Reaching for the Stars…Black Holes

Paper Length: 2442

 “Remember to look up at the stars and not down at your feet. Try to make sense of

what you see and wonder about what makes the universe exist. Be curious. And however

difficult life may seem, there is always something you can do and succeed at.” 1 —Stephen

Hawking

In 1974, Stephen Hawking discovered Hawking radiation at Oxford, England due to

astrological research. This event represents the disability frontier within his career, and

ideas he contributed to the development of Astrophysical intelligence. This encouraged

more ideas to be formed about Black Holes, and inspired disability in the workforce.

Early History of Astrophysics

The primordial building blocks of astrophysics had been placed in the 1920’s, as this

epoch majorly focused on the life cycle of a star. This began when Arthur Eddington

discovered the basic equations of stellar structure and energy transport; additional to

deriving relationships between mass, radius and central temperature of stars. Later on,

Niel Bohr’s quantum theory was applied to ions that could be viewed on the surface layer

of stars, which assisted in the future modeling of stellar atmospheres and introduced the

notion that stars are made of hydrogen and helium.2

1 “Stephen Hawking's Last Inspiring Message To Humanity Before He Passed” Uploaded on youtube
by Goalcast, 15 March 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VYxjumUhji0
2 “Astrophysics and cosmology: the golden age” physics world, 06 August 2019
https://physicsworld.com/a/astrophysics-and-cosmology-the-golden-age/
 Within the late 1930’s, the “proton-proton” and “carbon-nitrogen cycle” was

founded by Hans Bethe and his colleagues, describing the process in which engines a star’s

existence. Finally, in 1955, Fred Hoyle and Martin Schwarzschild were able to illustrate the

near death of a star, where hydrogen has exhausted its centre, however, little was known

about the death of a star.

Scientific innovation relating to astrophysics had blossomed in the 1930’s-1940’s, as

the discovery of the emission of radio and radar from various extraterrestrial objects was

discovered. In 1934, Karl Jansky discovered radio emission from the milky way galaxy,

likewise, John Hey discovered radio emission from the sun. The new astronomies of radio

and radar provided an explanation for dozens of phenomena, hence, being responsible for

many findings of this scientific era, some of which are mentioned in the following: radio

galaxy, quasars, and pulsars. In addition to radio wavelengths, X-ray binaries also majorly

contributed to the development of astrological knowledge, as they recorded neutron stars

and black holes, massive black holes in galactic nuclei, starburst, and ultraluminous

infrared galaxies, protoplanetary discs, and gravitational lensing by stars, galaxies and

clusters.

Discovery of Black Holes

As astrology evolved, more extraterrestrial objects had been found, including the

Black hole. However, black holes hadn’t been outrightly viewed, rather they were a

hypothetical. The idea of black holes was created in 1738 by John Mitchell, an englishman

who had formulated this theory while considering a method that could be used to measure
the mass of a star. Using one of Newton’s theories, he was able to understand that by

measuring the reduction in the speed of light given by a star, it is possible to calculate the

mass of that star.

Mitchell viewed this as a projectile and speculated that the imaginary missile

would need to reach a speed of x before it could actually escape the gravitational force of

the sun. He was aware that x could depend on the size and mass of the star. He then

questioned the possibilities of what would happen if the star was so huge that it caused x to

surpass the speed of light.3 He decided that x would exceed the speed of light on a star that

is 500 times larger than the sun. He then concluded that if the aforementioned

circumstances were true, then light wouldn’t be able to escape this body, therefore being

invisible. Due to the object's gravitational pull, observing if nearby stars revolve around a

seemingly empty space could indicate a black hole’s presence.

In response to discoveries, Fredrick Slocums’ conducted an experiment that mainly

focused on the parallax of stars near the black hole in Sagittarius in 1928. This study was

directed to understand the strange matter Slocum encountered via observation. Slocum

wanted to find out if there was a parallel relative of a star that lies beside this anomalous

object (most likely a black hole), which could be used to discover what the strange item had

3 “John Michell: Country Parson Described Black Holes in 1783: AMNH” American Museum of Natural
History, 2000
https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/cosmic-horizons-book/john-michell-black-
holes#:~:text=A%20black%20hole%20is%20a,Michell%2C%20an%20English%20country%20parson.
been. However, within this study, there is a potential mistake that occurred, whereas the

probable error of one plate was .044.4

Another experiment was conducted in 1978 with a scientist that recorded findings

of an extraterrestrial object that mimicked a black hole; though it is uncertain if this was a

black hole, as it had many similar characteristics of a black hole. The scientist describes the

object as a “Large faint nebula” , “Very diffusive” , “Not less than a 10’ diameter”. 5He then

elaborates in row F that he viewed an object that had “A small triangular hole in the milky

way galaxy, perfectly black, some 2’ diameter, very much like a jet black nebula.”

Stephen Hawking ALS

Stephen Hawking had been diagnosed with ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) in

his early twenties while attending college.6 Since the average life expectancy of ALS

patients is 14 months after development, the physician forecasted that Stephen Hawking

wouldn’t live long. However, his disease had experienced a plot twist, whereas his ALS

progressed at a slower pace, therefore allowing him to live longer than expected. The

effects had still remained, where he had been confined to a wheelchair and experienced

troubles with writing during the late 1960’s. In the 1970’s his ability to communicate had

4 “NOTE ON THE PARALLAX OF A STAR IN THE “BLACK HOLE” IN SAGITTARIUS” Frederick Slocums,
1928 https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1931PAAS....6Q.153S

5“
6“Dr. Stephen Hawking: A Case Study on Using Technology to Communicate with the World” 15
March 2018 https://www.washington.edu/accesscomputing/dr-stephen-hawking-case-study-using-
technology-communicate-world#:~:text=While%20in%20graduate%20school%2C%20at,U.S.%20as%20Lou
%20Gehrig's%20disease.
begun to deteriorate, and eventually lost his ability to speak altogether due to a

tracheotomy.7

The disease had provided many frontiers throughout Stephen Hawking’s career,

where he was unable to participate in everyday activities. Some of these included feeding

himself and showering. Shoehorning on his inability to communicate without use of

computer, he had been regularly asked to speak at meetings, which had periodically been

conflicted.8 His disease had also placed him at risk of many diseases, hence he needed to

undergo many procedures, some of which had been time consuming. Additionally,

subsequent to the disease’s fundamental effects, Stephen Hawking had only been able to

control his eye and finger movement.

His office at CMS was personally designed to accommodate his disease. A large

portion of his office had been designated to his carers, and it is speculated that most chairs

and tables were surfaces that held medical equipment.9 As a treatment, Stephen Hawking

would be laid flat on a couch in order to clear his throat. With the development of his

technology, this procedure was able to be conducted from the comfort of his wheelchair.

7“ALS and Stephen Hawking: Timeline, Quick Facts, and More” Uploaded on Griswold Home Care by
Beth Sager 08 May 2018 https://www.griswoldhomecare.com/blog/2018/may/als-and-stephen-hawking-
timeline-quick-facts-and/#:~:text=Stephen%20Hawking%20Disease%20Timeline&text=In%20the
%20beginning%2C%20he%20was,lost%20the%20ability%20to%20speak
8 “How Stephen Hawking Defied Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis for Five Decades” Clinical Medicine
and Therapeutics (CMT), 09 March 2019 https://scitemed.com/article/2792/scitemed-cmt-2019-
00105#:~:text=Stephen%20Hawking%20developed%20the%20motor,and%20falling%20frequently
%20%5B1%5D
9 “INTRODUCING STEPHEN HAWKING'S OFFICE”, Science Museum, 10 November 2022
https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/introducing-stephen-hawkings-office
 Notwithstanding his depressing circumstances, he remained joyous and overcame

many obstacles. He gained comfort with his disease as he progressed throughout his

lifetime. It is stated by colleagues at CMS that he greatly enjoyed racing around the area via

his wheelchair. At times, his outgoing personality had caused a few accidents, one of which

caused him to break his bones.10 These situations hardly fazed him, and periodically, he

would make jokes of these events. This could be expressed through a first hand account of a

student, where Stephen Hawking had fallen from his wheelchair, and most students had

been frightened as he began to violently shake. By turn of events, he was actually laughing,

and goes on to create a pun concerning this mishap.

“Reaching for the Stars…er Black holes” - Stephen Hawking and Black Holes

Stephen Hawking has made contributions to the overall understanding of black

holes. Foremost, using information obtained by those who excelled in the subject of general

relativity, he was able to form the idea that black holes are existent. In 1971, he expressed

this idea to colleagues, but had been doubted by many. His logic behind this is that many of

them were created within the chaotic environment of the big bang, a theory that was also

proposed by him. In order to test if this hypothesis was true, a series of experiments and

projects were conducted, and the results of such had supported Stephen Hawking’s claim.

10 “How Stephen Hawking Defied Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis for Five Decades”, Clinical Medicine
and Therapeutics (CMT) 09 March 2019 https://scitemed.com/article/2792/scitemed-cmt-2019-
00105#:~:text=Stephen%20Hawking%20developed%20the%20motor,and%20falling%20frequently
%20%5B1%5D
An example of this is the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) which had been able to produce

an image of a black hole.

Other experiments had recorded radio waves that came from black holes, and

aspects in this experiment had corresponded with the theorized characteristics of black

holes. He also discovered that if two black holes were to hypothetically merge, then the

area of the final black hole would be greater than the sum of areas that the original black

holes had.11

Within a study, Hawking had proposed that black holes don't eternally expand, nor

were they actually black. He had explained, “for a black hole of solar mass this is much

longer than the age of the Universe.’ In much smaller black holes it would be faster,

culminating in a final explosion equivalent to ‘1 million 1-Mton hydrogen bombs,’ he

wrote.”12

As Stephen Hawking’s research progressed, he discovered Hawking Radiation in

1942. Hawking radiation is radiation that is theoretically emitted from outside the event

horizon.13 Stephen Hawking describes that according to quantum mechanics, the universe

11 “Stephen Hawking on black holes - Professor Stephen Hawking” Uploaded to Youtube by The
Guardian on 18 November 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K1CefSyt-bs

12“Stephen Hawking and the Science of Black Holes” OpenMind, 12 March 2021
https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/science/physics/stephen-hawking-and-the-history-of-black-holes/
13 “Hawking radiation” Encyclopædia Britannica, 30 December 2022
https://www.britannica.com/science/Hawking-radiation?utm_campaign=b-
extension&utm_medium=chrome&utm_source=ebinsights&utm_content=Hawking%20radiation
is filled with particles and antiparticles that constantly materialize in pairs and eventually

annihilate one another. However, one member of this team might fall into the black hole,

leaving the other, and while this body has none to annihilate, it either falls into the black

hole, or escapes the black hole’s vicinity. Stephen Hawking explains that “radiation is

spontaneous—it is generated from empty space—and that it is stationary—it does not

change in intensity over time.”14 This proposition created disagreement between

relativistic and quantum physicists. In an attempt to diffuse such confusion, an experiment

that mimicked Hawking radiation was conducted. It had proven both hypotheses to be

correct.

Other scientists also doubted the function of Hawking Radiation. A misconception in

wording had led others to consider that “if, according to quantum physics, the information

associated with particles is never destroyed, but no matter or energy ever escapes a black

hole, how can a black hole simply disappear, taking this information out of existence?”

Essentially, this violated a principle of science, whereas matter is not created or destroyed,

rather it stays constant. However, he had debunked this by explaining that all information

is not lost but it lies in the particles that the radiation emits.

Stephen Hawking had discovered that Black holes yield the tendency of boiling or

evaporating themselves, which causes them to cease existence (essentially die). 15 He had

14“Stephen Hawking explains black holes in 90 seconds - BBC News” Uploaded to youtube on 10
Аugust 2016 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gU6yHXJuowU
15 “Simplifying black holes, debunking information paradox: Stephen Hawking’s biggest
contributions to science” The Economic Times, 09 December 2020
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/stephen-hawkings-77th-birth-anniversary-a-
declared that this had originated from virtual particles. This is a result of Hawking

radiation, as the constant escape of particles/antiparticles causes the black hole to rapidly

evaporate.

Hawking Radiation - Right or Wrong?

Hawking radiation was debunked by a physicist, whereas Stephen Hawking claims

that throughout space, particles are popping in and out of existence, while on the inside,

both members remain there and annihilate one another; this is the same case for the far

outside the black hole. Yet, in the horizon, he deems that one member could fall in while the

other escapes with energy. The error in this illustration is that if this were true then

Hawking Radiation yields a 50/50 mix of particles, all of the Hawking radiation is emitted

from the event horizon, and every quantum of emitted radiation must yield an enormous

amount of energy. 16

Stephen Hawking hadn’t incorporated these perceptions into his writings, and

Seigel theorizes that he was aware of his flaw, but had presented it nonetheless. The author

implies that he knew the correct explanation of Hawking Radiation’s functions, and had

intentionally fed society wrong information.

tribute-to-the-man-who-made-black-holes-shine/articleshow/73138481.cms?from=mdr

16“Yes, Stephen Hawking Lied To Us All About How Black Holes Decay” Forbes, 09 July 2020

https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2020/07/09/yes-stephen-hawking-lied-to-us-all-about-

how-black-holes-decay/?sh=72a4c4334e63
 Hawking’s Legacy

Not only did Hawking act as a trailblazer academically, but his disability encouraged

many individuals. In 1993, Stephen Hawking visited a school of disabled students in order

to give a pep talk. Stephen Hawking described his boredom with life until he had gotten

diagnosed and viewed this event as a wake-up call to appreciate life, which is the moral

that he was teaching the students. "I didn't die," he noted continuously. Following his

speech, students asked questions. However, the messages were delayed due to the voice

synthesizer, and with this, he jokes “The only trouble is it gives me an American accent," 17

The children find this aspect humorous, and a child named Mike Gallagher expressed "I

think your synthesizer has a Norwegian accent,"

It was reported that a child had enjoyed Hawking’s presence on a TV show, as it had

given her a representation of disabled individuals. This had brought her content. She had

also enjoyed how a famous person who was a role-model to others, needed assistance in

order to eat, which is a similar aspect that she and Hawking share.

Stephen Hawking’s career had also inspired disability in the workforce. Karin

Willison expresses in an article, “Before Stephen Hawking came along, people with speech

disabilities were often dismissed as mentally unaware and unable to contribute to society…

17 “Hawking reminisces with disabled students” DO-IT, 02 July 1993

https://www.washington.edu/doit/hawking-reminisces-disabled-students
he made talking through a computer not just acceptable but cool.”18 Tuhin Dey also stated

his high goals, which had been inspired by stephen hawking, “Like Professor Stephen

Hawking who could achieve so much in the world of science from his wheelchair, I too am

trying to achieve my target of becoming an astrophysicist like him”, says Tuhin.” 19

Stephen Hawking’s legacy paved the way for other physicists and inspired

experiments. On January 3rd, 2022, an article concerning the testing of Stephen Hawking’s

ideas. The scientists are attempting to debunk or confirm a very controversial theory of

Stephen Hawking whereas it states that dark matter had been formed from black holes that

had existed ever since the big bang. Using logic, the scientists were able to refute his claim,

as black holes require normal matter in order to be made. The amount of normal matter is

less than the abundance of dark matter in the universe.20

The scientists decided to make models representing their findings. They replaced

the dark matter within this model with primordial black holes. (Black holes from the big

bang) The team discovered that primordial black holes had been essential, as they birthed

the first stars, galaxies, and potentially supermassive black holes. However, this model

could be tested with the James Webb Telescope. With Hawking’s discoveries, scientific

18 “How Stephen Hawking Normalized Disability and Spoke for Those Who Could Not” HIE Help Center, 19
March 2018 https://hiehelpcenter.org/2018/03/19/stephen-hawking-normalized-disability-spoke-not/
19 “Prof Stephen Hawking is the inspiration for this budding astrophysicist with CP” Newz Hook | Disability
News - Changing Attitudes towards Disability, 11 January, 2022 https://newzhook.com/story/disabled-
scientist-stephen-astrophysicist-from-india-eleanor/
20 “We may finally be able to test one of Stephen Hawking's most far-out ideas” Space.com, 03 January, 2022
https://www.space.com/testable-primordial-black-holes-theory
innovations concerning astrophysics have advanced greatly, and taught everyone that

“however difficult life may seem, there is always something you can do and succeed at.” 21

Documents recorded of John Michell’s findings concerning black holes.

“John Michell: Country Parson Described Black Holes in 1783: AMNH” American Museum of Natural
History, 2000. Accessed Feb 25, 2023.
https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/cosmic-horizons-book/john-michell-black-
holes#:~:text=A%20black%20hole%20is%20a,Michell%2C%20an%20English%20country%20parson

21 “Stephen Hawking's Last Inspiring Message To Humanity Before He Passed” Uploaded on youtube
by Goalcast, 15 March 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VYxjumUhji0
This winch was used to carry Stephen Hawking during medical procedures.
 “INTRODUCING STEPHEN HAWKING'S OFFICE”, Science Museum, 10 November 2022. Accessed Feb.
25, 2023 https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/introducing-stephen-hawkings-office

Table that was used for medical procedures in Stephen Hawking’s office.

“INTRODUCING STEPHEN HAWKING'S OFFICE”, Science Museum, 10 November 2022. Accessed Feb.
25, 2023 https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/introducing-stephen-hawkings-office
 Stephen Hawking hosted a pep talk in 1993 at a school for disabled kids.

Hawking reminisces with disabled students” DO-IT, 02 July 1993. Accessed on Feb 25, 2023
https://www.washington.edu/doit/hawking-reminisces-disabled-students
 Annotated Bibliography

Primary sources

Hawking, Stephen. “Particle Creation by Black Holes.” Brainmaster Technologies, 12 April

1975, https://www.brainmaster.com/software/pubs/physics/Hawking%20Particle

%20Creation.pdf. Accessed 25 February 2023.

This source is a report from Stephen Hawking himself concerning his knowledge of black holes.

This had been useful to my NHD project, as it had allowed me to gain an understanding of

Hawking's thought process with his research.

Hawking, Stephen. “The theory of the NHS.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, vol.

110, 2017, p. 5. Winona University,

https://mnpals-wsu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01MNPALS_WSU/biv007/

cdi_pubmedcentral_primary_oai_pubmedcentral_nih_gov_5734485. Accessed 25 February 2023.

This source had been a recording of a speech that Hawking had given prior to it being published.

This journal allowed me to view the medical portion of Stephen Hawking’s work.

Hawking, Stephen W., et al. Black Hole Entropy and Soft Hair, 2018, p. 26. Cornell

University, https://arxiv.org/. Accessed 10 February 2023.

This source elaborates on the features of a black hole. However, before this had been published,

Stephen Hawking had unfortunately passed, but contributed nonetheless. This assisted me in my
NHD project whereas it once more allowed me to view the thought process of Stephen Hawking,

which was an essential portion of my NHD project.

“Introducing Stephen Hawking's Office.” Science Museum, 10 November 2022,

https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/introducing-stephen-hawkings-office.

Accessed 25 February 2023.

This source elaborated on the setup of Stephen Hawking’s office, and had not only elaborated on

scientific points, but also medical points. This assisted with my NHD project whereas it had given

me a view of Stephen Hawking’s way of life. The images had been especially helpful.

Kreutz, H. “New Nebulae - Small Black Hole in the Milky Way.” Harvard University, 3 April

1884, https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1884AN....108..369B. Accessed 15 January 2023.

This article elaborated on the This article elaborates on the strange body Mr. Wendal encountered

an observation that lasted about 6 days. This body is presumed to be a black hole, as it yields most

qualities of a Black hole. This article elaborates on the strange body Frederick Slocums encountered

upon observation that lasted about 6 days. This body is presumed to be a black hole, as it yields

most qualities of a Black hole.

Michell, John. “The Country Parson Who Conceived of Black Holes.” VII. On the means of

Difalace, Magnitude, Etc., vol. 1, no. 1, 1783, p. 1. American Museum of Natural History,

https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/cosmic-horizons-book/john-michell-

black-holes#:~:text=A%20black%20hole%20is%20a,Michell%2C%20an%20English%20country

%20parson. Accessed 16 January 2023.

This source had been a portion of the overall article that I had read about Michell John. The picture

displays a journal that had been written by him, and assisted me with my project by giving me an

understanding of Michell’s thought process.

Paulson, Tom. “Hawking reminisces with disabled students | DO-IT.” University of

Washington, 2 July 1993, https://www.washington.edu/doit/hawking-reminisces-disabled-

students. Accessed 16 January 2023. This article describes how Stephen Hawking had gone to a

classroom that had taught kids with disabilities in order to provide them with a pep-talk. This is

useful to my project due to the fact that it allows one to witness how Stephen Hawking’s fame had

brought great inspiration to individuals with disabilities.

Slocums, Frederick. “NOTE ON THE PARALLAX OF A STAR IN THE “BLACK HOLE” IN

SAGITTARIUS.” Harvard University, 1928,

https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1931PAAS....6Q.153S. Accessed 15 January 2023.

This Report elaborated on the outcomes of an experiment concerning the parallax of black holes,

and deciding on whether an object had been a black hole or not. This had been useful to my project,

as it allowed me to view early thoughts of the black hole. It caused me to understand how far

technological advances came, as during this time period, one was unable to do experiments without

a probable error. In modern times, I am sure that the probable error is lower.

“Stephen Hawking's Last Inspiring Message To Humanity Before He Passed.” YouTube,

GoalCast, 15 March 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VYxjumUhji0. Accessed 23 February

2023. This video yields a speech that Stephen Hawking had given prior to passing.
Nonetheless this source hadn’t been exactly related to the main course of my NHD project, it had

assisted greatly in importing quotes that had been directly from Stephen Hawking.

TED. “Questioning the universe | Stephen Hawking.” YouTube, 4 April 2008,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xjBIsp8mS-c. Accessed 5 December 2022.

This video focuses on Stephen Hawking’s questions about the universe.

The term, “Universe” yields a large spectrum, as he elaborates on aspects from our planet earth, to

massive stars. This gave my project a variety of aspects to elaborate on. This TED ED also revolved

around Stephen Hawking illustrating the achievements and milestones of scientists.

The Guardian. “Stephen Hawking on black holes - Professor Stephen Hawking.” YouTube, 18

November 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K1CefSyt-bs. Accessed 5 December 2022.

This video revolved around Stephen Hawking discussing his knowledge of black holes. It describes

the boundaries that he had faced, as others had looked down upon him. However, nonetheless of

such notions being placed upon him, he had been successful. This information is useful as it

provided me with discoveries and theories that Hawking generated. The use of all these discoveries

could be to display that nonetheless of health condition, everyone yields an equal chance of being

successful.

Secondary sources
 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Hawking radiation". Encyclopedia Britannica, 30

Dec. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/science/Hawking-radiation. Accessed 21 February 2023.

This source explains Hawking Radiation in somewhat simpler terms. This assisted me with my

project as it instilled an understanding of my topic. Without this source, I would be completely lost

on my topic.

“Dr. Stephen Hawking: A Case Study on Using Technology to Communicate with the World |

AccessComputing.” University of Washington, https://www.washington.edu/accesscomputing/dr-

stephen-hawking-case-study-using-technology-communicate-world. Accessed 11 February 2023.

This source elaborates on how technological advancements had been able to assist Stephen

Hawking throughout his career. This had assisted me with my NHD project because it allowed me to

understand how technology had been used to Stephen Hawking's advantage, and had somewhat

compensated for the disability frontier.

Goud, Sekhar. “Prof Stephen Hawking is the inspiration for this budding astrophysicist with

CP.” Newz Hook, 11 January 2021, https://newzhook.com/story/disabled-scientist-stephen-

astrophysicist-from-india-eleanor/. Accessed 18 February 2023.

This source expresses how students who were disabled had been inspired by Stephen Hawking.

This assisted me with the impacts portion of my project, as it displayed that Stephen Hawking

influenced more disabled people to join the workforce.

 “How Stephen Hawking Normalized Disability and Spoke for Those Who Could Not - HIE

Help Center.” The HIE Help Center, 14 March 2018,

https://hiehelpcenter.org/2018/03/19/stephen-hawking-normalized-disability-spoke-not/.

Accessed 20 February 2023.

This source elaborates on how Stephen Hawking had brought encouragement to the disabled

community, as he had paved the way for those with disabilities. This article assisted me with NHD

whereas it proved that Stephen Hawking had not only inspired scientists, but also inspired those

yielding disabilities.

Kuo, Chin-Lung. “How Stephen Hawking Defied Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis for Five

Decades.” SciTeMed Publishing Group, 9 March 2019,

https://scitemed.com/article/2792/scitemed-cmt-2019-00105. Accessed 20 February 2023.

This source elaborates on Stephen Hawking’s life with ALS, as it describes how it gradually

progressed throughout his lifespan. This was assistful with my NHD project, as it had allowed me to

understand events that occurred in response to this disease, and provided me with an explanation

as to why he had lived so long with such a disease. Additionally, it discusses how ALS had affected

his lifestyle, which was incorporated in a section of my essay.

Michael Rowan-Robinson, Michael. “Astrophysics and cosmology: the golden age – Physics

World.” Physics World, 6 December 1999, https://physicsworld.com/a/astrophysics-and-

cosmology-the-golden-age/. Accessed 15 January 2023.

This site had been especially assisting to my NHD project, as it succinctly but in deptfully expressed

scientific innovation throughout different time periods. It also yields some discoveries that

potentially led to the discovery of hawking radiation, such as radio emission from stellar bodies.

Sager, Beth. “ALS and Stephen Hawking: Timeline, Quick Facts, and More.” Griswold Home

Care, 8 May 2018, https://www.griswoldhomecare.com/blog/2018/may/als-and-stephen-

hawking-timeline-quick-facts-and/. Accessed 15 January 2023.

This site elaborates on Stephen Hawking’s lifespan, ranging from early life to death. The article as a

whole didn’t assist me much, but specific portions such as when he had developed ALS had been

useful and were major points that I incorporated into my paper.

Scholte, Jan Aart. “Stephen Hawking and the Science of Black Holes | OpenMind.” BBVA

Openmind, 12 March 2021, https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/science/physics/stephen-

hawking-and-the-history-of-black-holes/. Accessed 5 December 2022.

This source shoehorned many of Stephen Hawking’s ideas. It had been useful because it elaborates

on his studies and how he had proved other scientists wrong while changing, building, and

enhancing astrophysist’s knowledge of black holes.

Siegel, Ethan, and Starts With a Big Bang. “Yes, Stephen Hawking Lied To Us All About How

Black Holes Decay.” Forbes, 9 July 2020,

https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2020/07/09/yes-stephen-hawking-lied-to-us-all-

about-how-black-holes-decay/?sh=72a4c4334e63. Accessed 11 January 2023.

This article elaborated on correcting a mistake in which Stephen Hawking had made, which had

concerned the function of Hawking Radiation. This assists with my NHD project because it displays

some errors that Stephen Hawking had made, as not all of his impacts had been positive on

humanity. At times, they had been negative, whereas it led to deception of humanity.

“Simplifying black holes, debunking information paradox: Stephen Hawking's biggest

contributions to science.” The Economic Times, 9 January 2020,

https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/stephen-hawkings-77th-birth-

anniversary-a-tribute-to-the-man-who-made-black-holes-shine/articleshow/73138481.cms?

from=mdr. Accessed 19 December 2022.

This describes some obstacles that Stephen Hawking underwent, as his statements had not always

been accepted as automatically true. This reveals the other side of the argument, whereas some had

been against his findings. However, of these doubtful comments Stephen Hawking had persisted

and actually proven this theory to be correct. This assisted me with my NHD project whereas it

allowed me to understand that some had been against this idea, as this source had been the first to

introduce me that some scientists had contrasting notions from that of Stephen Hawking.

Sutter, Paul. “We may finally be able to test one of Stephen Hawking's most far-out ideas.”

Space.com, 3 January 2022, https://www.space.com/testable-primordial-black-holes-theory.

Accessed 16 January 2023.

This source discusses how scientists from NASA are using the James Telescope to test ideas of

Stephen Hawking. This was useful to my NHD project since it elaborates on how Stephen Hawking's
legacy has opened a door of new questions in addition to experiments. These could lead society

closer to understanding of the universe.