Nervous

System
Anore, Ana Manuelle
Galon, Marianne Emmanuelle
Jandayan, Jahzeel Melcah
The Brain
The brain is an organ that serves as
the center of the nervous system in
all vertebrate and most invertebrate
animals.

It is located in the head, close to the

sensory organs for senses.
The Brain
Major regions of the brain:

1. Brainstem
2. Cerebellum
3. Diencephalon
4. Cerebrum
The Brain (Major Regions)
1 Brainstem

● Connects the spinal cord to the

remainder of the brain
● This is involved in vital body functions such as control
of heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing.
● It consists of three parts: medulla oblongata, pons, and
midbrain.
The Brain (Major Regions)
1 Brainstem
a. Medulla Oblongata
● Most inferior part of the
brainstem and is continuous
with the spinal cord.
● It extends superiorly from the level of foramen
magnum to the pons.
● It contains ascending and descending nerve tracts that
convey signals to and from the brain.
The Brain (Major Regions)
1 Brainstem
a. Medulla Oblongata
● It also has specific functions,
such as regulation of heart rate
and blood vessel diameter,
breathing, swallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing,
balance and coordination.
The Brain (Major Regions)
1 Brainstem
b. Pons
● Several nuclei of the medulla
oblongata extend into the
lower part of the pons, thus
controlling functions such as breathing, swallowing,
and balance.
The Brain (Major Regions)
1 Brainstem
c. Midbrain
● Superior to the pons; smallest
region of the brainstem
● The dorsal part consists of colliculi. Two inferior
colliculi are major relay centers for auditory nerve
pathways, while two superior colliculi are involved in
visual reflexes.
The Brain (Major Regions)
1 Brainstem
c. Midbrain
● The midbrain contains nuclei
involved in coordinate eye
movements and controlling
pupil diameter and lens shape
The Brain (Major Regions)
1 Brainstem
Reticular Formation
● Group of nuclei scattered
throughout the brainstem.
● It plays important functions such as regulating
cyclical motor functions (respiration, walking,
chewing), arousing and maintaining consciousness
and in regulating the sleep-wake cycle.
The Brain (Major Regions)
2 Cerebellum
● Attached to the brainstem by
several large connections
called the cerebellar peduncles
These provide routes of communication between
the cerebellum and other parts of the CNS.
The Brain (Major Regions)
3 Diencephalon
● Part of the brain
between the brainstem
and the cerebrum.
● Its main components are: thalamus, hypothalamus,
and epithalamus.
The Brain (Major Regions)
3 Diencephalon
a. Thalamus
● Largest part of the
diencephalon
● Influences mood and registers unlocalized,
uncomfortable perception of pain.
The Brain (Major Regions)
3 Diencephalon
b. Epithalamus
● It is a small area
superior and posterior
to the thalamus
● It consists of a few small nuclei responsible for the
emotional and visceral response to odors, and the
pineal gland
The Brain (Major Regions)
3 Diencephalon
c. Hypothalamus
● Most inferior part of
the diencephalon
● This plays a central role in the control of body
temperature, hunger, and thirst.
● Sensations such as sexual pleasure, rage, fear, and
relaxation after a meal are also related to this.
The Brain (Major Regions)
4 Cerebrum
● Largest part of the
brain divided into left
and right hemispheres
● The most conspicuous features are numerous folds
called gyri and intervening grooves called sulci.
● Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into lobes, named
for the skull bones overlying them
The Brain (Major Regions)
4 Cerebrum
a. Frontal lobe - Voluntary motor
functions, motivation, aggression,
mood, olfactory reception
b. Parietal lobe - receiving and perceiving sensory
information (touch, pain, temperature, balance)
c. Occipital lobe - receiving and perceiving visual input
d. Temporal lobe - olfactory and auditory sensations, and
plays a role in memory
Sensory Functions
The CNS constantly receives a variety of stimuli
originating both inside and outside the body. These keep
us informed about our environment. A small portion of
the sensory input results in perception, or the conscious
awareness of stimuli.
Sensory Functions
● Ascending tracts
The spinal cord and the brainstem contain a number of
ascending tracts that transmit information via action
potentials from periphery to the brain. Each tract is
involved with a type of sensory input, such as pain,
temperature, touch, etc.
Sensory Functions
● Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
Ascending tracts project to specific regions of the
cerebral cortex called the primary sensory areas,
where sensations are perceived.
The primary somatosensory cortex is located in the
parietal lobe. Sensory fibers containing sensory input
relay information to this part of the brain.
Somatic Motor Functions
The somatic motor system of the brain and spinal cord is
responsible for maintaining body posture, balance, and
movement. It also allows us to communicate through
facial expressions and speech.
Reflexes are responsible for some body movements, and
are considered involuntary movements. Voluntary
movements are consciously activated to achieve a goal.
Somatic Motor Functions
● Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
The primary motor cortex is located in the frontal lobe.
The premotor area of the frontal lobe is where motor
functions are organized before they are initiated into
the primary motor cortex. The motivation to plan and
initiate movements occur in the anterior portion of the
frontal lobes, the prefrontal area.
Somatic Motor Functions
● Descending Tracts
● Basal Nuclei
The basal nuclei are important in planning, organizing,
and coordinating motor movements and posture.
● Cerebellum
The cerebellum is involved in maintaining balance and
muscle tone and in coordinating fine motor movement.
Other Brain Functions
● Communication between Right and Left Hemispheres
The right cerebral hemisphere receives sensory input
from and controls muscular activity in the left half of
the body. The left cerebral hemisphere receives input
from and controls muscles in the right half of the body.
Sensory information received by one hemisphere is
shared with the other through commissures. The
largest of these is the corpus callosum.
Other Brain Functions
● Speech
The speech area is in the left cerebral cortex. Two
major cortical areas are involved in speech: the
sensory speech area (Wernicke area) and the motor
speech area (Broca area).
● Brain waves and consciousness
Different levels of consciousness can be revealed by
different patterns of electrical activity in the brain.
Other Brain Functions
● Memory
The storage of memory can be divided into three:
1. Working memory - few seconds to minutes
2. Short-term memory - few minutes to a few days
3. Long-term memory - permanent
● Limbic system and emotions
The limbic system is the part of the brain involved in
our behavioral and emotional responses.
Other Brain Functions
Meninges
The meninges are three connective tissue membranes
surrounding and protecting the brain and spinal cord.
These include the:
● Dura mater
● Arachnoid mater
● Pia mater
Meninges
● Dura mater - the most superficial and thickest. It
adheres to the cranial bones, however, an epidural
space is present between dura mater and the
vertebrae.
● Arachnoid
mater - very
thin; subdural
space
Meninges
● Pia mater - tightly bound to the surface of the brain
and spinal cord; space between the arachnoid mater
and the pia mater is called the subarachnoid space
Ventricles
● The CNS contains fluid-filled cavities called ventricles.
The first and second ventricles are in each cerebral
hemisphere called the lateral ventricle. The third
ventricle is in the center
of the diencephalon,
and the fourth ventricle
is located at the base of
the cerebellum.
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
● It is the fluid that bathes the brain and spinal cord,
providing a protective cushion around the CNS. This
fluid fills the brain
ventricles, the
central canal of the
spine, and the
subarachnoid space.
Cranial Nerves
● There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves, designated by
Roman numerals from I to XII. Two general categories
are the sensory (special senses and more general
senses) and motor (somatic motor and
parasympathetic).
Cranial Nerves
Autonomic Nervous System
● The ANS comprises of motor neurons that carry action
potentials from CNS to periphery. These are largely
controlled unconsciously. It is composed of two
divisions: the sympathetic division (fight-or-flight), and
the parasympathetic division (rest-and-digest).
Autonomic Nervous System
● Sympathetic Division (fight-or-flight)
This division prepares an individual for physical
activity. These actions include increasing heart rate
and blood pressure, dilating respiratory passageways
to increase airflow, and stimulating release of glucose.
It decreases organ activity that are not essential for
maintenance of physical activity.
“Fight-or-flight” - either face a threat or leave the
situation as quickly as possible.
Autonomic Nervous System
● Parasympathetic Division (rest-and-digest)
This division is consistent with resting conditions. It
stimulates involuntary activities such as digestion,
defecation, and urination.
At the same time, it lowers the heart rate and
constricts air passageways, lowering the blood
pressure and airflow.
Enteric Nervous System
● The ENS forms plexuses in the digestive tract wall.
They are sensory, motor, or interneurons, and receive
CNS input but can also function independently. It is an
independent subdivision of PNS integrated with ANS.
SUMMARY
 END
Thank you for listening.

By:
Anore, Ana Manuelle
Galon, Marianne Emmanuelle
Jandayan, Jahzeel Melcah