504934

research-article2013
SGOXXX10.1177/2158244013504934SAGE OpenJaysawal

Article

SAGE Open

Civil Society, Democratic Space, and

October-December 2013: 1­–12
© The Author(s) 2013
DOI: 10.1177/2158244013504934
Social Work sgo.sagepub.com

Neelmani Jaysawal1

Abstract
Civil Society envisages the growth of civilization in a way that the society is in “civilized form.” It has been prominent in
Social science since time immemorial. Till 18th century, it was synonymous with the state or political society. It was more
or less direct translation of Cicero’s Societas’ Civilis and Aristotle’s Koinonia politike. According to Karl Marx, “Civil Society
embraces the whole material intercourse of individuals within a definite stage of development of productive forces.” Civil
Society is an arena where modern man legitimately gratifies his self-interest and develops his individuality, but also learns the
value of group action, social solidarity which educates him for citizenship and equips him to participate in the political sphere
of the state. It provides “networks of civic engagement” within which reciprocity is learned and enforced, trust is generated.
An active and diverse civil society plays a valuable role in advancement of democracy. It seeks to ensure that citizen’s
interests are taken seriously. The social work intervention may not be democratically envisaged until it is promulgated by
civic engagement through Civil Society. Methodology: This is a descriptive study which consists of secondary source of
data collection based on reports, books, periodic journals, web-based articles. There have been utilized three case studies
for reaching the findings of study. This article will highlight on role of civil society in providing democratic space and assisting
social workers to ensure inclusive growth through conglomeration of state and individuals.

Keywords
civil society, civic virtue, social capital, democracy, social work, solidarity, social cohesion

Introduction of activism that tackles international problems and acts

across geographical borders, and is generally interrelated
Civil society consists of groups and organizations, both for- with the process of enhancing globalization and “turbo-capi-
mal and informal, which act independent of the state and talism” (Keane, 2001). The main actors in this sphere are
market to promote diverse interests in society. It represents international NGOs that are increasingly developing links
self-generating, self-supporting, state-independent organiza- with governments, intergovernmental policy makers and
tions that allow citizens to act collectively in the public transnational corporations; self-organizations across borders
sphere to express their interests. It is associated with a set of of transnational communities and international social move-
institutions that mediate between the individual and the state. ments, civic networks and social forums (Kaldor, Anheier, &
Therefore, it acts at a macroscopic level. It includes the Glasius, 2003).
gamut of organizations that political scientists traditionally Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan (2002, as cited
label interest groups—not just advocacy nongovernmental in Tabbush, 2005), in his report “Strengthening of the United
organizations (NGOs) but also labor unions, professional Nations: An Agenda for Further Change” stresses that a plu-
associations (such as those of doctors and lawyers), cham- rality of actors—namely civil society and the private sec-
bers of commerce, ethnic associations, and others. They fos- tor—are increasingly involved in international cooperation,
ter citizen participation and civic education. They provide thus explaining why, in the Millennium Declaration, member
leadership training for young people who want to engage in states agreed to give them additional opportunities to con-
civic life but are uninterested in working through political tribute to the realization of the UN’s goals. At international
parties. Civil society in this sense is an arena in which mod-
ern man not only legitimately gratifies his self-interest and
develops his individuality, but also learns the value of group 1
Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan, West Bengal, India
action, social solidarity, and the dependence of his welfare
Corresponding Author:
on others, which educate him for citizenship and prepare him Neelmani Jaysawal, Department of Social Work, Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan,
for participation in the political arena of the state (Kumar, District- Birbhum, West Bengal, India, 731236.
1993). The key distinction with civil society per se is the idea Email: [email protected]
2 SAGE Open

level, civil society is viewed as an attractive partner that But the current situation negates all these propositions
could further enhance their legitimacy and encourage public and broadens the horizon of civil society. Civil society
and political constituencies to support them. Civil society is embodies not only economic institutions but also classes,
seen as the holder of the moral authority for action and oper- corporations related with social, religious, professional life,
ational knowledge, or what Chandhoke (2002) calls “the welfare agencies, educational and training institutes con-
peculiar hallmark of ethical political intervention: moral cerned with civic purposes. Elaborating further, Pelczynski
authority and legitimacy” (Tabbush, 2005). (as cited in Connelly & Hayward, 2012, p. 41) states,

Civil society in this sense is an arena in which modern man

Definition legitimately gratifies his self-interest and develops his
Civil society is such a contentious concept in the history of individuality, but also learns the value of group action, social
social science that has got different connotations in different solidarity and the dependence of his welfare on others.
periods. It has been one of the favorite buzzwords among the
global chattering classes, touted by President and political Even Richard Halloway defines civil society on contem-
scientists as the key to political, economic, and societal suc- porary line which states, “citizens, associating neither for
cess. The renaissance of interest in civil society draws power nor profit, are the third sector of society, comple-
strength from its European roots, which are traceable to the menting government and business and they are the people
late 17th century to 18th century and early 19th century who constitute Civil Society organizations” (Holloway,
(Keane, 1998). During 17th century, civil society was related 2001, p. Xiii).
with charitable groups, clubs, and voluntary associations In the words of Carolyn M. Elliott, “Civil society is a
independent of state machinery. Locke differentiated civil space between the family and the state where people associ-
society from the state of nature as well as from political soci- ate across ties of kinship, aside from the market, and inde-
ety. According to him, civil society comes into existence pendent of the state” (Sapru, 2011, p. 166).
when men possessing the natural right to life, liberty, and The London School of Economics Centre for Civil
estate come together, sign a contract, and constitute a com- Society states
mon public authority. Locke contrasts this civil society with
Civil society refers to the arena of uncoerced collective action
the state of nature, where in the latter men have equal natural
around shared interests, purposes and values. In theory, its
rights but there is no legal authority that can uphold these institutional forms are distinct from those of the state, family
rights and punish its offenders (Mahajan, 1999). In the 18th and market, though in practice, the boundaries between state,
century, the idea of civil society got a new shape. The politi- civil society, family and market are often complex, blurred and
cal theorists from Thomas Paine to Georg Hegel developed negotiated. Civil society commonly embraces a diversity of
the notion of civil society as a domain parallel to but separate spaces, actors and institutional forms, varying in their degree of
from the state—a realm where citizens associate according to formality, autonomy and power. (Deibert, Palfrey, Rohozinski,
their own interests and wishes. Hegel says, & Zittrain, 2008, p. 124)

The creation of Civil society is the achievement of the modern In this way, the evolving connotation of civil society in
world which has for the first time, given all determinations of different phases of history brings this conception whereby
the idea their due. It is, moreover indeed the case that civil civil society is considered not a subsidiary unit of the state
society is a realm of appearance where particularity and egoism but a third independent entity that assists the state in main-
lead to measureless excess and ethical life, which is essentially taining governance and rule of law. This term came in
social, seems to be lost in a riot of self-seeking. (Kumar, 2001,
because of the need felt by German scholars to distinguish
pp. 145)
between “bourgeois society” and “civil society” as burgerli-
che Gesellschaft as used by Karl Marx. Civil society is
This new thinking reflected on contemporary economic
beyond market forces and state-centric institutions. It can
realities, that is, the rise of private property, market competi-
strengthen public sphere and provide a haven from the
tion, and the bourgeoisie (Carothers, 1999). It resembled
Behemoth state.
with what Karl Marx called it “burgerliche Gesellschaft.”
The Marxian thought attributed the entire notion of civil
society with social organization evolving directly out of pro- Various Schools of Thought on Civil
duction and commerce. Society
This Marxian thought was further elaborated in the 19th
century when the economic exchange of goods was attrib-
Hegel
uted with civil society. It was considered as legitimization of Hegel remarked that earlier societies did not possess civil
private property and propagator of market elements. It tran- societies. To him civil society was distinct from either the
scended the boundary of state and aligned with market household or the state in a manner that the state is not only
forces. responsible for the creation of a civil society, but also for its
Jaysawal 3

sustenance (J. P. S. Uberoi in Jayaram, 2005). Hegel enlarged all ideological cultural relations along with the whole of
the notion of civil society from the liberal emphasis on the commercial and industrial life (D. N. Dhanagre in Jayaram,
market to include social practices distinct from economic 2005). Unlike Marx, Gramsci argues that civil society is not
life. Hegel perceived civil society as being egoist, selfish, simply a sphere of selfish and egoistic individual needs but
and fragmented (Elliott, 2003). According to him, civil soci- of organizations representing broader community interests
ety is situated between the “early moment” in the progress of that have the potential of rational self-regulation and free-
family and its definitive form as “state” (Medeiros, 2009). In dom. Gramsci sets himself against the pure economic inter-
addition, he argues that civil society does not arise out of pretation of civil society as laid down by Marx and his
natural ties of kinship and community. Instead it develops in followers. Actually, Gramsci distinguishes civil society not
the course of their actual attainment of selfish ends. For only from state, but also from the capitalist market, found-
Hegel, “civil society” is the moment in which the family ing a tripartite conception of the term. He conceived civil
unity starts to dissolve, as a result of the emergence of antag- society within the context of cultural institutions including
onist economic relations (Medeiros, 2009). According to him the church, educational, establishments, professional asso-
civil or bourgeoisie is the realm of individuals who have left ciations, and the trade union movement (Milkias, 2006).
the unity of the family to enter into economic competition. It For Gramsci, though civil society, subsumed within the
is the arena of particular needs, self-interests, and divisive- concept of “cultural superstructure,” enables the bourgeois
ness with potentials for self-distraction. The state comes into class to impose its hegemony to keep the working class in
being because civil society is not in itself sufficient, and it its place; it also acts as a wedge between the state and the
does for civil society what it cannot do for itself. Civil soci- class structured system (Milkias, 2006). Civil society is not
ety represents a step forward from feudal to bourgeois soci- to be found in the sphere of production or economic organi-
ety (P. K. B. Nayar in Jayaram, 2005). zation but in the state. The formula most commonly found
in Gramsci is the state = political society plus civil society.
He further says that it is precisely in civil society that intel-
Marx
lectuals operate and perform their key function of supply-
According to Marx, civil society embraces the whole mate- ing legitimacy and creating consensus on behalf of the
rial intercourse of individuals within a definite stage of the ruling class (Kumar, 1993).
development of productive forces. Based on a particular
interpretation of Hegel’s work, Marx defines civil society as
Jean Cohen and Andrew Arato
the realm of economic activities (Medeiros, 2009). It
embraces the whole commercial and industrial life of a given In 1992, Jean Cohen and Andrew Arato published a massive
state and insofar transcends the state and the nation. In the work about importance of the concept “civil society” to the
“critique of Hegel’s philosophy of rights,” Marx emphasized political and social analyses. In fact, in accordance with what
the nexus between economic interests and political institu- is mentioned in the previous section, their reading of Hegel’s
tions. Marx ruptures definitively the classical notion of civil work represents a critique against Marx, in that they disagree
society as synonymous with state (Medeiros, 2009). Focusing with the definition of civil society as the sphere of economic
on the right to property sanctioned by civil society, he main- needs (Medeiros, 2009). With this purpose, they present their
tained that the latter lacked the ability to express universal own theory of civil society that, as they claim, would be
interests common to society as a whole. Like the capitalist responsible not only for understanding these new move-
state, it remained the voice of the ruling class (Mahajan, ments, but also for clarifying the political debate on which
1999). Marx tends to reduce the development of civil society these movements have influenced (Medeiros, 2009). Part of
to the structure of productive forces and social relations aris- Cohen & Arato’s work is dedicated to the analysis of recent
ing out of them. Because Marx thought statism, centralism, social movements where they take into account the recent
and bureaucratism only organize, centralize, and institution- debate between new social movement and resource mobili-
alize social and political alienation that would by definition zation theories. According to the two-front mission of civil
be authentic to civil society and he considers civil society as society agents, social movements’ actions are aimed not only
belonging to the structural sphere, to “base” rather than to the at the polity, but also at the social institutions of civil society.
superstructure (D. N. Dhanagre in N. Jayaram, 2005). Thus, civil society is conceived as the “terrain and target” of
According to his view, the creation of civil society is the social movements, and the latter are defined as the “dynamic
achievement of modern world that has for the first time given element in processes that might realize the positive potential
all determinations of the idea their due. It is simply a cockpit of modern civil societies” (Medeiros, 2009).
of competing individuals pursuing their private ends. After having visualized respective debates between politi-
cal thinkers on civil society, it is imperative to know its dis-
tinction from social movement. As both the actors bring
Gramsci structural changes against repressive state and market forces,
To Gramsci, civil society belongs to the superstructural there is need to analyze the crucial difference between the
sphere. It comprises of not only material relationships, but same.
4 SAGE Open

Distinction Between Civil Society and generated the action (Medeiros, 2009). However, civil soci-
Social Movement ety is an institutional force to bring systemic changes
(Medeiros, 2009). They provide a political space where vol-
Civil society and Social movement are two independent enti- untary associations shape the rules that govern one or the
ties of contemporary world. Civil society and social move- other aspect of social life.
ments often have complex and contradictory practices and
relationships that do not fit into easily definable categories. Role of Civil Society in Ensuring
Sometimes, civil society enters the arena of social movement
to bring change in governance structure. Basically, social
Democracy
movements are those actions that are not regulated by exist- The Democratic governance is considered to be people-cen-
ing norms or common understanding. These social move- tric rule. Democratic governance provides an institutional
ments are actively engaged in a struggle to recapture political framework for participation by all citizens in economic and
space and develop a new form of knowledge construction. political processes. Each and every individual gets an oppor-
They assert popular sovereignty and challenge the aristo- tunity to select his or her governance structure as per his or
cratic dominance so that representation of people against her own will. From policy legislation to its implementation
repressive state may be restored. While social movement is and further adjudication of its violations, a common man is
an accumulation of mass voice to repress any authoritative aware. The free and fair election, independent judiciary, and
action, civil society is defined as a competitive, voluntary free media assist in securing welfare of the people. This ulti-
sphere whose primary function is to keep the state under mately helps in strengthening socioeconomic and political
check and even substitute for the state. Social movement is a freedom of individuals. In this case, civil society has the
more contentious mode of transformation whereas civil soci- potential to add to democracy. An active, diverse civil soci-
ety transforms norms and values prevalent in the society for ety often does play a valuable role in helping advance
further change in structure. Social movement seeks to bring democracy. It provides a normative basis for legitimating
mobilization of those who have failed to get their grievances democratic rule. It can discipline the state, ensure that citi-
redressed. Civil society organizations do not mobilize people zens’ interests are taken seriously, and foster greater civic
directly for any agitation but provide resources to disadvan- and political participation. The state machinery is always
taged groups to raise their voice (Medeiros, 2009). This affected by various socioeconomic and political factors. In
means speaking for those who cannot speak (Medeiros, addition to it, the structural changes of globalization has
2009). These organizations influence the decision makers also created nuances for national democracy. In this era of
indirectly through various advocacy efforts and shift the nor- globalization, the contemporary space is not democratic
mative terms of debate. The civil society may shift the infor- space (Scholte, 2001). We do not have a situation where the
mational base on which institutional actors make decisions. governed have accorded the right of rule to existing regimes
The civil society is an institutional base for bringing transfor- (Scholte, 2001). The emergence of transnational corpora-
mation in status quo. It should not be seen a mere realm of tions has narrowed down independent broad democratic
creating trust, reciprocity, but an arena of continuous conflict governance. The popular participation, consultation, and
involving resources, cultural values. It may be seen as terrain accountability seem to be weak in policy formulation. The
and target for collective action whereas social movement is core problems of poverty, lack of representation, inequality,
upheaval of dominant socioeconomic structure. and attendant violence, corruption, and polarization require
Despite slight differences between Civil society and complex and long-term solutions, which must be based on
Social movement, both transcend their boundaries to control strengthening fundamental elements and principles in soci-
the repressive nature of political system. Through legitimiz- eties across the region. Among these elements is the need
ing power of civil society, social movement produces civil for information and ideas that provide citizens, politicians,
repairs. Jeffery Alexander argues that civil society itself has and policy makers with a common basis for informed dis-
the capacity to make repairs through mobilization in social cussion and decision making. Second, is the need for plural-
movements, creation of public opinion, engagement in vol- ism and respect for difference of opinion. Third, is the need
untary associations, and opening of channels for pressuring for consensus-building techniques that allow citizens to
the process of legislation (Medeiros, 2009). reach agreement and identify common objectives for
In this way, it may be distinguished that social move- national life at the local and national level. Finally, there is
ments are actions that are not regulated by existing norms or a need for heightened transparency and accountability in
common understanding, thus fundamentally non-institu- government activity to ensure that these shared visions are
tional. Social movements are explained basically through a being implemented by elected officials. In all these respects,
circular dynamic of mutual stimulation, in which one’s civil society provides a way to enhance public participation,
actions are continuously reinforced by the others’ through a consultation, transparency, and accountability that may fos-
process that amplifies and reinforces the causes that first ter democratic governance (Scholte, 2001).
Jaysawal 5

Civil society plays an important role in promoting democ- capacitated to analyze policy decisions. In other words, it
racy through certain indicators that are as follows: helps in facilitating information sharing among masses
through debates and expression of ideas that is base for a suc-
cessful democracy. As envisaged, democracy is run by peo-
Public Education and Mass Awareness
ple from diverse socioeconomic and cultural manifestations.
One of the important contributions of civil society in the In such a condition, civil society assists in providing unin-
arena of democracy is its mass awareness activity. An effec- hibited discussion of these diverse views. Civil society repre-
tive democracy requires informed citizens to be aware about sents a host of issues, interests, groups. In other words, they
their governance system. A civil society organization is capa- offer solutions to a variety of issues, bringing the perspec-
ble of conscientizing masses through various means like tives and needs of various sectors of society. For example,
publication of handbooks, information booklets, organizing civic groups have been instrumental in generating debate
seminar and workshops, spreading information through cur- about the so-called “Washington Consensus” (Scholte,
ricular materials in educational institutions, advocating cer- 2001). They have also raised ecological issues, advocated
tain policy issues through mass media, and so on. The Civil qualitative assessments of poverty so that a common man
society educates the people about their rights and responsi- may be aware about shrinking democratic framework in glo-
bilities, consequences of certain policies on their lives, and balized world.
strategy of government authorities behind any agreement or
treaty. It also plays a role of making the elite and general
masses more committed to democracy through disseminat-
Promoting Transparency and Accountability in the
ing democratic principles and ideas. They are involved in Governance Structure
protection of civil rights as well as freedom. They encourage Civic mobilization can increase the public transparency of
masses to involve them in political affairs through exercise global governance (Scholte, 2001). Civil society, being pow-
of their franchise and associational activities. erful interest groups, has potential to create pressure on state
mechanism to ensure transparency in its legislation. Through
Empowerment of Disenfranchised Communities connectivity with mass media, a common public may be
made aware about any policy being formulated by the state
The civil society brings access to information, transparency, so that it may be open for public scrutiny. Furthermore, they
and consultation in decision-making process that ensures also work for public interest law reform, enhance access of
that interests of those excluded people may be addressed by the poor to justice through paralegal services, undertake
policy makers. They strive to achieve more equitable distri- advocacy and seek the accountability of public officials by
bution of power and resources. They provide a platform to informing media about violations by public officials. Civic
masses so that they may initiate action for redressal of their groups can also interrogate the currently popular official
grievances. It provides opportunities for concerned parties to rhetoric of “transparency” by asking critical questions about
broadcast information, analysis to governance agencies what is made transparent, at what time, in what forms,
(Scholte, 2001). In a lay man’ language, it gives microphone through what channels, on whose decision, for what purpose,
to the poor and the disadvantaged people to get hearing about and in whose interest (Scholte, 2001). In a global framework,
their governance that they may not get through other chan- the National democracy is no longer immune from getting
nels. This civic activism has potential to make democracy swallowed by transnational governance. In this case, the
more participatory that is its peculiarity. The civil society, civil society helps in maintaining accountability of national
through redressing the grievances and empowering their democratic structure toward indigenous people through con-
voice, assists in fostering a just and accountable democracy necting it with grassroot people. The presence of various
that is its true spirit. They check the abuse of government advocacy groups, interest groups in national politics keep
power by public officials at national and local levels through people active in policy formulation and its execution. Any
their access to media, and monitor the government mecha- repressive policy is supposed to be debated in public forum
nisms for service delivery and access (Cheema, 2011). They initiated by the civil society. For example, civic actors have
also protect the human rights of minorities, women, and mar- pressed for and subsequently participated in independent
ginalized groups (Cheema, 2011). They shape public affairs policy evaluation mechanisms for the World Bank and the
through which citizens articulate their interests and exercise International Monetary Fund (IMF; Scholte, 2001).
their political, economic, and social rights.
Establishing Legitimacy for Governance
Providing Space for Pluralism Legitimacy is a key element for any governance system.
Pluralism is one of the essential ingredients of democracy Unless the government is able to garner support of masses,
that helps in deconstructing policy framework. The people its governance is void. The democracy requires authentica-
are capable of getting true knowledge of the happenings and tion by people. Therefore, it has to be acknowledged by
6 SAGE Open

people that an authority has a right to govern them and frame between both of them. They acknowledge the fact that
directives on them. Once this consent is acquired, a demo- democracy cannot survive on the basis of disagreement.
cratic framework may run smoothly. There will not be any Therefore, civil society acts as a catalyst in removing this
need for transformation of rule. Hence, civil society also disagreement. The effective role of civil society in mobiliz-
plays a crucial role in this affair. It offers a means to citizens ing social capital results into resolution of conflict. Robert
to reaffirm their governance system through expression of Putnam in his book “Bowling Alone: America’s declining
consensus. It bolsters public education or conscientize them social Capital” states that a weak civil society leads to a lack
for effective participation in governance. It facilitates dia- of “civic engagement” and “social trust.” Social capital is
logues among masses regarding any political party or struc- nothing but norms, reciprocity, values that bind society into
ture so that a representative democracy may get legitimacy. a thin layer of trust. Putnam states that social capital is based
In adverse situation, the civil society has played a role in on the foundation of thin trust rather than thick trust within
overthrowing government through illegitimization of rule by societies. Thick trust makes a community rigid in terms of its
people. The presence of media, educational institutes, advo- composition. An individual may not transcend its boundary
cacy, and interest groups bridges the gap between common to co-opt with other communities in thick trust-oriented
people and government. The grassroot people are updated communities (Harriss, 2001). Once an individual of a par-
with the happenings of the center through innovative meth- ticular community is able to mingle with another community
ods of civil society. The absence of red-tapism in civil soci- and develops a bond of trust and certain norms, intercom-
ety engages their own actors in prompt action and alerts munity conflicts may easily be resolved. In this way, the civil
others with certain impending crises. As the civil society society resolves the conflict through its bonding and bridg-
does not depend on votes or large bureaucracies, it enjoys the ing social capital.
freedom of action. In other words, it is a legitimizing force in
democracy.
Socialization
Socialization is the cultural process of learning to partici-
Facilitating Dialogue Among Masses pate in group activities. It enables individuals to fit into all
Democracy always lacks the broad-based consensus on basic kinds of social groups. It is so significant for a human being
national principles, polarization, and marginalization. In this that an individual cannot develop attitudes, beliefs, values
affair, the people get space for mutual discussion, debate, concerned for a social being without it. In sociology, func-
and sharing of ideas through civil society. A moderate civil tionalist and conflict perspective schools have defined
society may assist in bridging gaps between various groups socialization. According to functionalist school, socializa-
and garner social and political consensus among masses. The tion helps in creating stable society through establishing
civil society acts as a public forum for reviewing various basic norms, beliefs, and values. It helps in preventing a
decisions of the government. They initiate a process of pro- human being from becoming a deviant. However, conflict
voking masses for dialogues in case certain policies are arbi- perspective school views socialization as a way of perpetu-
trary. Through this strategy, the civil society becomes ating the status quo. In its view, the powerful people keep
successful in strengthening democracy and linking a grass- the things same through socialization. It legitimizes their
root individual with decision makers. existence (Paffenholz, 2009).
In this process of socialization, civil society plays a very
pivotal role. It helps society in realizing democratic attitudes
Advocating for Better Policy Options and values through socialization. A culture of peace is
The civil society has the capability to influence government restored among people through inculcating true spirit of
bodies and assist in formulating well-articulated policy and democracy, mankind. Civil society attempts to modify the
programs. They bring careful research findings to understand behavior of individuals by associating them with various net-
the crux of the situation and develop concrete agenda. They works, development projects. It empowers marginalized
play a role of watchdog for certain policy formulation and its groups through restoring integrity, beliefs, and reciprocity
successful implementation. Therefore, they bring a feasible for further group cohesiveness among them. In other words,
policy to ensure mass betterment. They provide an enabling they pave a way for socioeconomic advancement of society.
environment for local governance and development through
advocating for people-centric policies.
Flexible and Innovative Structure of Civil Society
Apart from its outcome, even its own functionality is crucial
Assisting in Resolution of Conflicts for promoting democracy. The civil society is called a very
The civil society develops and helps in imparting conflict flexible, innovative, and informative institution that func-
resolution strategies. They conciliate between individuals tions based on updated knowledge through concurrent
and government to enhance the smooth communication research in relevant field. Due to prompt action through its
Jaysawal 7

actors, any change in governance is reported to masses diverse backgrounds. Advocacy enables a person to express
instantly. They have sound technical and managerial skills his or her voice and protects his or her interests. It is an inde-
for transmitting any information among people. The active pendent help with understanding issues and putting further
human resource and vast knowledge base assist civil society an individual’s views and concerns. The National Lead for
in getting into depth of any policy and critically evaluate its Advocacy, valuing People Team, 2009, defines advocacy as
outcome for further dissemination.
After having reviewed the role of civil society in promot- taking action to help people say what they want, secure their
ing democracy, it is pertinent for us to know about those key rights, represent their interests and obtain services they need.
actors that help a civil society in this affair. A civil society Advocates and advocacy schemes work in partnership with the
functions as a change agent or catalyst in strengthening people they support and take their side. Advocacy promotes
social inclusion, equality and social justice. (Boylan &
democracy and making its pro-people. But in all these activi-
Dalrymple, 2009, p. 78).
ties, it does not have its independent tool. A civil society is
assisted by social work that plays a role of agent for this
According to Henderson, the advocacy is taking affirma-
change. It equips a civil society with certain tools through
tive action with or on behalf of a person who is unable to
which it may gain access to masses and intervene between
give a clear indication of their views or wishes in a specific
policy maker and common people. The utilization of social
situation (Harriss, 2001). In similar way, communication
work methods and key strategies assist a civil society organi-
facilitates the process of dissemination of information among
zation to connect people with governance mechanism.
masses. Sociologists define communication “as the mecha-
Therefore, it is imperative for us to know those strategies
nism through which human relations exist and develop.”
aligned with social work for assisting civil society in promo-
According to Obilade (1989, as cited in National Open
tion of democracy.
University of Nigeria, 2008), communication is a process
that involves the transmission of message from a sender to
How Social Work Can Assist Civil the receiver. Therefore, social work helps civil society in
Society in Enhancing Democracy advocating for various policy changes through raising public
awareness. It coordinates people for various debates and
The Social work is having lots of prospects to help the civil brings those issues under public agenda.
society in restoring democracy and ensuring the socioeco-
nomic and political growth. The civil society cannot exist in
vacuum. It requires the mobilization of people based on Conflict Transformation
mutual trust, reciprocity, norms, and ethics so that there may This approach stresses on conflict transformation. It recog-
be formed a strong bond among people. The grievances of nizes the existence of irresolvable conflicts and attempts to
people in a democratic state may be redressed through con- transform the root causes of conflict so that peace may be
scientization of masses through civil society. It can help peo- restored. The social work practice concentrates on purpose-
ple in forming a bridging capital between the upper strata ful expression of feelings that may help in reconciliation
and the lower strata. Therefore, the social work practice pro- within the society. It emphasizes on sensitization of external
motes civil society in building strong social capital through forces toward local culture. In this way, the long-term infra-
following measures: structure for peace building may be supported.

Mobilizing Community Enabling Environment

Social work assists in mobilizing community through The Social work facilitates the process of participatory
strengthening bond among citizens. It brings social cohesion development due to organizing people for decentralized
and bridges societal cleavages. It promotes the associational planning. It ensures greater participation of people at deci-
activity among the poor people. In many parts of the country, sion-making level so that transparency and accountability
the community-based organizations (CBOs) are playing an may be maintained. In other words, it can be said that social
active role in mobilizing the community. They reach the work promotes civil society in enabling communities to
common people and get access to their mind due to their become effective agents of livability. For example, several
associational attributes. social movement activists have facilitated an enabling envi-
ronment for people for either protecting forests, natural habi-
tat, or preventing land alienation and domestic atrocities. All
Advocacy and Public Communication these activities help a civil society in restoring propeople
Advocacy and Public Communication are such terminolo- democracy and ensure equitable socioeconomic develop-
gies that assist social work in articulation of interests of ment of people.
8 SAGE Open

work methods, civil society helps in reconciliating between

the interests of the people and the state. In other words, civil
society strengthens democracy by utilizing the tools of social
work, for example, community mobilization, social advo-
Civil Society Social Work cacy. This proposition is explained further through certain
case studies.

Democracy Case Study

Indonesia
Indonesia has been a crucial example for exhibiting role of
Community civil society in strengthening democracy through overthrow-
ing a 32-year authoritarian regime. It shows how a civil soci-
ety may render an authoritarian regime irrelevant and
promote democracy for just and more accountable gover-
Figure 1. Interface between civil society, community, and role of nance. In Indonesia, Suharto’s New Order had undermined
social work for enhancing democracy. independent power and voices of authority in the name of
national stability (Lowry, 2008). During the New Order,
Promotion of Social Cohesion and Solidarity associations were very much under state control. Even infor-
mal institutions like traditional mechanism of decision mak-
The social work practice enhances the mutual bonding ing at the local level had lost most of their influence (Lowry,
among people through supporting established order and rela- 2008). As Donald Emmerson points out, economic growth in
tions in society. It establishes human rights, social justice, Indonesia during the Suharto era facilitated polycentrism in
and economic growth through various policy level advocacy society, making political monopoly by those in power impos-
efforts that ultimately strengthens democracy. The civil soci- sible (Bunbongkarn, 2001). The effect of this systematic
ety based on these social work strategies, attempts to assist emasculation of civil society was to weaken its ability to
state in running a smooth governance. The interests of people influence the government and hold it accountable
are fulfilled by the state on initiation of social cohesion by (Bunbongkarn, 2001). Although economic growth under the
civil society. John Harriss states that social capital and civil Suharto’s New Order had helped legitimize his regime, espe-
society have proven so attractive in the development dis- cially during the 1980s, by the 1990s this economic success
course that they seem to hold out the prospects of democracy had exposed the expanding middle class to the foreign values
without inconveniences of contestational politics and con- such as democracy. The expanding urban middle class and
flict of ideas that are essential parts of democracy. The col- ethnic groups empowered by economic success were increas-
laboration between civil society and social work in terms of ing critical of Suharto’s authoritarian government
bringing solidarity for restoration of pro-people democracy (Bunbongkarn, 2001). Therefore, some academicians, intel-
can be illustrated through Figure 1. lectuals, and students initiated the first step of advocacy for
Therefore, civil society plays a very crucial role in pro- representing the desires and interests of populace (Lowry,
moting democracy. It brings stability, transparency, cohe- 2008). They facilitated people’s movement by helping peo-
siveness, empowerment that may facilitate a process of ple to organize themselves to identify local needs and mobi-
accountable democracy toward its people. The common man lize potential resources (Lowry, 2008). Their modus operandi
may be able to get connected with policy-making bodies. was protecting and taking the side of the feeble/weak. Their
The trauma and grievances of individuals are supposed to be emphasis was on problems of democracy and human rights
redressed by policy makers due to advocacy efforts of civil (Lowry, 2008). Furthermore, the decline of Suharto’s regime
society. Through strengthening bonds of reciprocity and in 1998 opened a space for these civil society organizations
social connection, civil society promotes harmony among to fulfill their dreams. Some organizations like LPSM (self-
masses that is crucial for conflict transformation. reliant community development organization, lembaga
In this affair, the role of social work may not be ignored. pengembangan swadaya masyarakat) or LSM (self-reliant
It provides a space where masses may be reoriented about community organization, lembaga swadaya masyarakat)
their rights and privileges through public communication held current government accountable for backwardness of
and advocacy efforts. Social work enables people to form economy and asserted the need for contribution of civil soci-
their integrity and unity through getting associated with ety in upgrading it (Lowry, 2008). They emerged as “watch-
organizations. It assists civil society in advocating for certain dog” of governance and almost all aspects of state started to
policy changes if interests of common people are being be monitored by them. In post-Suharto’s era, these NGOs
undermined. Through organizing people based on social have started the work of rebuilding its economy. In this
Jaysawal 9

process, they have grouped themselves in various coalitions government in early 1990s (Lowry, 2008). Now, the civil
to carry out advocacy to change, draft new laws (Lowry, society in South Korea emerged as a very powerful civic
2008). Citizens in Indonesia have a myriad of ways making group led by many younger generations. They emphasized
their voices heard, fill spaces opened by democratization and progressive advocacy functions including efforts to broaden
decentralization, and are in the process of building a new public debate and participation in the formulation of public
relationship with the state (Lowry, 2008). policy, safeguard or expand the domain of human rights,
and safeguard public resources such as the environment
from the pressures of economic growth (Lowry, 2008).
South Korea
They became capable enough to pressurize bureaucrats,
In South Korea, the role of civil society in fostering demo- politicians, corporate giants to contribute toward account-
cratic transition was reflected in a series of student and worker able democratic governance (Lowry, 2008). Major civil
demonstrations against authoritarian rule and demanding lib- society organizations like Citizen’s Coalition for Economic
eralization and democratization during the latter part of the justice and PSPD have equipped themselves with research
1980s. The middle class also exerted strong pressure for true institutes and policy commissions to strengthen their pol-
democratic change. The strength of the middle class, students, icy-presenting capacity (Lowry, 2008). Therefore, the role
and workers was the result of South Korean success in eco- of civil society in South Korea has been intensive right
nomic development and industrialization. from the beginning of protest against the repressive rule to
Previously, the South Korean middle class and workers post-Chun regime policy formulation and political partici-
were traditionally compliant and reserved. Even civil soci- pation in current democracy. Utilizing information and
ety organizations were more or less service-oriented orga- communication technology, they have broadened the scope
nizations under the control of the state, for example, Asan of citizen participation and information dissemination for
Foundation (1977) and Samsung Welfare Foundation strengthening democratic governance (Lowry, 2008). Civic
(1989, as cited in Lowry, 2008). These organizations played groups that pursue public interests have proliferated—not
a role in providing public goods and social services as only groups advocating rights of the formerly marginalized,
stated by the state. In this period, independent civil activi- but also groups speaking for broader causes such as envi-
ties in South Korea could develop only within a limited ronmentalism and other understandings of what is good for
political space (Lowry, 2008). The agrarian economy had society as a whole (Lowry, 2008). The growth of civil soci-
been kinship-based. So, the economy was strictly con- ety organizations is itself proof that the kind of public space
trolled by the state and their kith and kin. Only the students that the government has been either unwilling or unable to
were politically active and had demonstrated against the handle, is rapidly expanding (Lowry, 2008). Apart from
authoritarian regime. But after a long period of economic policy formulation, civil society in South Korea has partici-
growth, the attitudes of the middle class, labor, and civil pated in formation of democratic government also. In the
society groups became less tolerant of repressive rule. general election in 2000, CSOs (Civil Society Organizations)
Some famous advocacy civil organizations as Lawyers announced a list of candidates that they determined were
for a Democratic Society, the People’s Solidarity for not qualified as parliamentarians and conducted nation-
Participatory Democracy (PSPD), and the Citizen’s wide campaigns against them (Lowry, 2008). The reason
Coalition of Economic Justice (CCEJ) grew out of this envi- behind it was to ensure corruption-free democracy as some
ronment (Lowry, 2008). In post-1980 era, awareness about of the parliamentarians were involved in corrupt practices.
problems of authoritarian regime started prevailing among Approximately 1,000 civic organizations joined this cam-
all sections of society. During this period diverse elements paign. As a result, 59 of a total of 86 candidates lost their
in South Korean civil society rapidly mobilized into a mili- elections, and particularly in Seoul, 19 out of the 20 candi-
tant prodemocracy force, and waged intense struggles dates were defeated (Lowry, 2008). Currently, South Korea
against the authoritarian regime (Lowry, 2008). The mobi- is in the maturing phase of substantive democratization. In
lization of a civil society coalition of student and labor this way, civil society remained active in promoting democ-
organizations, journalists, writers, academics, religious racy in South Korea from protesting against authoritarian
groups, and peasants against the authoritarian regime of regime to ensuring just, transparent, and corruption-free
Chun Doo-hwan weakened his rule (Bunbongkarn, 2001). democracy. In this process, it utilized the strategies of social
The government responded with further repression, result- work like advocacy, public communication for making peo-
ing in an explosion of labor and student unrest. Chun’s ple aware about intentions of government, enabling favor-
legitimacy was gone and his close associate, Roh Tae-woo able environment for people and enhancing solidarity and
broke ranks with the regime. These events gave Chun no cohesiveness among people through several social services.
choice except to comply with the public demands to estab- It gained the attention of all sections of society especially
lish full democracy with direct election of the president. middle class that were sleeping previously. Social work
Government policy toward civil advocacy organizations assisted civil society in reaching the heart of people and
greatly changed after the launching of Kim Yong-sam’s convincing them for revolt against repressive rule.
10 SAGE Open

India Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS [Workers and Farm-

ers Power Organization]). Another civil society in India that
In India, the civil society organizations have been quite has been active in promoting propeople governance is
instrumental in social service and in strengthening people’s MKSS. It is a voice of people against corrupt bureaucratic
power to promote just and democratic governance. Since the machinery. The MKSS is a grassroots organization of
British period, the concept of welfarism has been quite prev- mainly poor people based in Rajasthan’s economically
alent in India. The volunteers have been rewarded for their underdeveloped Rajsamand district. The MKSS’s cam-
social service. Apart from social services, India has wit- paign to secure minimum wages for employees on drought-
nessed a plethora of civil society organizations active in pro- relief works highlighted the role of corruption in the
moting democratic governance. They have contributed underpayment of wages, as it became clear that local
directly or indirectly in upgradation of propeople gover- authorities were billing the central and state governments
nance. It has made Indian people confident of power of local for amounts that far exceeded what workers were paid
community. Rather than focusing on macroissues, it has (Lowry, 2008). To combat these forms of fraud, access was
gathered masses around local issues of concern that ulti- required not only to balance sheets, but also to supporting
mately affects the governance. As the state has neglected documentation that could be cross-checked by workers
popular interests, the civil society organizations have raised organized through the MKSS (Lowry, 2008). Therefore,
those issues either in terms of housing facilities, infrastruc- this civil society organization demanded access to informa-
ture development, corruption-free governance, or employ- tion for their just and transparent governance. With this
ment opportunities for poor people. One of the most crucial continual resistance, the government had to lean before it
roles played by civil society in contemporary India has been and provided access to this information that later on became
to act as a “watchdog” to the state, and in doing so push the a very helpful ground for demanding “Right to Informa-
state in directions that are accountable and responsive to citi- tion.” The protagonist of this movement remained active in
zens thereby protecting and deepening their democratic “Right to Information” campaign also which has ultimately
rights (Lowry, 2008). The illustration of some of those civil led to passing of “Right to Information Act, 2005” in India.
society organizations are as follows: It is a revolutionary and historical step that has given power
in the hands of people to ensure corruption-free govern-
Ghar Bachao Ghar Banao Andolan [Save House and Build House ment. A common man can get response from the state
Movement]. Ghar Bachao Ghar Banaoo Andolan is a fine regarding utilization of money in various developmental
example of mobilization of people at a mass scale by civil activities through this right.
society in India. It was evolved as a movement when massive Here, with the help of these above-mentioned case stud-
slum demolition drive started in November 2004. At that ies an attempt has been made to highlight the role of civil
time, the established slum community at once started to society in restoring democratic consolidation. The civil
be ransacked. The police charged laathis, threw away house society not only educates, conscientize, but also mobilizes
materials, and sent many behind bars. In this scenario, the masses for their welfare that ultimately strengthens the
community was totally dismantled, hopeless, and decision democracy. The democracy is a phenomenon that exists in
less. This was the time when NAPM (National Alliance of institutionalization of rights by government machinery. If
People’s Movement) stepped into the matter and started its the socioeconomic conditions of people are encroached by
work of engaging into the issue. The slogan Ghar Bachao the political forces or economic giants, the existence of
Ghar Banaoo became the name of movement. It was the propeople governance is questioned. Therefore, the civil
voice of people that necessitated this movement. At the time society assists in facilitating dialogue, conciliating between
of the beginning of the movement, the main issue was pro- diverse interests of government and people through its
tection of the slum houses and restraining the unlawful deci- innovative ways. The mobilization of masses on the lines
sion of builders, BMC (Bombay Municipal Corporation), of uprising can be possible through civil society. In this
and SRA (Slum Rehabilitation Authority). Now, together entire framework, social work plays a very crucial role. It
with the issue of housing, the movement is dealing simulta- garners support of masses through community mobiliza-
neously with various related issues like ration card, voter tion, social advocacy, conscientization of people through
ID card, jeevan shala (Balwadi), sakhi navnirmaan (income- public communication, reconciliation of diverse interests
generation activity), advocacy at different levels of govern- through conflict resolution and mass campaigns. It ensures
ment machinery and exposing corruption of Government that civil society gets popular support and its voice
officials, nexus of builders, BMC and SRA. In this entire becomes mass voice. The democratic governance that is
process, workers of this movement have been assisted by principally, based on representation of people’s interests,
huge masses. It is organizing the people through empower- accountable and transparent rule, may not materialize
ing their ideological base and engulfing all other processes unless it is corresponded by people’s participation in their
like Right to information, advocating for ID card, ensuring governance. Civil society, being nonstate actor, assists in
availability of ration cards. Then movement is supported not empowering people for promotion of a just and account-
by a limited community but entire masses. able democracy.
Jaysawal 11

Critical Assessment of Role of Civil •• Some schools of thought predict the imminent politi-
Society in Democracy cal co-optation with civil society. They argue that civil
society may also expect benefits from political institu-
Apart from strength of civil society in restoration of democ- tions and mobilize people even against their welfare.
racy, they lack certain parameters that negate their signifi- As a result, the political co-optation sacrifices the
cance in democracy. There are certain schools of thought that ability of civil society to impartially control the com-
challenge the role of civil society in restoration of peace and pliance of state and political actors with democratic
democratic space. They are as follows: norms and procedures.
•• Civil society is said to be biased interest representa-
•• Mark Robinson says that it is frequently difficult to tive by some propagandist. Civil society is a realm
distinguish between civil and political organizations open to the formation, organization and representation
because the same or related organizations are active of any interest regardless of its particular nature, scope
in both sectors. His account of Hindu politics in India or social significance.
shows how militant nationalists are seeking to create •• Some authors ignore role of civil society in demo-
an ideological hegemony through such civil society cratic restoration. They assert that habituation and
institutions as the media, research institutes, religious eventual appreciation of democratic procedures and
bodies, youth organizations while also pursuing norms, to which civil society contributes through
power through a cadre-based political party (Elliott, facilitating more frequent and immediate political
2003). participation, depends on features of internal proce-
•• Civil society might detract from democracy in global dures of organization. In other words, compliance
governance if its interventions are ill-conceived in with democratic credentials cannot be taken for
design and execution (Scholte, 2001). For example, granted for each and every civil society.
activists may lack clear objectives, or they may have •• It has also been criticized that civil society has ama-
little understanding of the mandates and modus ope- teurism in its professional conduct. Some of civil
randi of the institutions of global governance, or they society organizations lack good managers, policy
may neglect key global policy areas that require makers and analysts who may guide state in acting for
democratization (Scholte, 2001). restoration of mass prosperity.
•• Civil society might undermine democracy in global •• The impulse of civil society is inclusion, the notion of
governance when it suffers from inadequate represen- civil excludes those that act primarily outside the law.
tation (Scholte, 2001). If civil society is fully to real- Mafia organization and criminal groups; guerilla
ize its promises, then all interested parties must have movements and terrorist cells cannot be considered as
access and preferably equal opportunities to partici- members of civil society. This is because they not
pate (Scholte, 2001). Otherwise, civil society can only challenge the accepted rules that protect civil
reproduce or even enlarge structural inequalities and society space; their use of violence denies the efficacy
arbitrary privileges connected with class, gender, of discourse that connects civil society association
nationality, race, religion, urban versus rural location, with each other and the state. Partha Chatterjee gives
and so on (Scholte, 2001). the example of squatter communities in Kolkata that
•• Civil society activity might not pursue democratic lives outside the law and conduct their internal affairs
purposes (Scholte, 2001). Although the term civil depicting a model of civil society. These settlements
society carries connotations of civility and virtue, vol- occupy land illegally; have no police protection and
untary associations do not ipso facto have the promo- no access to city services. Yet they have developed
tion of democracy on their agenda (Scholte, 2001). On mechanisms to solve collective problems, and to inte-
the contrary, elements of uncivil society may actually grate a great diversity of residents (Elliott, 2003).
aim to undermine democracy. For example, some
civic associations can use underhanded tactics in the
pursuit of special privileges for private interests
Conclusion
(Scholte, 2001). Civil societies are being called on to play increasingly impor-
•• In many settings, local governments display more of tant roles in development efforts. This article has argued that
the qualities of voluntary association than of the state. a range of challenges predictably emerge for civil societies,
They often function as lobbies for local interests con- especially those concerned with promoting development. We
fronting a hierarchical bureaucracy for eliciting vol- regard this analysis as a step in developing conceptual maps
untary participation by citizens in collective projects. that can guide efforts to strengthen civil society organiza-
Trade unions and employers associations in western tions and the sector as a whole. On the basis of improvement
states often work so closely with government that dis- in its internal structure, civil society may respond to various
tinguishing between government and civil society emerging challenges/problems and assist the state in restora-
becomes difficult (Elliott, 2003). tion of democracy. It has potential to garner support from
12 SAGE Open

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Author Biography
Leftword. Neelmani Jaysawal is an assistant professor at the Department of
Holloway, R. (2001). A handbook on resource mobilization for Social Work, Visva-Bharati. He has presented papers in various
civil society organizations in the South. London, England: national and international seminars and conferences across India.
Earthscan Publications. He has published papers in international journals. His areas of inter-
National Open University of Nigeria. (2008). Introduction to Mass est are civil society and governance, rural development, and women
Communication—A Course Guide. Victoria Island, Lagos: empowerment.