DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

INTRODUCTION
FOOD AND NUTRITION

Food is one of the basic requirements of all living

organisms.
Repair of tissues
Material for growth
Energy for life activities
Maintenance of body temperature
 INTRODUCTION

Constructive (Body growth)

Energy Carbohydrates
Fats
(lipids) Proteins
Food
Components
Minerals
Water
Vitamins
Regulates different
physiological
Bio activities
regulator
of human body

The water plays an important role in metabolic processes

and prevents dehydration of the body.
 INTRODUCTION

Food is one of the basic requirements of all living

organisms. The major components of our food
are carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Vitamins
and minerals are also required in small quantities.
Food provides energy and organic materials for
growth and repair of tissues. The water we take
in, plays an important role in metabolic processes
and also prevents dehydration of the body.
 INTRODUCTION

Digestion Glucose
Intake of food
Amino Acid
(Carbohydrates, Proteins, fat) Metabolic
process Fatty Acid

•This process of conversion of complex food

substances to simple absorbable forms is called
digestion and is carried out by our digestive system by
mechanical and biochemical methods.
 INTRODUCTION

Bio macromolecules in food cannot be utilised by

our body in their original form. They have to be
broken down and converted into simple
substances in the digestive system. This process of
conversion of complex food substances to simple
absorbable forms is called digestion and is
carried out by our digestive system by mechanical
and biochemical methods.
 HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Human digestive system

Alimentary Canal Digestive Glands

Gastric Gland
Mouth Oesophagus Stomach Intestine
Intestinal Gland
Cardiac
Fundus Duodenum Associated Glands
Small Intestine
Body Jejunum
Pylorus Ileum Salivary Glands
Tongue
Buccal/Oral Cavity Teeth Liver
Hard Palate Large Intestine Pancreas
Palate
Soft Palate Caecum
Nasopharynx
Pharynx Colon
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx Rectum

 The alimentary canal begins with an anterior opening-The mouth, and it opens out
posteriorly through the anus.
 HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• The alimentary canal is tubular structure which extends from mouth to anus.
• It develops from Ectoderm & Endoderm.
ALIMENTARY
CANAL
Mouth
Hard Palate ECTODERMAL
Oral Cavity Soft Palate

ENDODERMAL
Pharynx Teeth
Oesophagus Tongue
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine
Anal Canal & Anus ECTODERMAL
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Sigmoid Colon
MOUTH AND BUCCOPHARYNGEAL CAVITY

 The alimentary canal begins with an anterior

opening-The mouth, and it opens out posteriorly
through the anus.

Mouth

 Mouth is a horizontal transverse slit like aperture

Orbicularis oris which is surrounded by upper and lower lip. Lips are
muscles movable because of presence of muscles called
orbicularis oris muscles.

 Sebaceous glands are found on the outer part of lip.

Serous glands are found on the inner part of lip.
Serous glands are the modification of mucus glands.
Their secretory substance is watery.
 BUCCOPHARYNGEAL CAVITY

 The mouth leads to the buccopharyngeal cavity. Divides in to three parts-

1.ORAL VESTIBULE

2.ORAL /BUCCAL CAVITY

3.PHARYNX
Oral cavity

Pharynx
 BUCCOPHARYNGEAL CAVITY

1.Oral vestibule

 The space between the gums and cheeks where the food is stored temporarily.
 BUCCOPHARYNGEAL CAVITY – ORAL CAVITY
2.Oral/ buccal cavity
 It is inner & central part which is surrounded by upper and
lower jaw. Lined by non keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.

 Upper Jaw is fixed and lower jaw is movable.

 The roof of oral cavity is called Palate.

The mouth leads to the buccal cavity or oral cavity. The oral
cavity has a number of teeth and a muscular tongue.
The buccal cavity performs two major functions, mastication
of food and facilitation of swallowing.
ORAL CAVITY – (a) PALATE

Hard palate
Nasal chamber
Internal nostril
Soft palate
Uvula
Oral cavity
 ORAL CAVITY – (a) PALATE
Hard Palate

Hard Palate Anterior part of palate.

Soft Palate
P Formed by Maxilla and Palatine bone.
A
Oral Cavity L PalatineRugae(Transverse ridges on the
A roof of buccal cavity;
T more developed in carnivores
Uvula/Velum palati E animals).

Soft Palate Posterior part of palate.

Uvula/Velum palati (Prevents entry

of food in nasal chamber by covering
internal nostrils).
 ORAL CAVITY – (a) PALATE - TONSILS

One pair of large lymph node is present on the posterolateral

surface of soft palate, called as Palatine tonsil or Tonsils.

Uvula

Tonsil
 ORAL CAVITY – (b)TONGUE

 On the floor of oral cavity a muscular, flat, fleshy plate like structure
is present which is called tongue.

 The anterior part of tongue is free while posterior part of tongue is

connected to the Hyoid bone.

Posterior Part
Anterior Part of Tongue
of Tongue Hyoid bone
 ORAL CAVITY – (b)TONGUE

Tongue

 The tongue is a freely movable muscular

organ attached to the floor of the oral cavity
by the frenulum.

Frenulum

Ventral surface
 ORAL CAVITY – (b)TONGUE
 On the dorsal surface of tongue, it is divided into two unequal parts by a “V” shaped
sulcus, called sulcus terminalis.

 The two limbs of the 'V' meet at a median pit named Foramen caecum.
Posterior
posterior 1/3 Lingual tonsil
 The upper surface of Pharyngeal
Foramen caecum
part of tongue
the tongue has small
projections called Sulcus terminalis
papillae, some of Dorsal surface
anterior 2/3
which bear taste Oral
part of tongue
buds.

Anterior
ORAL CAVITY – (b)TONGUE

(i) Fungiform Papillae

 It is pink coloured, small & spherical

in shape. It is found on the entire
surface of tongue but mostly present
at the anterior part of tongue.

 It is attached to tongue with the help

of small pedicle. It provides pink
colour to the tongue.

Fungiform papillae
 ORAL CAVITY – (b)TONGUE

(ii) Filiform papillae (Conical papillae )

 They are thread like, white coloured & conical in

shape.

 They are also found on the entire surface of tongue.

 They are most numerous, but devoid of taste buds.

Filiform papillae
ORAL CAVITY – (b)TONGUE

(iii) Circumvallate papillae

 These are largest and least existed papillae
(8 to 12).

 They are large spherical shape

papillae which are found near to sulcus
terminalis.
 ORAL CAVITY – (b)TONGUE
 Two types of muscles present in tongue
Intrinsic muscles :-

 It is situated in the deep part of tongue.

 It helps in the change of shape of

tongue and sideways movements of tongue
Extrinsic muscles :-

 It is found on outer and superficial part of

tongue.

 It helps in outward and inward movement of

tongue.
 ORAL CAVITY – (c)TEETH
TEETH •The hard
Origin Ecto-mesodermal
chewing surface
BASIC FEATURES OF TEETH
of teeth, made
Thecodont Diphyodont Heterodont
up of
Embedded in
bony socket
2 Sets of teeth appear
throughout life
Different types
of teeth
enamel,helps in
the mastication
Heterodont of food.
Thecodont
Fluorine maintain enamel and
Homodont
checks dental decay.
 ORAL CAVITY – (c)TEETH

 Each tooth is embedded in a socket of jaw

bone. This type of attachment is called
thecodont.

Root of tooth
Bony socket (Alveoli)
 ORAL CAVITY – (c)TEETH

 Majority of mammals including human being forms

two sets of teeth during their life, a set of temporary
milk or deciduous teeth replaced by a set of
permanent or adult teeth. This type of dentition is
called diphyodont.

diphyodont
Milky/Deciduous/ Permanent Set
Temporary teeth Replaced By
ORAL CAVITY – (c)TEETH

 An adult human has 32 permanent

teeth which are of four different
types (Heterodont dentition),
namely,

 Incisors (I)
 Canine (C)
 Premolars (PM)
 Molars (M)
 ORAL CAVITY – (c)TEETH - TYPES
INCISOR

•Long, Chisel Shaped.

•Helps in gnawing of food.
•More developed in gnawing
animals
e.g. Rodents (Rat).

Diphyodont in nature.
Tusks of elephants are modified upper incisors.
ORAL CAVITY – (c)TEETH - TYPES

CANINE

•Sharp pointed teeth.

•Helps in tearing and shredding of food.
•More developed in Carnivores. Absent in Herbivores
like Rabbits , resulting space is called Diastema.
Diphyodont in nature.
 ORAL CAVITY – (c)TEETH - TYPES

PRE MOLARS
Triangular in shape.
Helps in chewing and
crushing of food.
Monophyodont in nature.

MOLARS

Rectangular in shape.
Also helps in grinding
Premolar and molar and crushing of food.
teeth are known as
cheek teeth. First 2 molars-Diphyodont in nature.

Last molar /wisdom tooth- Monophyodont in nature.

 ORAL CAVITY – (c)TEETH - TYPES
FEATURES

(A) Monophyodont:- The teeth which appear only once

in life. eg. Premolars and last molars of
human.

(B) Diphyodont:-The teeth which appear twice in life.

eg. Incisors, Canines, 1st and 2nd molars.
 ORAL CAVITY – (c)TEETH – DENTAL FORMULA
HUMAN DENTITION
• Arrangement of teeth in jaws is called dentition.

Dental formula
• Type and number of teeth in each half
of the upper and lower jaw is called
dental formula.

• Arrangement of teeth in each half of the

upper and lower jaw in order I, C, PM, M is
represented by a dental formula which in
human is 2 1 2 3
2123
 ORAL CAVITY – (c)TEETH – DENTAL FORMULA
DENTAL FORMULA

2102
CHILD 6 Yr.
2102
2122
17 Yr. OLD 2122
2123
ADULT 2123

 In humans, premolar teeth appear in the alveoli (Bony socket) of molar teeth
while permanent molar teeth are developed in new alveoli.
 BUCCOPHARYNGEAL CAVITY - PHARYNX
PHARYNX
• Short Structure.

• Common passage for food and air.

• Oesophagus & Trachea opens into pharynx.

pharynx
• Pharynx is divided into the following regions.

PHARYNX
Oesophagus

Trachea Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx

Related to Related to oral Related to

nasal chamber cavity larynx
 BUCCOPHARYNGEAL CAVITY - PHARYNX
The oral cavity leads into a
short pharynx which serves
as a common passage for
Nasal chamber
food and air. The
oesophagus and the
trachea (wind pipe) open
Oral cavity Pharynx
into the pharynx. A
cartilaginous flap called
Epiglottis epiglottis prevents the
Larynx entry of food into the glottis
Oesophagus
Trachea – opening of the wind pipe –
during swallowing.
 BUCCOPHARYNGEAL CAVITY - PHARYNX

Nasopharynx  Upper part of pharynx is called

Nasal chamber Nasopharynx which is related to the
Eustachian tube
nasal chamber.
 The lower part of pharynx is called
Oral cavity oropharynx which is related to the oral
cavity.
Oropharynx

 One pair of openings of Eustachian tube

is present in the nasopharynx.

 This Eustachian tube is related to the

middle ear : It maintain air pressure.
 OESOPGAGOUS
OESOPHAGUS

Gullet
(Dorsal Opening)
Glottis
 Two apertures are found in Buccopharyngeal
(Ventral Opening)
cavity.

 Ventral aperture (opening) is called Glottis which is

related to the larynx which is guarded by epiglottis.

 The dorsal aperture is called gullet which opens

into oesophagus.
 OESOPGAGOUS
OESOPHAGUS
Glottis
(Ventral/Anterior
opening)
 The oesophagus is a thin, long tube which
extends posteriorly passing through the neck,
Gullet thorax and diaphragm and leads to a “J”
(dorsal/posterior shaped bag like structure called stomach.
opening)

 A muscular sphincter (gastro-oesophageal)

regulates the opening of oesophagus into the
Gastro-Oesophageal stomach.
sphincter
The oesophageal hiatus is an opening in the diaphragm
through which the oesophagus and the vagus nerve
pass.

 In oesophagus digestive glands are absent, only mucous glands are present.
 STOMACH
STOMACH
STOMACH
 It is situated on left side of
abdominal cavity. It is the
widest part of alimentary canal.
It is a bag like muscular
structure, “J” shaped in empty
condition.
 STOMACH
The stomach, located in the upper
left portion of the abdominal cavity,
Oesophagus has four major parts – a cardiac
Fundus portion into which the oesophagus
opens, a fundic region, body (main
Superior portion
Cardiac central region) and a pyloric portion
of Duodenum which opens into the first part of
Body small intestine .
Pyloric Cardia – Opening of Oesophagus.
Fundus – Most swollen part.
Body – Main Central Region.
Pylorus – Narrow part opening into first part
of small intestine (Duodenum).
 STOMACH

 It has two orifices (opening)

(i) Cardiac orifice is joined by the lower end of the oesophagus.
(ii) Pyloric orifice opens into the duodenum.

Oesophagus Cardiac Orifice (Cardiac /

Gasto-oesophageal sphincter)

Pyloric Orifice
(Pyloric sphincter)

Duodenum
 STOMACH
 Stomach is covered by layer of peritoneum. Fat tissues and lymph tissue
deposits on the peritoneum. Such type of peritoneum are called Ommentum.

 Left curved surface of stomach is called greater ommentum. Right curved

surfaceof stomach is called lesser ommentum.

Lesser ommentum Greater ommentum

 STOMACH

 Mucous membrane of the stomach is thick. In empty stomach

numerous temporary longitudinal folds are found in mucosa of
stomach called rugae. They disappear when stomach is
distended.

Rugae
 SMALL INTESTINE
SMALL INTESTINE

 Small intestine is
distinguishable into
three regions, “C”
shaped duodenum,
a long coiled middle
portion jejunum and
a highly coiled
ileum.
 SMALL INTESTINE
SMALL INTESTINE

Duodenum
 The opening of the stomach into the
duodenum is guarded by the pyloric
sphincter. Ileum opens into the large
intestine.
 Function of small intestine is to digest and absorb nutrients in
to the body, hence to increase the absorptive surface area the
following modification are observed:-

(a) Great length of the intestine.

(b) Villi and microvilli (Brush border).
 SMALL INTESTINE

Small intestine

Epithelial cells (Enterocyte)

Villi
Microvilli (epithelial fold)
 LARGE INTESTINE
LARGE INTESTINE (Larger in Diameter)

CAECUM COLON RECTUM

Colon

Caecum

Rectum

It (large intestine) consists of caecum, colon and rectum.

 LARGE INTESTINE - CAECUM
Caecum is a small blind sac which
hosts some symbiotic micro- CAECUM
organisms. A narrow finger-like
tubular projection, the vermiform
appendix which is a vestigial organ,
arises from the caecum. Ileum
Ileo-cecal
Ileocecal valve opening
The undigested food
Caecum
(faeces) enters into the
Vermiform
caecum of the large appendix
intestine through ileo-
caecal valve, which
prevents the back flow of  Caecum is well developed in rabbit and other
the faecal matter. mammals but is vestigial in human.
 LARGE INTESTINE - COLON

COLON
Transverse
The caecum opens into the Colon

colon. The colon is divided

into four parts – an ascending,
a transverse, descending part Taeniae
Descending
Ascending Colon
and a sigmoid colon. The Colon coli
descending part opens into
the rectum which opens out
through the anus. Anal canal Sigmoid
Anus Colon
 LARGE INTESTINE – COLON, RECTUM
COLON
 Caecum continues in colon, which is the middle part of large
Taeniae coli intestine.
 The longitudinal muscle coat forms three ribbon like bands
called Taeniae coli.
 Due to the presence of taeniae, pouch like structure
develops in Lumen of colon called as Haustra.
Haustra

RECTUM

 This colon then continues in a uniform tube called

Rectum. (Storage chamber for faeces)
 Rectum open into a small bag like structure called anal-canal.
 ANAL CANAL AND ANUS

ANAL CANAL AND ANUS

 Anal canal opens outside by anus. Anus is controlled by anal

sphincter.

 Two types of anal sphincter are found at the opening of anus.

 Internal Anal sphincter Involuntary

 External Anal sphincter Voluntary
 HISTOLOGY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL
WALL OF ALIMENTARY CANAL IS MADE UP OF 4 LAYERS.

SEROSA

Outer longitudinal
MUSCULARIS
Inner circular
LUMEN
SUB-MUCOSA
MUCOSA

The wall of alimentary canal from

oesophagus to rectum possesses four
layers(Figure 16.4) namely serosa,
Transverse section of alimentary canal
muscularis, sub-mucosa and mucosa.
 HISTOLOGY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL
Serosa Mesothelium (lining of coelom)-Peritoneum
Abdominal wall

Parietal peritoneum
Visceral
peritoneum/ serosa
(Simple squamous
Gut wall epithelium)
 HISTOLOGY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL
Serosa is the outer most layer and is made up of a thin
Serosa
mesothelium (epithelium visceral organs) with some
connective tissues.
Serosa /Visceral peritoneum/ mesothelium
(Simple squamous epithelium)

Oesophagus – Tunica adventitia – white

LUMEN fibrous connective tissue + areolar c. t.

Stomach – Ommentum- Peritoneum

+lymphoid tissue +fat tissue

Intestine – Serosa
 HISTOLOGY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL
MUSCULARIS

Muscularis is formed by smooth muscles usually arranged into an inner circular

and an outer longitudinal layer. An oblique muscle layer may be present in some
regions.

MUSCULARIS – Thinnest in
rectum so minimum
peristalsis occur in rectum.
outer longitudinal MUSCULARIS – Thickest in
stomach due to presence of
Inner circular extra oblique muscle layer
LUMEN so maximum peristalsis
occur in stomach.
 HISTOLOGY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL

outer longitudinal
MUSCULARIS
Inner circular
LUMEN

The food mixes thoroughly with the acidic gastric

juice of the stomach by the churning movements
of its muscular wall and is called the chyme.

Various types of movements are generated by the muscularis layer of the small
intestine. These movements help in a thorough mixing up of the food with various
secretions in the intestine and thereby facilitate digestion.
 HISTOLOGY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL

SUB MUCOSA

SUB MUCOSA – The sub- mucosal layer is formed of

loose connective tissues containing nerves, blood
and lymph vessels. In duodenum, glands (BRUNNERS
GLAND)are also present in sub-mucosa.

LUMEN BRUNNER’S GLAND– Multi cellular gland, secrets

non enzymatic alkaline secretion of intestinal
juice.

Sub-mucosal glands (Brunner’s glands) also help

in this (protects the intestinal mucosa from acid as
well as provide an alkaline medium for enzymatic
activity).
 HISTOLOGY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL
MUCOSA

MUCOSA – The innermost layer lining

the lumen of the alimentary canal
is the mucosa. This layer forms
irregular folds (rugae) in the
LUMEN stomach and small finger-like
foldings called villi in the small
intestine.
 HISTOLOGY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL
Microvilli Goblet cells

MUCOSA

Villi The cells lining the villi produce numerous

Lacteal
microscopic projections called microvilli
giving a brush border appearance. These
Capillary
modifications increase the surface area
Artery
crypts
enormously. Villi are supplied with a network
of capillaries and a large lymph vessel called
Vein
the lacteal. Mucosal epithelium has goblet
cells which secrete mucus that help in
lubrication.
 HISTOLOGY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL
MUCOSA
Mucosa also forms glands in the stomach (gastric glands) and crypts in between the bases of
villi in the intestine (crypts of Lieberkuhn).

crypts
Paneth cells Gastric glands

crypts of Lieberkuhn

Paneth cells – Unicellular glands , secrets lysozyme (Antibacterial )

 HISTOLOGY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL

BRUNNER’S GLAND PANETH CELLS

Present in sub mucosa of Present in crypts of Lieberkuhn
duodenum (Mucosa)
Multicellular gland Unicellular gland
Secrete non enzymatic alkaline Secrets lysozyme
secretion of intestinal juice
Peyer’s patch (Intestinal tonsils) – They are
small lymph nodes which are found in
mucosa of small intestine ( Jejunum and
ileum more in number)
 HISTOLOGY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL

Sub-mucosa

Mucosa
Meissner's nerve plexus

LUMEN Circular muscle layer

Auerbach nerve plexus

Longitudinal muscle layer

Serosa

All the four layers show modifications in different parts of the alimentary canal.
DIGESTIVE GLANDS
They secrete digestive juices for digestion of food.

Salivary
glands
Gastric
Gland Liver
Types of
digestive
glands

Intestinal Pancreas
Gland
 GASTRIC GLAND
These are numerous microscopic, simple tubular
branched glands formed by the invagination of
epithelium in the stomach.

The following types of cells are present in the epithelium

Opening of of the gastric glands.
Gastric gland

1. Mucous neck cells

2. Chief cells or peptic cells or Zymogen cells
3. Oxyntic cells or parietal cells
Gastric gland
GASTRIC GLAND

Mucous neck cells

Oxyntic cells or
parietal cells

Chief cells or
peptic cells or Zymogen cells
 GASTRIC GLAND - CELLS
1. MUCOUS CELLS
It secretes mucous which Protect inner lining of stomach
by action of HCl.

Mucous neck cells

 GASTRIC GLAND - CELLS
2. Chief cells (Peptic cells/Zymogen cells)

 PROTEIN DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

*Pepsinogen
*Prorennin

 OTHER DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

*Gastric lipase

Chief cells or peptic cells or

Zymogen cells
 GASTRIC GLAND - CELLS
3. PARIETAL CELLS (OXYNTIC CELLS)

Castle Intrinsic Factor Hcl (pH = 1.8 to 3.2 )

Helps in absorption of
vitamin B12

Oxyntic cells parietal cells

 GASTRIC GLAND - CELLS

OTHER CELLS

G-cells  Gastrin - stimulate the secretion of gastric juice

D-cells  Somatostatin- Inhibits the secretion of gastric juice.

Entero endocrine cells

 GASTRIC GLAND

The mucosa of stomach has gastric glands. Gastric glands have

three major types of cells namely -
I. mucus neck cells which secrete mucus;
II. peptic or chief cells which secrete the proenzyme
pepsinogen; and
III. parietal or oxyntic cells which secrete HCl and intrinsic
factor (factor essential for absorption of vitamin B12).
 GASTRIC JUICE

 Food reaches in stomach and then G-cells secrete gastrin hormone, which
stimulates secretion of gastric juice. Gastric juice secretion is controlled by
neural hormonal method and by chemical substances.
Composition of Gastric juice :
Water = 99.5%
HCl = 0.2 - 0.3%
pH = 1.8 to 3.2 (very acidic)
Rest = Mucus and gastric enzymes
(Pepsinogen, Prorennin, Gastric
Lipase etc.)

Enzymes :- protein digesting enzymes are predominantly functional.

 FUNCTIONS OF HCl
Functions of HCl :-
1. HCl (activator) is to convert inactive enzymes (zymogens) into active enzymes.

HCl
Pepsinogen (inactive) Pepsin (Active)
HCl
Prorennin (inactive) Rennin(Active)

2. It destroys all the bacteria present in the food.

3. HCl stops the action of saliva on food. In stomach, the medium is highly acidic.

4. It dissolves the hard portions of the food and makes it soft.

 GASTRIC GLAND

The stomach stores the food for 4-5 hours. The food
mixes thoroughly with the acidic gastric juice of the
stomach by the churning movements of its muscular wall
and is called the chyme. The mucus and bicarbonates
present in the gastric juice play an important role in
lubrication and protection of the mucosal epithelium
from excoriation by the highly concentrated hydrochloric
acid. Small amounts of lipases are also secreted by gastric
glands.
 SALIVARY GLANDS
Saliva is mainly produced by
three pairs of salivary glands,
the parotids (cheek), the sub-
maxillary/sub-mandibular
(lower jaw) and the sub-linguals
(below the tongue). These
glands situated just outside the
buccal cavity secrete salivary
juice into the buccal cavity.
Sub lingual gland

Sub mandibular gland

SALIVARY GLANDS
SALIVARY GLANDS - DUCTS
 SALIVARY GLANDS - SECRETION REGULATION

Salivation is stimulated by VII and IX cranial nerves.

Sympathetic Nervous System Salivary Secretion

Parasympathetic Nervous System Salivary Secretion

 SALIVARY GLANDS – SALIVA
Saliva consists of the following components :-
• pH – 6.8 Ptyalin is secreted mainly by
the parotid gland. Lysozyme
• Enzyme -Ptyalin/Salivary Amylase
• Water – 99.5% and Thiocyanates mainly kill
• Salts - 0.5% -Organic and Inorganic bacteria. They also check the
• Na+, K+, HCO3 - , Cl− growth of bacteria in Bucco-
• Ig A pharyngeal cavity.
• Urea and Uric Acid
• Lysozyme(Antibacterial agent that prevents infection)
• Thiocyanates
Enzymes :- Mainly Carbohydrate digesting enzymes.

The saliva secreted into the oral cavity contains electrolytes and
enzymes, salivary amylase and lysozyme. Lysozyme present in saliva
acts as an antibacterial agent that prevents infections.
 LIVER
Origin :- Endoderm.
Liver is the largest gland of the body weighing about 1.2 to 1.5 kg in an adult
human. It is situated in the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm and has
two lobes.
Lobes are separated by Left Lobe (Smaller)
Falciform ligament (folds of Made up of two lobes
peritoneum and fibrous Right Lobe (Bigger)
connective tissue)
Falciform ligament Left Hepatic Lobe
Right Hepatic
 Gall bladder is situated below right Lobe
lobe of liver.

Gall Bladder
 LIVER – HEPATIC LOBULE

Liver lobes are made up of hepatic lobule.

Right Hepatic Left Hepatic Lobe
Lobe
Hepatic Lobule

Hepatic cord

The hepatic lobules are the

structural and functional
Hepatic cells units of liver containing
hepatic cells arranged in the
form of cords. Each lobule is
Glisson's capsule covered by a thin connective
tissue sheath called the
Glisson’s capsule.
 BILE FLOW

Gall bladder – Bile

(Concentrated) Right hepatic
Left hepatic
ducts
ducts
Cystic duct
Cystic duct

Common hepatic duct

Gallbladder Common bile duct
Common bile duct

Common hepato - pancreatic duct

Pancreatic duct
Duodenum
Common hepato - pancreatic duct

 The bile secreted by the hepatic cells passes through the hepatic ducts and is stored
and concentrated in a thin muscular sac called the gall bladder.
 LIVER – DUCTS
The duct of gall bladder
(cystic duct) along with
the hepatic duct from the
liver forms the common
bile duct (ductus
choledocus). The bile duct
and the pancreatic duct
open together into the
duodenum as the
common hepato-
pancreatic duct. which is
guarded by a sphincter
called the sphincter of
Oddi.
 LIVER - SPHINCTERS
Common bile duct

Sphincter of Boyden

Sphincter of Oddi

Hepato-pancreatic
ampulla
(Ampulla of vater) Main pancreatic duct

Pancreatic juice and bile are released through the hepato-

pancreatic duct.
 LIVER FUNCTIONS

Synthesis and secretion of bile

Purification of blood Deamination + Urea formation (0RNITHINE

CYCLE)
Haemopoiesis (During embryonic
stage) Liver Carbohydrate metabolism – Glycogenesis,

Synthesis of plasma + vitamin – A +

functions Glycogenolysis, Gluconeogenesis,
Glyconeogenesis
Heparin + Clotting Factors
Storage of fat and fat soluble vitamins
(VITAMIN –A,D,E,K),
Secretion of enzymes e.g.-
vitamin –B12,
Dehydrogenase , Cytochrome
Minerals(Iron Magnesium, Zinc Cobalt etc.)
oxidase.
 LIVER -BILE
BILE COMPOSITION
Composition of Bile Juice :-
• pH – 8.0
• Water – 98%
• Organic Constituents
• Inorganic Constituents – Na+, K+, Cl − , HCO3 −
• Bile Salts
• Cholesterol
Excretory Products
• Lecithin Bilirubin
• Bile Pigments Biliverdin BILE SALTS
ORGANIC IN-ORGANIC

• Sodium Glycocholate NaHCO3

• Sodium Taurocholate NaCl
Na2CO3
 LIVER –BILE FUNCTIONS
Excretion of Bile pigments,
Cholesterol and Lecithin
Neutralisation of
Prevent HCl
decomposition of
food
Bile Juice Stimulation of
Peristalsis

Absorption of Fat and Fat

soluble vitamins Activation of Emulsification of
(Vit. A, D, E, K) Lipase Fat

The bile released into the duodenum contains bile pigments (bilirubin and
bili-verdin), bile salts, cholesterol and phospholipids but no enzymes. Bile
helps in emulsification of fats, i.e., breaking down of the fats into very small
micelles. Bile also activates lipases.
 LIVER -BILE
Function of organic bile salt:- Emulsifies Fat

Emulsification

Bile Salt

Fat Globule Emulsified Fat

 PANCREAS
The pancreas is a
compound (both exocrine
and endocrine) elongated
organ situated between
the limbs of the ‘C’
α - cells
shaped duodenum. The
Secrete Glucagon
exocrine portion secretes
an alkaline pancreatic
juice containing enzymes β- cells
and the endocrine portion Secrete Insulin Pancreatic Acini
secretes hormones,
insulin and glucagon.
 PANCREAS – EXOCRINE PART - ACINI

it is a group of secretory cells surrounding a cavity. Each acini is lined

by pyramidal shaped cells.

Pancreatic ductule
 PANCREAS - DUCTS

Main Pancreatic duct

(Duct of Wirsung)
Accessory Pancreatic Duct
(Duct of Santorini)

Hepato-pancreatic ampulla
(Ampulla of vater)
 PANCREATIC JUICE
PANCREAS

ACINI

Highly odoriferous,
Composition PANCREATIC JUICE
colorless basic fluid.
Water = 98%, Salts = 2%, pH = 7.5-8.3
Enzymes :- Carbohydrate, protein , fat and nucleic acid digesting enzymes
are present.
The pancreatic juice contains inactive enzymes – trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidases, amylases, lipases and
nucleases. Trypsinogen is activated by an enzyme, enterokinase, secreted by
the intestinal mucosa into active trypsin, which in turn activates the other
enzymes in the pancreatic juice.
 INTESTINAL JUICE
The intestinal mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which secrete mucus. The
secretions of the brush border cells of the mucosa along with the secretions of the
goblet cells constitute the intestinal juice or succus entericus. This juice contains
a variety of enzymes like disaccharidases (e.g., maltase), dipeptidases, lipases,
nucleosidases, etc. The mucus along with the bicarbonates from the pancreas
protects the intestinal mucosa from acid as well as provide an alkaline medium (pH
7.8) for enzymatic activities. Sub-mucosal glands (Brunner’s glands) also help in this.

Microvilli Goblet cells

crypts
 INTESTINAL JUICE

 This succus entericus mainly contains water (99%) and digestive

enzymes (<1%).
 Activator – Enterokinase (Secreted by duodenal mucosa)

Enzymes :- Carbohydrate, protein , fat and nucleic acid digesting enzymes

are present.
H HORMONE SOURCE TARGET ACTION OF HORMONE

O
GASTRIN PYLORIC STOMACH- GASTRIC GASTRIC JUICE SECRETION(HCL
G-CELLS GLANDS secretion)

R Cholecystokinin DUODENUM-
I-CELLS OR CCK CELLS
GALL BLADDER Stimulates secretion of bileby

M
(CCK) contraction of gall bladder

O Secretin DUODENUM- S-CELLS DUCTULES Non enzymatic part of

AND pancreatic juice(water and

N
DUCTS OF bicarbonate ions)
PANCREAS

E
Cholecystokinin DUODENUM ACINI OF PANCREAS Enzymatic part of
(CCK) pancreatic juice and

S
bile juice

Gastric Inhibitory DUODENUM STOMACH Inhibits gastric secretion

Peptide (GIP) and motility(slow food
passage)
Enterogasterone DUODENUM Inhibits gastric gland
secretion
 REGULATION OF DIGESTION
Activity of gastro-intestinal tract are under neural and hormonal regulation

Smell Sight Thought

Taste

Salivary Secretion  Gastric Secretion  Intestinal Secretion

 REGULATION OF DIGESTION

 The activities of the gastro-intestinal tract are under neural and

hormonal control for proper coordination of different parts.

Sub-mucosa
Mucosa Meissner's nerve plexus

Circular muscle layer

LUMEN
Auerbach nerve plexus
Longitudinal
muscle layer
Serosa
 REGULATION OF DIGESTION

 The sight, smell and/or the presence of food in the oral cavity can
stimulate the secretion of saliva.

 Gastric and intestinal secretions are also, similarly, stimulated by neural

signals.

 The muscular activities of different parts of the alimentary canal can also be
moderated by neural mechanisms, both local and through CNS.

 Hormonal control of the secretion of digestive juices is carried out by

the local hormones produced by the gastric and intestinal mucosa.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
1. INGESTION – Intake of food.

2. DIGESTION – Digestion of food –

MECHANICAL DIGESTION – Teeth and muscle
CHEMICAL DIGESTION - Enzymes
3. ABSORPTION – Absorption of nutrients by blood and lymph.

4. ASSIMILATION – Utilization of nutrients.

5.EGESTION – Removal of undigested waste outside of the body.

The process of digestion is accomplished by

mechanical and chemical processes.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
1.INGESTION

INTAKE of food

Food enter in oral cavity

Digestion of food in oral cavity

 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
Digestion in oral cavity

Mechanical digestion –Mastication Chemical digestion – By salivary

or chewing – with the help of amylase/ ptyalin – Act only on
mouth , tongue and teeth. cooked starch .

Food +saliva.

BOLUS
The teeth and the tongue with the help of saliva masticate and mix up the food
thoroughly. Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating and adhering the masticated
food particles into a bolus.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
BOLUS

SWALLOWING/ DEGLUTITION

Tongue closes mouth

Uvula closes posterior nasal pore / internal nostrils

Epiglottis closes glottis

The bolus is then conveyed into the pharynx and then into the oesophagus by
swallowing or deglutition.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
BOLUS

Peristalsis in Oesophagus

Bolus moves towards stomach

BOLUS IN STOMACH

The bolus further passes down through the oesophagus by successive waves of
muscular contractions called peristalsis. The gastro-oesophageal sphincter
controls the passage of food into the stomach.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
Digestion in STOMACH

Mechanical digestion –Maximum Chemical digestion – By gastric

peristalsis – Mixing of bolus with juice enzymes - mainly protein
gastric juice . digestion .

Food + GASTRIC JUICE.

CHYME (Acidic paste)

 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
CHYME IN DUODENUM

Digestive local hormones released

HORMONE SOURCE TARGET ACTION OF HORMONE
GASTRIN STOMACH GASTRIC GLANDS GASTRIC JUICE SECRETION

Cholecystokinin (CCK) DUODENUM GALL BLADDER Stimulates secretion of

bile from gall bladder

Secretin DUODENUM DUCTULES AND Non enzymatic part of

DUCTS OF PANCREAS pancreatic juice(water
and bicarbonate ions)

Cholecystokinin DUODENUM ACINI OF PANCREAS Enzymatic part

(CCK) of pancreatic
juice

Gastric Inhibitory DUODENUM STOMACH Inhibits gastric

Peptide (GIP) secretion and
motility
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
Digestion in SMALL INTESTINE

Mechanical digestion –Peristalsis . Chemical digestion – By Pancreatic

juice enzymes – carbohydrate, protein,
fat an nucleic acid digestion .(Bile helps
in emulsification of fat)

CHYME + BILE +PANCREATIC JUICE.

ALKLINE PASTE
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
Digestion in SMALL INTESTINE

Mechanical digestion –Peristalsis . Chemical digestion – By Intestinal juice/

succus entericus enzymes –
carbohydrate, protein, fat an nucleic
acid digestion .

FOOD+ INTESTINAL JUICE.

DIGESTIVE END PRODUCTS ARE FORMED

The bile, pancreatic juice and the intestinal juice are the secretions
released into the small intestine
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
DIGESTIVE END PRODUCTS ARE FORMED

ABSORPTION in jejunum and ileum

ASSIMILATION
 ASSIMILATION OF FOOD

The absorbed substances finally reach the tissues which utilise

them for their activities. This process is called assimilation.

1. Carbohydrates

Glycogenesis
Glucose Glycogen
Glycogenolysis

Gluconeogenesis Glyconeogenesis

Fatty acid, Lactic acid

Amino acid
 ASSIMILATION OF FOOD
2. Proteins and Amino Acids

 Amino acids are not stored in body as they are highly reactive
so converted into proteins which are building blocks of body.
 NH3 is removed in this process and step is deamination.
Deamination takes place in each and every cell of body but
liver and kidney are chief sites of deamination.
3. Fat

 Stored in body; helps in insulation and thermoregulation; Rich

source of energy.
•Minerals, Vitamins and Water play a vital role in many bodily
processes.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION

No significant digestive activity occurs in the large

intestine.
The functions of large intestine are:
(i)absorption of some water, minerals and certain
drugs;
(ii)secretion of mucus which helps in adhering the
waste (undigested) particles together and lubricating
it for an easy passage.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
The undigested, unabsorbed substances called faeces enters into
the caecum of the large intestine through ileo-caecal valve, which
prevents the back flow of the faecal matter. It is temporarily stored
in the rectum till defaecation.
EGESTION –REMOVAL OF UNDIGESTED WASTE OUTSIDE BODY

The digestive wastes, solidified into coherent faeces in the rectum

initiate a neural reflex causing an urge or desire for its removal. The
egestion of faeces to the outside through the anal opening
(defaecation) is a voluntary process and is carried out by a mass
peristaltic movement.
 EGESTION
Faecal matter is Yellowish-Brown in color due to Stercobilin
pigments (Degraded bilepigments).
Foul smell is due to CH4, H2S, NH3, Indole, Tryptophan and
Scatole.
 CARBOHYDRATE (Starch) DIGESTION
DIGESTIVE STARCH DIGESTIVE DIGESTIVE SUBSTRATE END PRODUCT
ORGAN DIGESTION JUICE ENZYMES
ORAL CAVITY SALIVA SALIVARY STARCH (COOKED) Chloride ions MALTOSE
AMYLASE / 6.8 (30 starch
PTYALIN digested up to the end of Oesophagus by ptyalin.
OESOPHAGUS
STOMACH
SMALL INTESTINE PANCREATIC Pancreatic STARCH MALTOSE(disaccharide)
amylase/ (polysaccharide)
JUICE Pancreatic-Alfa
Amylase/
Amylopsin

SMALL INTESTINAL MALTASE MALTOSE GLUCOSE +GLUCOSE

INTESTINE JUICE
SUCRASE/
INVERTASE SUCROSE GLUCOSE+FRUCTOSE

LACTASE LACTOSE(Milk sugar) GLUCOSE

+GALACTOSE
DISACCHARIDASE -Group of disaccharide digesting enzymes of int.juice
 CARBOHYDRATE (Starch) DIGESTION

The chemical process of digestion is initiated in the oral

cavity by the hydrolytic action of the carbohydrate
splitting enzyme, the salivary amylase. About 30 per
cent of starch is hydrolysed here by this enzyme
(optimum pH 6.8) into a disaccharide – maltose.

Carbohydrates in the chyme are hydrolysed by

pancreatic amylase into disaccharides.
 PROTEIN DIGESTION
CONVERSION OF INACTIVE PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES IN TO ACTIVE PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES.

GASTRIC JUICE- The proenzyme pepsinogen, on exposure to hydrochloric

acid gets converted into the active enzyme pepsin, the
HCl proteolytic enzyme of the stomach. Pepsin converts
PEPSINOGEN PEPSIN
proteins into proteoses and peptones (peptides).
Enterokinase–
PANCREATIC JUICE-
An activator, which is released from
duodenal mucosa, also known as
CALCIUM
Trypsinogen Trypsin Enteropeptidase enzyme. It is non
Enterokinase
digestive enzyme.
Chymotrypsinogen Trypsin chymotrypsin
HCl provides the acidic pH (pH 1.8) optimal
for pepsins. Rennin is a proteolytic enzyme
Procarboxypeptidase Trypsin Carboxypeptidase found in gastric juice of infants which helps
in the digestion of milk proteins.
 PROTEIN DIGESTION IN HUMAN
DIGESTIVE PROTEIN DIGESTIVE DIGESTIVE SUBSTRATE END PRODUCT
ORGAN DIGESTION JUICE ENZYMES
ORAL CAVITY
OESOPHAGUS
STOMACH GASTRIC PEPSIN PROTEIN PROTEOSES + PEPTONES
JUICE +PEPTIDES
(Polypeptides)

SMALL INTESTINE PANCREATIC TRYPSIN PROTEIN

JUICE CHYMOTRYPSIN PROTEIN PROTEOSES + PEPTONES +
PEPTIDES
CARBOXYPEPTIDASE PEPTIDE DIPEPTIDES

SMALL INTESTINAL AMINOPEPTIDASE PEPTIDE AMINO ACID

INTESTINE JUICE
DIPEPTIDASE DIPEPTIDES AMINO ACID
*ERAPSIN – GROUP OF PROTEN DIGESTING
ENZYMES OF INTESTINAL JUICE.
 PROTEIN DIGESTION MAMMALS (INFANTS)

*Renninis proteolytic enzyme present in gastric juice of

mammals only during infantile stages but absent in adult
mammals. In human, curdling of milk is done by CHYMOSIN
,CHYMOTRYPSIN.
PRORENNIN HCl
RENNIN
(CAHIEF CELLS)
DIGESTIVE PROTEIN DIGESTIVE DIGESTIVE SUBSTRATE END PRODUCT
ORGAN DIGESTION JUICE ENZYMES

STOMACH GASTRIC RENNIN CASEIN PARACASEIN

JUICE (INFANTS) (Milk protein)
Calcium
PARACASEIN CALCIUM Paracaseinate
(Curdling of milk)
Calcium PROTEOSES+PEPTONES+
PEPSIN
Paracaseinate PEPTIDES (Polypeptides)
 PROTEIN DIGESTION

*EXOPEPTIDASES

*Carboxypeptidase
*Aminopeptidase
*Dipeptidase

*ENDOPEPTIDASES

*Pepsin
*Trypsin
*Chymotrypsin
 FAT DIGESTION
DIGESTIVE FAT DIGESTIVE DIGESTIVE SUBSTRATE END PRODUCT
ORGAN DIGESTION JUICE ENZYMES
ORAL CAVITY
OESOPHAGUS
STOMACH GASTRIC GASTRIC LIPASE TRIGLYCERIDE 3FATTY ACID + GLYCEROL
JUICE 1 PRE
EMLSIFIED FAT
SMALL INTESTINE PANCREATIC PANCREATIC TRIGLYCERIDE 3FATTY ACID + GLYCEROL
EMULSIFICATION JUICE LIPASE
OF FAT BY BILE
SALT CHOLESTEROL CHOLESTEROL ESTER CHOLESTEROL +FATTY ACID
ESTERASE

PHOSPHOLIPASE PHOSPHOLIPID FATTY ACID

SMALL INTESTINAL INTESTINAL TRIGLYCERIDE 3FATTY ACID + GLYCEROL
INTESTINE JUICE LIPASE

*STEAPSIN –GROUP OF PANCREATIC FAT DIGESTING

ENZYMES
 NUCLEIC ACID DIGESTION
DIGESTIVE NUCLEIC A. DIGESTIVE DIGESTIVE SUBSTRATE END PRODUCT
ORGAN DIGESTION JUICE ENZYMES
ORAL CAVITY
OESOPHAGUS
STOMACH

SMALL INTESTINE PANCREATIC NUCLEASE NUCLEIC ACID NUCLEOTIDE

JUICE DNAase
RNAase
SMALL INTESTINAL NUCLEOTIDASE NUCLEOTIDE NUCLEOSIDE +PHOSPHATE
INTESTINE JUICE NUCLEOSIDASE NUCLEOSIDE PANTOSE SUGAR +
NITROGENOUS BASE
 DIGESTION

The enzymes in the succus entericus act on the end

products of the above reactions (Enzymatic reactions
done by pancreatic juice enzyme) to form the respective
simple absorbable forms. These final steps in digestion
occur very close to the mucosal epithelial cells of the
intestine.

Maximum digestion of food Duodenum

While digestion of food complete in Ileum
Maximum absorption of food in Jejunum
 ABSORPTION

Absorption is the process by which the end products of digestion

pass through the intestinal mucosa into the blood or lymph. It is
carried out by passive, active or facilitated transport mechanisms.
 ABSORPTION
Absorption of substances takes place in different parts of the
alimentary canal, like mouth, stomach, small intestine and large
intestine. However, maximum absorption occurs in the small intestine.
A summary of absorption (sites of absorption and substances absorbed)
is given in Table 16.1.
TABLE 16.1 The Summary of Absorption in Different Parts of Digestive System
 ABSORPTION

Small amounts of monosaccharides like glucose, amino acids

and some electrolytes like chloride ions are generally absorbed
by simple diffusion. The passage of these substances into the
blood depends upon the concentration gradients. However, some
substances like glucose and amino acids are absorbed with the
help of carrier proteins. This mechanism is called the facilitated
transport. Transport of water depends upon the osmotic
gradient. Active transport occurs against the concentration
gradient and hence requires energy. Various nutrients like amino
acids, monosaccharides like glucose, electrolytes like Na + are
absorbed into the blood by this mechanism.
 ABSORPTION

ABSORPTION
3 Steps

Diffusion/ Facilitate Active

Passive absorption absorption absorption

Some amount of Some amount of Amino acid,

glucose, Amino acid, glucose, Amino acid Glucose, Na+
Cl- ions and by the help of the
carrier ions Na+
 ABSORPTION
Intestinal epithelium Blood capillary
 GLUCOSE
 GALACTOSE
Secondary active transport by  GLUCOSE Facilitated
sodium ions
 GALACTOSE diffusion
 FRUCTOSE Facilitated diffusion  FRUCTOSE
Hepatic
portal
 AMINO Secondary active transport by vein
ACIDS sodium ions  AMINO Facilitated
ACIDS Diffusion
Secondary active transport by LIVER
 PEPTIDES
hydrogen ions
 Short chain  Short chain Diffusion
fatty acid Simple diffusion fatty acid
LACTEAL
 MICELLES Simple diffusion  CHYLOMICRON Thoracic
duct
ABSORPTION OF FAT
 ABSORPTION

Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble, cannot be absorbed

into the blood. They are first incorporated into small droplets
called micelles which move into the intestinal mucosa. They
are re-formed into very small protein coated fat globules
called the chylomicrons which are transported into the
lymph vessels (lacteals) in the villi. These lymph vessels
ultimately release the absorbed substances into the blood
stream.
 CALORIC VALUE
Caloric value :

The amount of heat liberated from complete combustion of 1 g food in a

bomb calorimeter (a closed metal chamber filled with O2) is its gross
calorific or gross energy value. The actual amount of energy combustion of
1 g of food is the physiologic value of food.

NUTRIENT GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE PHYSIOLOGIC VALUE

CARBOHYDRATES 4.1 kcal/g 4.0 kcal/g

FAT 9.45 kcal/g 9.0 kcal/g

PROTEIN 5.65 kcal/g 4.0 kcal/g

 DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
INFLAMMATION
 The inflammation of the intestinal tract is the most common ailment due
to bacterial or viral infections.

 The infections are also caused by the parasites of the intestine like tape
worm, round worm, thread worm, hook worm, pin worm, etc.

Normal Intestine

Inflammation In Intestine
 DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
JAUNDICE

The liver is affected, skin and eyes turn yellow due to the deposit of bile
pigments.
 DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
VOMITING

 It is the ejection of stomach contents through the mouth.

 This reflex action is controlled by the vomit centre in the medulla. A
feeling of nausea precedes vomiting.
 DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
DIARRHOEA
 The abnormal frequency of bowel movement and increased liquidity
of the faecal discharge is known as diarrhoea.
 It reduces the absorption of food.
 DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
CONSTIPATION

 In constipation, the faeces are retained within the rectum as the bowel
movements occur irregularly.
 DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
INDIGESTION

 In this condition, the food is not properly digested leading to a feeling

of fullness. The causes of indigestion are inadequate enzyme secretion,
anxiety, food poisoning, over eating, and spicy food.
 DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
FATTY LIVER
 The storage of fat increases in the liver of alcohol addict persons (Fatty
liver). This stored fat decreases the activity of liver. The damage of liver
due to alcohol intake is called Alcoholic Liver cirrhosis.
 DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
GALL STONE
 Sometimes the passage inside the bile duct get blocked or become
narrow , so cholesterol get deposited or precipitated in gall bladder. This
termed as Gall stone or cholelithiasis.
 DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
PROTEIN ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM)

KWASHIORKAR MARASMUS
Occur in child more than oneyear of age Occur in child below one year

Deficiency of proteins only Deficiency of protein and calories both

Extensive oedema No oedema

Subcutaneous fat is still present Subcutaneous fat disappear
Wasting of muscles and thinning of Extreme emaciation of body and thinning of
limbs occur limbs occur
Skin appear to be swollen Skin is dry and wrinkled
Underweight children Severely emaciated
 DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

In both kwashiorkor and marasmus physical growth and mental development is effected
 DISORDERS-PROTEIN ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM)
PEM Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) affects infants and children to produce
Marasmus and Kwashiorkar.
Marasmus is produced by a simultaneous deficiency of proteins
and calories. It is found in infants less than a year in age, if
mother’s milk is replaced too early by other foods which are
poor in both proteins and caloric value. This often happens if the
mother has second pregnancy or childbirth when the older
infant is still too young. In Marasmus, protein deficiency impairs
growth and replacement of tissue proteins; extreme emaciation
of the body and thinning of limbs results, the skin becomes dry,
thin and wrinkled. Growth rate and body weight decline
considerably. Even growth and development of brain and mental
faculties are impaired.
 DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
PROTEIN ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM)

Kwashiorkar is produced by protein deficiency

unaccompanied by calorie deficiency. It results from the
replacement of mother’s milk by a high calorie- low protein
diet in a child more than one year in age. Like marasmus,
kwashiorkor shows wasting of muscles, thinning of limbs,
failure of growth and brain development. But unlike
marasmus, some fat is still left under the skin; moreover,
extensive oedema and swelling of body parts are seen.
 VITAMINS

 Earliest extracted vitamin = Vitamin - B1

 Vitamins are following types –

(1) Fat soluble vitamin : A, D, E, K

(2) Water soluble vitamin : B-complex and 'C'

VITAMINS
ALL THE BEST