)
……………(iv)
Similarly
……………(v)
……………(vi)
Now adding (iv),(v),(vi) we get total pressure
̂ ̂ ̂ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
( ̂ ̂ ̂) ⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
̅
Or ⃗⃗⃗ ……………..(A)
We may write above as ⃗ ⃗ ……………..(B)
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Then using ⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗
We get ⃗ ⃗⃗ ……………..(C)
Hence (A),(B),(C) are different forms of Euler Equation of motion in Vector

notation.
144
Example Analysis Of Fully Developed Laminar Flow Down An Inclined

Plane Surface
145
146
147
Example
Analysis Of Laminar Viscometric Flow Between Coaxial Cylinders
A viscous liquid fills the annular gap between vertical concentric cylinders. The
inner cylinder is stationary, and the outer cylinder rotates at constant speed. The
flow is laminar. Simplify the continuity, Navier Stokes, and tangential shear stress
equations to model this flow field. Obtain expressions for the liquid velocity profile
and the shear stress distribution. Compare the shear stress at the surface of the
inner cylinder with that computed from a planar approximation obtained by
―unwrapping‖ the annulus into a plane and assuming a linear velocity profile
across the gap. Determine the ratio of cylinder radii for which the planar
approximation predicts the correct shear stress at the surface of the inner cylinder
within 1 percent.
148
149
150
151
152
Reynolds Number
It is the ratio of inertial force to the viscous force. It tells us whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent. If the inertial force that resists the change in velocity is
dominant then the flow is turbulent. And if the viscous force that resists the flow is
dominant then the flow is laminar.
Its formula is
Or where
Where is fluid density, is characteristic velocity, is characteristic length or

size scale of flow, is dynamic fluid viscosity and is kinetic viscosity.
If the Reynolds number is ―large,‖ viscous effects will be negligible, at least in

most of the flow; if the Reynolds number is small, viscous effects will be
dominant. Finally, if the Reynolds number is neither large nor small, no general
conclusions can be drawn.
Remember
153
154
Short Questions Appears in Past Papers
1. Give dimension of dynamic viscosity.

2. Define first law of thermodynamics. Also give its example.
3. Give simple mathematical relation of the sheer stress related to velocity
gradient.
4. Write integral form of equation of continuity.
5. Write mathematical form of velocity field for laminar and turbulent flow.
6. Write complete form of Navier Stokes equation.
7. Define specific gravity.
8. Define control surface.
9. Define Stream line.
10.Define vorticity and give its mathematical form.
11.Define law of conservation of mass.
12.Define pathline.
13.Define control volume in a fluid flow.
14.Write the difference between control volume and control surface.
15.Give mathematical form of sheer stress for non – Newtonian Fluid.
16.What is the difference between Newtonian And non – Newtonian Fluid?
17.Define Hydrostatic Pressure.
18.What do you mean by the fluid dynamics?
19.What do you mean by the dimensional analysis of the fluid flow?
20.Define dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
21.What do you mean by the Newton‘s law of the viscosity?
22.Define conservation law of the momentum in fluid flow.
23.What do you mean by the rigid body motion?
24.Define a buoyancy force acting on the fluid particles.
25.What do you mean by ideal fluid?
26.Define rotational and Irrotational flow.
27.What do you mean by angular momentum of fluid flow?
28.Give the description of stream function describing the stream lines in a
cylinder.
29.What are the certain conditions to define stream function?
30.What do you mean by thermodynamic process in the fluid flow?
31.Give the description of pressure gradient in a fluid flow.
155
32.What do you mean by the static equilibrium in a fluid flow?

33.Given dimension of density.
34.Define Reynolds Number.
35.Write down three basic systems of dimension.
36.Write differential form of equation of continuity.
37.Write mathematical form of basic pressure field equation.
38.Write vector differential form of Navier Stokes Equation.
39.Write the difference between incompressible and compressible fluid flow.
40.Compute the sheer stress in a SAE oil at 20C if and .
41.Give mathematical forms of normal and sheer forces.
42.Define rotational flow.
43.Define turbulent flow.
44.Define dilatant.
45.Define streamline.
156
Long Questions Appears in Past Papers
1) Derive integral form of linear momentum equation.

2) A velocity field is given by ⃗⃗ ̂ ̂, where and
. Find the equation of the streamlines at any time t. Plot several
streamlines in the first quadrant at , and .
3) Find a two dimensional in the xy – plane the x component of velocity
. Determine a possible y component for an incompressible flow.
How many y components are possible?
4) Derive Bernoulli‘s equation for unsteady frictionless flow along a
streamline.
5) Consider a fluid particle moving in a general three dimensional flow field
may rotate about all three coordinate axes. Derive angular notation in vector
notation of the form ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ .
6) State and prove 2nd law of thermodynamics.
7) Derive the continuity equation of motion for a two dimensional
incompressible flow field. Also generate the D Alembert s Euler‘s
acceleration formula for a fluid flow in a plane polar coordinates with
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ .
8) Find the dimension of Newton‘s 2nd Law of Motion by using international
system of units (SI system), Gravitation System and English Engineering
System. Compute the velocity components in the fluid flow describing the
stream function given as to
verify the velocity component by satisfying the continuity equation of two
dimensional flow.
9) A flat plate 4ft by 4ft slides down an inclined plane at angle of 30 to the
horizontal at a velocity of 30ft per minute. The inclined plane is lubricated
by a thin film of oil having viscosity of 0.001lbf/ft2. Find the thickness of the
film if the mass of the plate is 1Slug.
10) Following the fluid particle, calculate the y component of the
acceleration for a particle where velocity vector is given by
⃗⃗ in ft/Sec at a point
157
11) Classify the Newtonian and Non – Newtonian fluids by given at least
one example to each case. Derive the basic hydrostatic equation for a fluid
element in static equilibrium for an incompressible fluid.
12) Derive Euler‘s equation of motion.
13) Derive equation of continuity by applying law of conservation of mass
to fluid elements.
14) A liquid flows down an inclined plane in a steady, fully developed,
laminar flow of thickness ‗h‘. Simplify the continuity and Navier Stokes
equation to model this flow. Obtain expression for liquid‘s velocity profile,
the sheer stress distribution.
‫‪158‬‬
‫ِ‬
‫رحفآرخ(‪)17-05-2021‬‬
‫وخشرںیہوخایشںابںیٹناوراہجںکتوہےکسدورسوںےکےیلآاساینںدیپارکںی۔‬
‫اہلل ی‬
‫اعتٰلآپوکزدنیگےکرہومڑرپاکایمویبںاوروخویشںےسونازے۔(اینیم)‬
‫دمحمامثعناحدم‬
‫کچربمن‪105‬امشیل(وگدےھواال)رسوگداھ‬
‫‪UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA‬‬
‫‪PUNJAB, PAKISTAN‬‬
‫‪Available at MathCity.org‬‬
‫”‪For video lectures Visit our channel @ YouTube “Learning With Usman Hamid‬‬

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FLUID DYNAMICS I

MUHAMMAD USMAN HAMID

Introduction: Definition of Fluid, basics equations, Methods of analysis,

Introduction to differential analysis of fluid motion: conservation of mass,

 Fox R. W. & McDonald A. T. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics.

For video lectures

Fluid Mechanics or Hydrostatics

Or The study of forces and flows in fluid is called mechanics.

There are three categories of fluid mechanics;

Fluid statistics: Fluid statistics is the study of ﬂuids at rest.

Why we study the fluid mechanics?

Applications (Scope) of Fluid Mechanics:

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear

Or a fluid is something which has the property of flowing freely

Properties of a fluid are of at least four classes

1. Kinematic Properties: Linear Velocity, Angular Velocity, Vorticity,

Motion of fluid particles

A fluid consists of innumerable (countless) whose relative position never fix

Fluid mechanics have two method of fluid motion

(i) Lagrange‘s method (ii) Eulerian Method

Basic Equations (Laws)

Analysis of any problem in fluid mechanics necessarily includes statement of the

1. The conservation of mass.

2. Newton's second law of motion.

3. The principle of angular momentum.

4. The first law of thermodynamics,

5. The second law of thermodynamics.

Dimensional Analysis of Fluid Flow: It is a mathematical technique used to

Example First Law Application to Closed System

System and Surroundings

A system is defined as a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass where the region of

In the familiar piston-cylinder assembly from thermodynamics, the gas in

Control Volume and Control Surface

A control volume is an arbitrary volume in space through which fluid flows.

Example Mass Conservation Applied To Control Volume

Historical development of Fluid Mechanics

Some basic properties of fluids are

Density Mass per unit volume is called density

∆ = rate of change And

Where (x,y,z) are the coordinates of a point and is the temperature.

It is defined as the weight per unit volume and is denoted by

Specific Volume It is defined as volume per unit mass. Its formula is

Pressure Force per unit area is called pressure. Its formula is

Where F is normal force due to fluid in elementary area.

Bulk modulus and compressibility (bulk compressibility modulus or modulus

It is denoted as i.e. variation of its density. After arranging

If the bulk modulus is independent of temperature, then density is only a function

Buoyancy Force: When a body is immersed in a liquid, or floating on its surface,

Methods of Description (Motion of Particles)

A fluid consists of innumerable (countless) whose relative position never fix

(i) Lagrange‘s Method (ii) Eulerian Method

Lagrange’s Method (Flow of Single Particle)

In study of fluid mechanics, Eulerian method is commonly used because of its

Example Free Fall Of Ball In Air

DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Engineering problems are solved to answer specific questions. It goes without

Dimension is specific form used to refer any measurable quantity.

If we refer physical quantities such as length, time, mass, and temperature as

(1 mile = 5280 feet = 1609 meters).