Environmental-Studies Notes
Environmental-Studies Notes
Environmental-Studies Notes
INTRODUCTION
The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environner’ which means to ‘encircle or
surround’.
Thus our environment can be defined as “the Social, Cultural and Physical conditions that
surround, affect and influence the survival, growth and development of people, animals and
plants”
This broad definition includes the natural world and the technological environment as well as the
cultural and social contexts that shape human lives.
It includes all factors (living and nonliving) that affect an individual organism or population at any
point in the life cycle; set of circumstances surrounding a particular occurrence and all the things
that surrounds us.
SEGMENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
Environment consists of four segments.
1. Atmosphere- Blanket of gases surrounding the earth.
2. Hydrosphere- Various water bodies present on the earth.
3. Lithosphere- Contains various types of soils and rocks on the earth.
4. Biosphere- Composed of all living organisms and their interactions with the environment.
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
The Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because it comprises various branches of
studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science, agriculture, public health, sanitary
engineering etc.
It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment. It studies about the sources, reactions,
transport, effect and fate of physical and biological species in the air, water, soil and the effect of
from human activity upon these.
As the environment is complex and actually made up of many different environments like natural,
constructed and cultural environments, environmental studies is inter disciplinary in nature
including the study of biology, geology, politics, policy studies, law, religion engineering, chemistry
and economics to understand the humanity’s effects on the natural world.
This subject educates the students to appreciate the complexity of environmental issues and citizens
and experts in many fields.
By studying environmental science, students may develop a breadth of the interdisciplinary and
methodological knowledge in the environmental fields that enables them to facilitate the definition
and solution of environmental problems.
SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Environmental studies as a subject has a wide scope. It includes a large number of areas and
aspects, which may be summarized as follows:
Natural resources- their conservation and management
Ecology and Biodiversity
Environmental pollution and control
Human population and environment
Social issues in relation to development and environment
These are the basic aspects of environmental studies which have a direct relevance to every
section of society. Several career options have emerged in these fields that are broadly categorized
as:
(i) Research and development in environment:
Skilled environmental scientists have an important role to play in examining various
environmental problems in a scientific manner and carry out R&D activities for developing cleaner
technologies and promoting sustainable development.
(ii) Green advocacy:
With increasing emphasis on implementing various Acts and Laws related to environment, need for
environmental lawyers has emerged, who should be able to plead the cases related to water, air,
forest, wildlife, pollution and control etc.
(iii) Green marketing:
While ensuring the quality of products with ISO mark, now there is an increasing emphasis on
marketing goods that are environment friendly. Such products have ecomark or ISO 14000
certification. Environmental auditors and environmental managers would be in great demand in
the coming years.
(iv) Green media:
Environmental awareness can be spread amongst masses through mass media like television, radio,
newspaper, magazine, hoardings, advertisements etc., for which environmentally educated persons
are required.
(v) Environmental consultancy:
Many non-government organizations, industries and government bodies are engaging
environmental consultants for systematically studying and tackling environment related problems.
INSTITUTIONS IN ENVIRONMENT
Managing natural resources require efficient institutions at all levels i.e. local, national,
regional and global. Among the large number of institutions that deal with environmental protection
and conservation, a few well-known organization include government organizations like the BSI and
ZSI, and NGOs like the BNHS, WWF-1, etc.
The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai
World Wide fund for nature- India (WWF-1), New Delhi
Centre or science and environment (CSE), New Delhi
C.P.R Environmental Education Centre, Madras
Centre for Environment Education (CEE)
Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Institute of Environment Education & Research, Pune
The Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON)
Wild life Institute of India (WII), Dehradhun
Zoological survey of India (ZSI)
The madras Crocodile Bank Trust (MCBT)
Botanical Survey of India (BSI)
NATURAL RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
Natural resources can be defined as ‘variety of goods and services provided by nature which are
necessary for our day-to-day lives’.
Eg: Plants, animals and microbes (living or biotic part), Air, water, soil, minerals, climate and solar
energy (non- living or abiotic part).
They are essential for the fulfillment of physiological, social, economical and cultural needs at the
individual and community levels.
TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES
They are of two types of resources namely Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources.
1. Renewable resources: The resources that can be replenished through rapid natural cycles are known
as renewable resource. These resources are able to increase their abundance through reproduction
and utilization of simple substances.
Ex: Plants, (crops and forests) and animals.
Some examples of renewable resources though they do not have life cycle but can be recycled.
Ex: Wood and wood-products, pulp products, natural rubber, fibers (e.g. Cotton, jute, animal
wool, silk and synthetic fibers) and leather.
In addition to these resources, water and soil are also classified as renewable resources.
Solar energy although having a finite life, as a special case, is considered as a renewable resource in
as much as solar stocks is inexhaustible on the human scale.
2. Non renewable resources: The resources that cannot be replenished through natural processes are
known as non-renewable resources. These are available in limited amounts, which cannot be
increased. These resources include fossil fuels (petrol, coal etc.), metals (iron, copper, gold, silver,
lead, zinc etc.), minerals and salts (carbonates, phosphates, nitrates etc.).Once a non-renewable
resource is consumed, it is gone forever.
Non-renewable resources can further be divided into two categories, viz.
A) Recyclable and
B) Non-recyclable
Recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which can be collected after they are used and can
be recycled. These are mainly the non-energy mineral resources, which occur in the earth’s crust
(Ex: Ores of aluminum, copper, mercury etc.) and deposits of fertilizer nutrients (e.g. Phosphate sock
and potassium and minerals used in their natural state (asbestos, clay, mica etc.)
Non-recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which cannot be recycled in any way.
Ex: Fossil fuels and uranium, which provide 90 per cent of our energy
requirements
NATURAL RESOURCES AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS:
The main problem associated with natural resources is unequal consumption.
A major part of natural resources are consumed in the ‘developed’ world. The ‘developing nations’
also over use many resources because of their greater human population. However, the consumption
of resources per capita (per individual) of the developed countries is up to 50 times greater than
in most developing countries.
Advanced countries produce over 75% of global industrial waste and greenhouse gases.
Energy from fossil fuels consumed in relatively much greater quantities in developed countries.
Their per capita consumption of food too is much greater as well as their waste.
FOREST RESOURCES
A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominant of trees, shrubs or any other woody
vegetation usually in a closed canopy. It is derived from latin word ‘foris’ means ‘outside’. India’s
Forest Cover is 6,76,000 sq.km (20.55% of geographic area). Scientists estimate that India should
ideally have 33% of its land under forests. Today we only have about 12% thus we need not only
to protect our existing forests but also to increase our forest cover.
FUNCTIONS OF FOREST
1. It performs very important function both to human and to nature.
2. They are habitats to millions of plants, animals and wild life.
3. They recycle rain water.
4. They remove pollutant from air.
5. They control water quality.
6. They moderate temperature and weather.
7. They influence soil condition and prevent soil erosion.
USES OF FOREST
1. Commercial uses
2. Ecological uses
1. Commercial uses:
i. Wood – used as a fuel
ii. Supply wood for various industries – Raw materials as pulp, paper, furniture timber etc.
iii. Minor forest products – gum, dyes, resins
iv. Many plants – Medicines
v. Supply variety of animal products – honey. Ivory, horns etc.
vi. Many forest lands are used for - Mining, grazing, for dams and recreation.
2. Ecological uses: Forest provides number of environmental services.
i. Production of oxygen: Photosynthesis produces large amount of oxygen which is essential for life.
ii. Reducing global warming: Carbon dioxide is one of the main green house gas. It is absorbed by
plants for photosynthesis. Therefore the problem of global warming caused by CO2 is reduced.
iii. Soil conservation: Roots of trees bind the soil tightly and prevent soil erosion. They also act as wind
breaks.
iv. Regulation of hydrological cycle: Watershed in forest act like giant sponges and slowly release the
water for recharge of spring.
v. Pollution moderators: Forest can absorb many toxic gases and noises and help in preventing air and
noise pollution.
vi. Wild life habitat: Forest is the home of millions of wild animals and plants.
DAMS
Today there are more than 45,000 large dams around the world, which play an important role in
communities and economies that harness these water resources for their economic development.
Current estimates suggest some 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies on dams. Hydropower,
another important the use of stored water, currently supplies 19% of the world’s total electric power
supply and is used in over 150 countries. The world’s two most populous countries – China and
India –have built around 57% of the world’s large dams.
Dams problems
Dams are the massive artificial structures built across the rivers to store water for much beneficial
purpose.
Dams are considered a “Temples of modern India”. Dams destruct vast area of
forest area. India has more than 1600 large dams.
Effects of dams on forest:
10. Thousands of hectares of forest will be cleared.
11. Killing of wild animals and destruction of aquatic life.
12. Spreading of water borne diseases.
13. Water logging increases the salinity of the soil.
Ex: Narmadha Sagar project it has submerged 3.5 lakhs hectares of forest.
Effects of dam on tribal people
1. Construction of big dams lead to the displacement of tribal people.
2. Displacement and cultural change affects the tribal people both mentally and physically.
3. They do not accommodate the modern food habits and life style.
4. Tribal people are ill treated by the modern society.
5. Many of the displaced people were not recognised and resettled or compensated.
6. Body condition of tribal people will not suit with new areas and hence they will be affected by many
diseases.
WATER RESOURCES
Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our country is for
irrigation. Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and domestic consumption.
USES
Is essential for all forms of life.
Many uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental
activities. Virtually, all of these human uses, require fresh water.
No plant or animal species can survive without water. If water in our body drops by 1% we feel
thirst, if it drops by 10% we face death.
UNDERGROUND WATER
Aquifer: Layers of highly permeable rock that can store water is called an aquifer. Layer of sand
and gravels are good aquifers. Clay and crystalline rocks are not good aquifers.
Effects of over utilization of water
1. Decrease of ground water:
i. Increased usage decreases the ground water.
ii. Insufficient rain fall
iii. Building construction activities sealing the permeability of the soil.
Ground subsidence: If ground water withdrawal is greater than it’s recharge rate, then the
sediments in the aquifers get compacted. As a result shrinkage of land surface takes place.
Problems: a. Structural damages to the buildings
b. Fracture in pipes.
c. Reversing the flow of canals.
Lowering of water table: Overutilization of ground water in arid and semi arid regions for
agriculture disturbs the state of equilibrium of the hydrological cycle.
Problem:
a. Lowering of water table
b. Decrease the number of aquifers
c. Change the speed and direction of water.
Intrusion of salt water: In coastal area over exploitation of ground water leads to the intrusion of
salt water from sea. Therefore that water cannot be used for drinking and agriculture.Over utilization
of water causes earth quakes, landslides and famines.
Drying up of wells: Due to over utilization, ground water level decreases much faster than can be
regenerated. It leads to drying up of dug well and bore wells.
Pollution of water: Near the agricultural land ground water decreases therefore water containing
nitrogen enters into the ground and pollute the ground water.
Problem: Water which contains excess nitrate content is not suitable for drinking.
REASONS FOR DECLINE OF GROUND WATER
Population continues to rise at an unprecedented and unsustainable rate; many more areas
are expected to experience this imbalance in the near future.
1. Population explosion: World population is > 6 billion and will continue to increase significantly
during the next few decades - Enormous demands on the world’s limited freshwater supply. The total
annual freshwater withdrawals today are estimated at 3800 cubic kilometers, twice as much as just
50 years ago (World Commission on Dams, 2000).
2. Overutilization of Surface and Groundwater: Occurs at various levels. Use of more water than
really needed by human beings. Many agriculturists use more water than necessary to grow crops.
Industries in order to maximize short-term economic gains, does not bother its liquid waste and
releases it into streams, rivers and the sea.
3. Deforestation: Once hill slopes are removed of forest cover, the rainwater rushes down the rivers
and is lost. Forest cover permits water to be held in the area permitting it to seep into the ground.
This charges the underground stores of water in natural aquifers. This can be used in drought years
if the stores have been filled during a good monsoon. This soil and water management and
afforestation are long-term measures that reduce the impact of droughts. The destruction of forests
influences the regulation of natural water cycle. The removal of dense and uniform cover over the
hilly zones leads to occurrence of floods in drainage basins. Nations situated in tropical climates
including India experience disastrous floods caused by the indiscriminate deforestation of the slopes
above the valleys.
4. Hydropower generation: Large amount of water is used for generating power which otherwise used
for human needs.
5. Dams - for Agriculture and Power Generation
6. Rain fall: The erratic and inadequate rainfall results in reduction in storage in subsurface reservoirs.
The building construction activities are sealing the permeable zone, reducing the area for percolation
of rainwater into subsurface and increase in surface runoff.
7. India’s increasing demand for water for intensive irrigated agriculture, for generating electricity, and
for consumption in urban and industrial centers, has been met by creating large dams. Dams support
30 to 40% of this area.
FLOOD
It is an over flow of water. It happens when the magnitude of flow of water exceeds the carrying
capacity of the channel within its bank.
CAUSES OF FLOOD
1. Heavy rainfall, melting of snow and sudden release of water from dams. (Flash floods)
2. Reduction in the carrying capacity of the channel.
3. Deforestation, mining and over grazing increase the runoff from rains and the level of flood raises.
EFFECT OF FLOOD
1. Water spreads in the surrounding area and submerges them.
2. Cultivated land gets affected.
3. Extinction of civilization.
FLOOD MANAGEMENT
1. Floods can be controlled by dams.
2. Channel management control flood.
3. Flood hazards reduced by forecasting or flood warning.
4. Flood may also be reduced by reduction of run off by increasing infiltration through
appropriate afforestation in the catchment area.
DROUGHT
Drought is nothing but scarcity of water, which occurs due to
1. Inadequate rain fall
2. Late arrival of rain fall
3. Excessive withdrawal of ground water.Lack of water for the needs of agriculture, livestock,
industry or human population may be termed as a drought. Drought causes serious damages to
plants, animals and human life.
CAUSES OF DROUGHT
1. When annual rain fall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought is created.
2. High population.
3. Intensive cropping pattern
Ex: Maharashtra - There has been no recovery from drought for the last 30 years due to over
exploitation of water by sugarcane crop.
EFFECTS OF DROUGHT
1. Drought causes hunger, malnutrition and scarcity of drinking water an also changes the quality of
water.
2. Drought causes widespread crop failure leading to acute shortage of food and adversely affects
human and live stock population.
3. Worst situation of drought causes desertification.
4. Raw materials of agro based industries are critically affected during drought time, hence industrial
and commercial growth decreases.
5. Drought increases the degradation of natural resources.
6. Drought causes large migration of people and urbanization.
DROUGHT MANAGEMENT
1. Indigenous knowledge is essential.
2. Rain water harvesting system.
3. Construction of reservoirs to improve ground water level.
4. Modern irrigation technology (drip irrigation) very useful to conserve water.
5. Afforestration activities also improve the potential of water in the drought area.
6. Crop mixing and dry forming are the suitable methods which minimize the risk of crop failures in
dry area.
DAMS
Dams made significant contributions to human development and the benefits derived from
them have been considerable. Large dams are designed to control floods and to help the drought
prone areas, with supply of water. But large dams have proved to
cause severe environmental damage. Hence an attempt has been made to construct small dams.
Multiple small dams have less impact on the environment.
Benefits: Dams ensure a year round supply of water for domestic use and provide extra
water for agriculture, industries and hydropower generation.
Problems: They alter river flows, change nature’s flood control mechanisms such as wetlands and
flood plains, and destroy the lives of local people and the habitats of wild plant and animal species,
particularly is the case with mega dams.
Some of the problems are mentioned below.
Dam construction and submersion leads to significant loss of farmland and forest and land
submergence
Siltation of reservoirs, water logging and salination in surrounding lands reduces agricultural
productivity
Serious impacts on ecosystems - significant and irreversible loss of species and ecosystems,
deforestation and loss of biodiversity, affects aquaculture
Socio economic problems for example, displacement, rehabilitation and resettlement of tribal people.
Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers
Displacement of people - People living in the catchment area, lose property and livelihood
Impacts on lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual existence of indigenous and tribal people
Dislodging animal populations
Disruption of fish movement and navigational activities
Emission of green house gases due to rotting of vegetation
Natural disasters – reservoirs induced seismicity, flash floods etc and biological hazards due to
large-scale impounding of water – increase exposure to vectorbrone diseases, such as malaria,
schistosomiasis, filariasis.
WATER CONFLICTS
1. Conflict through use: Unequal distribution of water led to interstate and international
disputes.
National conflicts:
a. Sharing of cauvery water between Karnataka and TamilNadu.
b. Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andrapradesh
c. Siruvani – TamilNadu and Kerala
International conflicts:
Indus – India and Pakistan & Colorado river – Mexico and USA
MINERAL RESOURCES
Naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solids with uniform chemical composition are called as
minerals.
USES AND EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS
1. Development of industrial plants and machinery. - Fe, Al & Cu
2. Construction work – Fe, Al&Ni
3. Generation of energy - coal, lignite, uranium
4. Designing defense equipments like weapons and ornaments
5. Agricultural purposes – fertilizers and fungicides – Zn & Mn
6. Jewellery –Au, Ag & Pt
7. Making alloys for various purposes
8. Communication purposes – telephone, wires, cables and electronic devices
9. Medicinal purposes, particularly in ayurvedic system
FOOD RESOURCES
Food is an essential requirement for survival of life. Main components are carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, minerals and vitamins.
India 3rd largest producer of crops, nearly 300 million Indians are still under nourished. World
food summit 1996: The world food summit, 1996 has set the goal to reduce the number of under
nourished and mal nourished people to just half by 2015.
OVER GRAZING
It is a process of eating the forest vegetation without giving a chance to regenerate.
EFFECTS OF OVER GRAZING
1. Land degradation
Over grazing removing the cover of vegetation
Exposed soil gets compacted
Soil moisture reduces.
Desertification - OG leads to poor, dry and compacted soil.
Land cannot be used for further cultivation.
Soil erosion: When the grasses are removed the soil becomes loose and gets eroded by the action
of wind and rain fall.
2. Loss of useful species:OG affects the plant population and their regenerating
capacity. OG replace the plant of high nutritive value with plant of low nutritive value.
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is an art, science and industry of managing the growth of plants animals for human
use. It includes cultivation of the soil, growing and harvesting crops, breeding and raising
livestock, dairying and forestry.
TYPES OF AGRICULTURE
1. Traditional agriculture
2. Modern (or) industrialised agriculture
1. Traditional agriculture
Small plot, simple tools, surface water, organic fertilizer and a mixture of crops constitute traditional
agriculture. They produce enough food to feed their family and to sell it for their income.
2. Modern agriculture
Hybrid seeds of single crop variety, high tech equipments, lot of fertilisers, pesticides and water
to produce large amount of single crops.
EFFECTS OF MODERN AGRICULTURE
1. Problems in using fertilizers
a. Excess of fertilizers causes micronutrient imbalance. (e.g) Punjab and Haryana deficiency of
nutrient zinc in the soil affect the productivity of the soil.
b. Blue baby syndrome (nitrate pollution): Nitrate present in the fertilizer causes blue baby syndrome,
when the amount exceeds the limit leads to death.
c. Eutrophication: Nitrogen and phosphorus in the crop fields washed out by
runoff water in the water bodies, which increases the nourishment of the lakes called eutrophication.
Hence algal species increases rapidly. Life time of the species is less and they decompose easily and
pollute the water which affects the aquatic life.
2. Problems in using pesticides
1. Death of non target organism.
2. Producing new pest – super pest
3. Bio magnification – Most of the pesticides are non bio degradable, keep on concentrating in the food
chain and it is harmful to human beings.
4. Risk of cancer:
a. It directly acts as carcinogen
b. It indirectly supports immune system.
3. Water logging: Land where water stand for most of the year.
Causes of water logging:
1. Excessive water supply
2. Heavy rain
3. Poor drainage
Remedy:
1. Preventing excessive irrigation
2. Subsurface drainage technology
3. Bio drainage like trees like Eucalyptus
CASE STUDY- PESTICIDES IN INDIA
In Delhi the accumulation of pesticide in the body of mother causes premature delivery
and low birth weight infant.
Pesticides in Pepsi and Coca Cola India has reported that Pepsi and coca cola companies are
selling soft drinks with pesticide content 30-40 times higher than EU limits. This damages the
nervous system,.
ENERGY RESOURCES
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD
Developed countries like USA and Canada constitute only 5% of the world’s population but consume
25% of the world’s available energy.
Energy consumed by a person in a developed country for a single day is equal to energy consumed
by a single person in a poor country for one year.
Developed country GNP increases and energy consumption increases. In the poor country GNP and
energy consumption are less.
TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES:
1. Renewable energy resource (or)Non conventional energy resources
2. Non renewable energy resources (or) Conventional energy resources
CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEM
Eco system is the basic functional unit of ecology.
It contains both biotic and abiotic components.
The function of ecosystem is related to the cycling of matter (materials) and flow of energy.
The amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
Ecosystem passes from a less complex state to more complex state, which is called as
“ecological succession”.
CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM:
The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:
1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial Eco system
1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:
A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.
These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major interference by man.
The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem.
1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:
This ecosystem is related to land. Examples: Grassland ecosystem.
Forest ecosystem, and Desert ecosystem etc.
2) Aquatic Ecosystem:
This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub divided into two types based on salt content.
i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:
a. Running Water Ecosystems
Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow rivers)
Standing Water Ecosystems Examples: Pond, lake & well, etc
ii. Marine Ecosystem:
Examples: seas and sea shores <land along the edges of sea>
2. MAN MADE (OR) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM:
An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.
Examples: Reservoirs, Artificial lakes and gardens, etc.
STRUCTURE (OR) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an ecosystem explains the
relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the biotic (living) components.
Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:
1. Biotic (living) components. 2.Abiotic (Non-living) components.
Biotic
Components
Eco System
Abiotic
Components
FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
The function of an ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials (matter) and flow of energy.
Types of functions:
Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:
1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselves through
photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their own food. They are
always depending upon the producers for their energy. This is called secondary function of eco
system.
3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and producers and
decompose them into simpler compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
Examples: Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi, etc.
The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following terms:
A. Food chains
B. Food webs
C. Food pyramids (or) Energy pyramids
D. Energy and material flow.
A. Food Chain:
Anything which we eat to live is called food.
Food contains energy.
Food can be transferred from one organism to the other.
The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of organisms is called as “food
chain”.
A food chain always starts with a plant life and end with animal life. Thus, a food chain is a picture
(or) model that shows the flow of energy from autotrophs (producers) to series of organisms in an
Infact, all the food chains starts with the sun. The sun provides energy for plants.
The producers (plants) can make their food themselves with the help of the sunlight, chlorophyll,
water and air. The consumers, including animals and humans, cannot make their own food. They
are always depending upon the producers for their energy.
Decomposers are the micro-organisms that break down the dead animals and plants and release
nutrients that become part of the soil, which are re-used by new plants, back to the starting point of
the food chain.
Types of food chain:
Three basic types of food chains are found in a typical eco system. They are:
1. Grazing food chains.
2. Detritus food chains.
3. Parasitic food chains.
1. Grazing food chains:
Grazing food chain starts with green plants (producers) and goes to decomposer food chain (or)
detritus food chain through herbivores and carnivores.
It has two types :
a. Terrestrial food chain and
b. Aquatic food chain
Terrestrial food chain: Food chain on land is called terrestrial food chain.
Example: Grassland food chain, Forest land food chain & Desert land food chain
Grass land food chain
Grasses Grasshoppers Frog Snake
Eagles
Forest food chain
Figure:
Food chain
B. Food Web:
Web means “network” such as spider’s web, World Wide Web (WWW) etc.
So, food web is a network of food chains.
In a food web many food chains are inter connected, where different types of organisms are
connected at different tropic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at
each tropic level. Thus, there is a inter connecting of various food chains are called food webs and
as shown in following figure.
Bird(Eagle)
Snake Fish
Insect
Frog Grass
Grasshopper
Hawk
Snake Insect
Mouse
Cat Lizard
Grain Grass
This food web shows many linear food chains <as shown in figure>. These linear food chains are
inter connected with other food chains operating in the eco system to form a food web. The above
food web is a simple one. Much more complex food webs do exist in nature.
C. Ecological Pyramids:
The concept of ecological pyramids was first developed by British ecologist Charles Elton in 1927.
Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of tropic structures in which the tropic levels
(i.e., tiers) are depicted in successive stages.
An ecological pyramid is shown in the following figure.
Decrease in number (or) Biomass (or) Energy
Base
On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow in organist
population. Three types of ecological pyramids are:
1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy.
1. Pyramid of numbers:
It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.
It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.
b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.
c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.
Secondary Consumers
Primary Consumers
Trees
Producers
2. Pyramid of Biomass:
It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological material (or) organism)
present in each tropic level.
It is expressed in gram per unit area.
Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright pyramid of biomass.
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright Pyramid Of Biomass:
Insects, Birds
The pyramid of biomass gradually decreases from the produce level (or) first tropic level to consumer
level (higher tropic level) is called “upright pyramid of biomass”
A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.
Structure:
Producer : Trees and shrubs
Consumer : Primary – elephants, deer etc.
Secondary – snakes, birds, lizards etc
Tertiary – lions, tigers etc
Decomposers : fungi, bacteria
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Definition:
Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them-Classified as fresh water
and marine ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic ecosystems.
Types:
A. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem – seasonal in nature – organisms: algae, aquatic
plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often exposed to anthropogenic pressure like cloth washing,
bathing, cattle bathing, swimming etc.
B. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem – Zonation or stratification, especially during summer
is a common one.
Top layer – shallow, warm, prone to anthropogenic activities – Littoral zone
Second layer – enough sunlight, high primary productivity – Limnetic zone
Third layer – very poor or no sunlight – Profundal zone
Eg. Dal lake in Srinagar, Naini lake in Nainital
Organisms:
1. Planktons – phytoplankton eg. Algae – zooplankton eg. Rotifers
2. Nektons – that swims in water eg. Fishes
3. Neustons – that float on the surface of water Benthos – that attached to sediments eg. Snails
Types of lakes : Many types
1. Oligotrophic lakes – with less nutrient content
2. Eutrophic lakes – with very high nutrient content due to fertilizer contamination
3. Desert salt lakes – that contains high saline water due to over evaporation
4. Volcanic lakes – formed by water emitted from magma due to volcanic eruptions
5. Dystrophic lakes – that contains highly acidic water (low pH)
6. Endemic lakes – lakes that contain many endemic species, etc.
C. Streams: fresh water ecosystem where water current plays a major role. Oxygen and nutrient content
are uniform. Stream organisms have to face extreme difference in climatic conditions but they do not
suffer from oxygen deficiency as pond and lake organisms. This is because large surface area of
running water provides more oxygen supply. The animals have very narrow
range of tolerance towards oxygen deficiency. Thus stream are worst victims of industrial
pollution.
D. River ecosystem: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers.
Three phases:
1. Mountain highlands – rushing down water fall of water – large quantity of dissolved oxygen – plants
attached to rocks and fishes that require more oxygen are found.
2. Second phase – gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of plants and fishes that require
less oxygen are seen.
3. Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought – deposited in plains and delta
– very rich in biodiversity.
E. Oceans: Gigantic reservoirs of water covering >70% of earth surface – 2,50,000 species – huge
variety of sea products, drugs etc. – provide Fe, Mg, oils, natural gas, sand etc. – major sinks of
carbon di oxide – regulate biochemical cycles.
Two zones:
1. coastal zone – warm, nutrient rich, shallow – high sunlight – high primary productivity.
2. Open sea – away from continental shelf – vertically divided in to 3 zones.
Euphotic zone – abundant sunlight
Bathyal zone – dim sunlight
Abyssal zone – dark zone – world’s largest ecological unit.
F. Estuary: coastal area where river meet ocean – strongly affected by tidal actions – very rich in
nutrients – very rich in biodiversity also – organisms are highly tolerant – many species are endemic
– high food productivity – however to be protected from pollution.
Characteristics:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, etc. Biotic: Phytoplankton, fishes, snails
insects, birds, etc.
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM:
Dominated by grass – few shrubs and trees are also found – rainfall average but erratic –
overgrazing leads to desertification.
Three types – depending on the climate
a. Tropical grass lands – found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg. Savannas in Africa.
Animals – Zebra, giraffes etc. – fires are common in dry seasons – termite mounds produce methane
– leads to fire – high in photosynthesis – deliberate burning leads to release of high CO2 – global
warming.
b. Temperate grasslands – flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter and very hot summer - dry
summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to grow – soil is quite fertile – cleaned for agriculture.
c. Polar grasslands – found in arctic polar region – organism – arctic wolf, fox, etc. – A thick layer of
ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the year – known as permafrost – summer
insects and birds appear.
Components:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: soil pH, nutrients, soil moisture, temp, climatic conditions, etc. Biotic: grass, caterpillar,
butterfly, worms, insects, birds, etc.
BIODIVERSITY
INTRODUCTION
Biodiversity is the abbreviated word for ―biological diversity (bio -life or living organisms, diversity-
variety). Thus biodiversity is the total variety of life on our planet, the total number of races, varieties
and species. The sum of total of various types of microbes, plants and animals (producers,
consumers and decomposers) in a system.
Biomes can be considered life zones, environment with similar climatic, topographic and soil
conditions and roughly comparable biological communities (Eg. Grassland, forest). The biomes
shelter an astounding variety of living organisms (from driest desert to dripping rain forest, from
highest mountain to deepest ocean trenches, life occurs in a marvelous spectrum of size, shape,
colour and inter relationship). The variety of living organisms, the biodiversity, makes the world
beautiful.
There are 1.4 million species known presently. But based on new discoveries, by research
expeditions, mainly in tropics, taxonomists estimate there are between 3-50 million different species
may be alive today. Insects make up more than one half of all known species and may comprise
more than 90% of all species on earth.
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
The concept of biodiversity may be analyzed in 3 different levels. They are
1. Ecosystem diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Genetic diversity
1. Community or Ecosystem diversity
A set of biotic components (plants, animals and microorganisms) and abiotic components (soil, air,
water, etc) interacting with each other is known as an ecosystem.
Ecosystem or ecological diversity means the richness and complexity of a biological community,
including tropic levels, ecological processes (which capture energy), food webs and material
recycling.
The diversity at an ecological level or habitat level is known as ecosystem diversity.
Ex: River ecosystem- Rivers include fish, aquatic insects, mussels and a variety of plants that have
adapted.
Ecosystem diversity is the aggregate of different environmental types in a region.
It explains the interaction between living organisms and physical environment in an ecosystem.
2. Species diversity –
A discrete groups of organisms of the same kind is known as species.
Species diversity is the diversity between different species.
The sum of varieties of all living organisms at the species level is known as species diversity.
Species diversity describes the number of kinds of organisms within individual communities or
ecosystems.
The biotic component is composed of a large number of species of plants, animals and
microorganisms which interact with each other and with the abiotic component of the environment.
Ex: The total number of species living on earth is approximately more than 2 million. However,
only around 1.5 million are found and assigned scientific names.
Plant species: Apple, Mango, Wheat, Grapes, Rice etc
Animal species: Lion, Tiger, Elephant,Deer etc
3. Genetic diversity –
A species with different genetic characteristics is known as a sub-species or "genera".
Genetic diversity is a measure of the variety of versions of same gene within individual species.
Within individual species, there are varieties, that are slightly different from one other. These
differences are due to differences in the combination of genes.
Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one generation to the other.
Ex: (i) Rice varieties - All rice varieties belong to the species "oryzasativa". However there are
thousands of rice varieties that show variation at the genetic level in the form of different size,
shape, colour and nutrient content.
(ii) Teak wood varieties: The various teak wood varieties available
are - Indian teak, Burma teak, Malaysian teak etc.
FUNCTIONS OF BIODIVERSITY: Two main functions of biodiversity are
1. It is the source on which the entire human species depends on for food, fibre, shelter,
fuel and medicine.
2. It depends on biosphere which in turn leads to stability in climate, water, soil, air and
overall health of biosphere.
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
Definition and estimation of the value of biodiversity is not easy. The value of biodiversity is
classified into:
1. Direct Value and
2. Indirect Value
1. Direct value of biodiversity: It is of two types
a. Consumptive use value and
b. Productive use value
a. Consumptive use value:
The consumptive use value is the value placed on nature's products that are consumed directly,
without passing through a market. Some of them are firewood, food, and game meat.
When direct consumption requires recreation, as in sport fishing and game viewing, the consumptive
value is the whole recreational experience. Consumptive value seldom appears in national income
accounts, but could be easily included in measures such as GDP. It is valued from the cost if resource
was sold at market value, rather than being consumed.
High consumptive use values on resources may lead to the following problems:
Over-exploitation of wildlife in developing countries
Loss of traditional controls on hunting and
Loss of wildlife populations at productive levels.
Consumptive use value benefits the communities closest to the resource if harvested sustainably and
managed efficiently.
b. Productive use value:
Productive use value refers to products that are commercially harvested (sold in a market).
Its value is estimated at the production end rather than retail end by adding an inflated cost to the
finished product.
Productive use value is often the only value of biological resource reflected in national income
accounts and may have a major impact on the national economy.
Timber, fish, honey, construction materials, mushrooms, fruits, medicinal plants and game meat
sold in a market have productive use value.
2. Indirect value of biodiversity
Indirect values provide economic benefits without being harvested and do not appear in GDP.
However, they are crucial to other natural products which influence the GDP.
These values involve functions performed by biodiversity which are not of any use. Ex: Ecological
Processes etc.
Direct values are often derived from indirect values because plants and animals are supported by the
services provided by their environments.
Many classes of plant and animal species are consumed by tribal and non-tribal communities.
Ex:
1. Ecological functions
2. Flood and storm protection
3. Waste assimilation
4. Microclimatic functions
5. Nutrient cycles
6. Photosynthesis
7. Carbon stores
8. Soil protection, etc.
Indirect value of biodiversity is of the following types:
1. Non-consumptive use value
2. Optional value
3. Existence or ethical value and
4. Information value
1. Non-consumptive use value:
This indirect value deals with nature's functions and services.
It includes photosynthesis of plants which provides support system for other species by maintaining
water cycle, regulating climate, production and protection of the soil, absorption and breakdown of
pollutants, recreational, aesthetic, socio-cultural, scientific, educational, spiritual and historic values
of natural environments.
Recreational value is important with regard to tourism and helps the national GDP.
2. Optional value:
This refers to the potential of biodiversity that is currently known and needs to be explored.
This refers to the idea that there may be several existing species that may prove to be important in
future and their usefulness needs to be studied with reference to a specific problem currently
plaguing the society.
Ex:
1. The growing biotechnology field is searching for a the cure for diseases like cancer and AIDS.
2. Medicinal plants and herbs play a very important role in the economic growth of our country.
3. Existence value:
This is the value gained from continuous knowledge of existence. Also, this is the value that people
are willing to pay to keep a species /community /ecosystem from going extinct. Examples of this are
high amounts being spent for animals like pandas, whales, lions etc.
Our rich heritage teaches us to worship plants, animals, rivers and
mountains. Examples being the Ganga river, trees like Banyan and Peepal and plants like the
Vambu, Tulsi and Vengai are worshipped.
Information value: This relates to the educational, scientific and aesthetic and tourism values of
biodiversity in an ecosystem
Aesthetic Values: Beautiful plants and animals inspire us to protect biodiversity. The most
important aesthetic value of biodiversity is eco-tourism.
1. People from distant places spend time and money to visit areas where they can enjoy aesthetic value
of biodiversity. This is called eco -tourism.
2. The pleasant music of wild birds, beautifully coloured butterflies, colour of peacocks and colour of
flowers are very important for their aesthetic value.
2. EX-SITU CONSERVATION
Ex-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna outside their natural habitats. This type
of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties and wild relatives of crops.
1. Ex-situ conservation involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and animal species
under controlled conditions
2. It identifies those species that are at a high risk of extinction
3. It prefers species that are important for man in the near future among the endangered species.
Important centers of ex-situ conservation:
1. Botanical gardens
2. Seed banks
3. Microbial culture collections
4. Tissue and cell cultures
5. Museums and
6. Zoological gardens
Methods of ex-situ conservation
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NPBGR) It is located in New Delhi and uses the
Cryopreservation Technique to preserve agricultural and horticultural crops. Cryopreservation
technique involves using liquid nitrogen at -196 C. Varieties of rice, turnip, radish, tomato, onion,
carrot, chilli, tobacco have been successfully preserved for years using this technique.
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NPAGR) It is located in Karnal, Haryana and
preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.
National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) In this facility, conservation of
varieties of crop plants or trees is done using tissue culture. This facility has been created within the
NPBGR.
Advantages of Ex-situ conservation
1. Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and attention
2. In captive breeding the animals are assured of food, water, shelter and security thereby have a longer
life span
3. It is carried-out in cases of endangered species that do not have any chance of survival in the wild
Disadvantages of Ex-situ conservation
1. It is an expensive method
2. Freedom of wildlife is lost
3. Animals cannot survive in the natural environment
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
INTRODUCTION
Pollution may be defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of air, water and land that may be harmful to human life and other animals, living
conditions, industrial processes and cultural assets. Pollution can be natural or manmade.
The agents that pollute are called pollutants.
POLLUTANTS
Pollutants are by-products of man’s action. The important pollutants are summarized below:
• Deposited matter—Soot, smoke, tar or dust and domestic wastes.
• Gases—CO, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, halogens (chlorine, bromine and iodine).
• Metals—Lead, zinc, iron and chromium.
• Industrial pollutants—Benzene, ether, acetic acid
• Agriculture pollutants—Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and fertilizers..
• Radiation pollutants—Radioactive substances and radioactive fall-outs of the nuclear test.
Classification of Pollutants
Nature of disposal: On the basis of natural disposal, pollutants are of two types:
Non-degradable pollutants: These are the pollutants, which degrade at a very slow pace by the
natural biological processes. These are inorganic compounds such as salts (chlorides), metallic
oxides waste producing materials and materials like, aluminum cans, mercuric salts and even DDT.
These continue to accumulate in the environment.
1. Biodegradable pollutants: These include domestic sewage that easily decomposes under natural
processes and can be rapidly decomposed by natural/ artificial methods. These cause serious
problems when accumulated in large amounts as the pace of deposition exceeds the pace of
decomposition of disposal.
Nature of form: On the basis of the form in which they persist after their release into the
environment, pollutants can be categorized under two types:
(i) Primary pollutants: These include those substances, which are emitted directly from some
identifiable sources. This include-
a. Sulphur compounds: SO2, SO3, H2S produced by the oxidation of fuel.
b. Carbon compounds: Oxides of carbon (CO+CO2) and hydrocarbons.
c. Nitrogen compounds: NO2 and NH3.
d. Halogen compounds: Hydrogen fluoride (HF) and hydrochloric acid (HCl).
e. Particles of different size and substances: These are found suspended in air. The fine particles
below the diameter of 100u are more abundant and include particles of metals, carbon, tar, pollen,
fungi, bacteria, silicates and others.
(ii) Secondary pollutants: The secondary pollutants are produced by the
combination of primary emitted pollutants in the atmosphere.
Ex: In bright sunlight, a photochemical reaction occurs between nitrogen oxides; oxygen and waste
hydrocarbons from gasoline that forms peroxy-acetyle nitrate (PAN) and ozone (O3), both of them
are toxic components of smog and cause smarting eyes and lung damage.
TYPES OF POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION
Introduction: Air pollution is one such form that refers to the contamination of the air, irrespective
of indoors or outside. A physical, biological or chemical alteration to the air in the atmosphere can
be termed as pollution. It occurs when any harmful gases, dust, smoke enters into the atmosphere and
makes it difficult for plants, animals and humans to survive as the air becomes dirty.
The WHO defines air pollution as the presence of materials in the air in such concentration which
are harmful to man and his environment. A number of ingredients find their way in the air and these
are mostly gases, which rapidly spread over wide areas.
Causes of Air pollution:
Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like coal,
petroleum and other factory combustibles is one of the major causes of air pollution. Pollutants
emitting from vehicles cause immense amount of pollution. Carbon Monoxide produced by
improper or incomplete combustion emitted from vehicles is another major pollutant along with
Nitrogen Oxides that is produced from both natural and manmade processes.
1. Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture
related activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of insecticides,
pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities emit harmful chemicals into the air and cause water
pollution.
2. Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release
large amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air
thereby depleting the quality of air. Petroleum refineries also release hydrocarbons and various other
chemicals that pollute the air and also cause land pollution.
Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted using large
equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are released in the air causing massive air
pollution.
3. Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic
chemicals in the air and cause air pollution.
Suspended Particulate matter: Suspended particulate matter popular by its acronym SPM, is
another cause of pollution.
THERMAL POLLUTION
Introduction
Thermal pollution is defined as the addition of excess of undesirable heat to water thereby making
it harmful to man, animal or aquatic life. Thermal pollution may also cause no significant
departures from or activities of aquatic communities.
Sources of Thermal Pollution
The following sources contribute to thermal pollution.
Nuclear power plants: Nuclear power plants including drainage from hospitals, research
institutions, nuclear experiments and explosions, discharge a lot of heat that is not utilized
along with traces of toxic radio nuclides into nearby water streams. Emissions from nuclear reactors
and processing installations are also responsible for increasing the temperatures of water bodies.
The operations of power reactors and nuclear fuel processing units constitute the major contributor
of heat in the aquatic environment. Heated effluents from power plants are discharged at 10 C higher
than the receiving waters that affect the aquatic flora and fauna.
Coal-fired power plants: Coal fired power plants constitute a major source of thermal pollution.
The condenser coils in such plants are cooled with water from nearby lakes or rivers. The resulting
heated water is discharged into streams thereby raising the water temperature by 15C. Heated effluent
decreases the dissolved content of water resulting in death of fish and other aquatic organisms. The
sudden fluctuation of temperature also leads to "thermal shock" killing aquatic life that has become
acclimatized to living in a steady temperature.
Industrial effluents: Industries like textile, paper, pulp and sugar manufacturing release huge
amounts of cooling water along with effluents into nearby natural water bodies. The waters polluted
by sudden and heavy organic loads result in severe drop in levels of dissolved oxygen leading to
death of several aquatic organisms.
Domestic Sewage: Domestic sewage is discharged into rivers, lakes, canals or streams with
minimal treatment or without any treatment. These wastes have a higher organic temperature and
organic load. This leads to decrease in dissolved oxygen content in the receiving waters resulting in
the set-up of anaerobic conditions causing release of foul and offensive gases in water. Eventually,
this leads to development of anoxic conditions resulting in rapid death of aquatic organisms.
Hydro-electric power: Generation of hydroelectric power sometimes leads to negative thermal
loading in water systems. Apart from electric power industries, various factories with cooling
requirement contribute to thermal loading.
Thermal pollution in streams by human activities
Industries and power plants use water to cool machinery and discharge the warm water into a stream
Stream temperature rises when trees and tall vegetation providing shade are cut.
Soil erosion caused due to construction also leads to thermal pollution
Removal of stream side vegetation
Poor farming Practices also lead to thermal pollution
2 Urban wastes Plastics, glasses, metallic cans, fibers, Alter the constitution of soil
paper, rubbers, street sweepings, fuelCause Water logging Cause
residues, leaves, containers, abandoned biomagnifications of
vehicles and toxic materials
other discarded through food chain
manufactured products.
3 Agricultural fertilizers, pesticides, Water logging,
practices weedicides, farm wastes, manure Salinisation, micronutrient
debris, soil erosion imbalance,
loss of fertile soil
4 Radioactive Atomic reactor, nuclear radioactive Mutations, changes
pollutants devices, functions of living beings,
Explosion of hydrogen weapons and Biomagnifications, cancers,
cosmic Infant mortality
radiations
Cooling ponds: Cooling ponds are the best way to cool thermal discharges. Heated effluents on the
surface of the water in cooling ponds maximize dissipation of heat to the atmosphere and minimize
the water area and volume. The warm water wedge acts like a cooling pond.
Spray ponds: The water coming out from condensers is allowed to pass into the ponds through
sprayers. Here water is sprayed through nozzles as fine droplets. Heat from the fine droplets gets
dissipated to the atmosphere.
Artificial lakes: Artificial lakes are manmade water bodies that offer once- through cooling. The
heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one end and water for cooling purposes may be
withdrawn from the other end. The heat is eventually dissipated through evaporation
SOIL POLLUTION
Introduction
Soil pollution is defined as, “contamination of soil by human and natural activities which may
5 Biological agents The human and animal Variety of diseases Cause
wastes, garbage, waste nutrient imbalance
water
6 Pesticides chlorinated hydrocarbon Reduces the activity of sex
insecticide hormones of male and female.
Organic phosphorous Causes diseases to human
pesticides beings.
Types of noise: Environmental noise has been doubling every ten years. Noise is classified as:
Industrial Noise
Transport Noise
Domestic Noise
Industrial Noise:
It is sound with a high intensity sound caused by industry machines. Sources of such noise
pollution are caused by machines from machines in various factories, industries and mills. Noise from
mechanical saws and pneumatic drills is unbearable and a nuisance to the public. The Indian Institute
of Oto-Rino Laryngology, Chennai reported that increasing industrial pollution damages the hearing
ability by at least 20%. Workers in steel industry, who work close to heavy industrial blower, are
exposed to 112dB for eight hours suffer from occupational pollution.
Transport Noise:
Transport noise mainly consists of traffic noise from road, rail and aircraft. The number of
automobiles on roads like motors, scooters, cars, motor cycles, buses, trucks and diesel engine
vehicles has increased enormously in the recent past further aggravating the problem of transport
noise. Noise levels in most residential areas in metropolitan cities are hovering around the border line
due to increased vehicular noise pollution. This high level of noise pollution leads to deafening in
the elderly.
Domestic noise:
This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and community.
Common sources of noise are musical instruments, TV, VCR, Radios, Transistors, Telephones, and
loudspeakers etc. Statistically ever since the industrial revolution, noise in the environment has been
doubled every ten years.
MARINE POLLUTION
Introduction
The discharge of waste substances in to the sea resulting in harm to the living resources, hazards to
the human health hindrances to the fishery and impairment of quality use of sea water.
Sources
Dumping the wastes: Dumping of untreated wastes and sewages in the oceans by coastal towns,
cities and industries. Rivers on the way to sea carry huge amount of sewage garbage agricultural
discharge pesticide heavy metals. Huge quantity of plastic dumped in to the sea.
Oil: This is discharged in to the sea as crude oil and as separate fraction. Oil and it’s fractions are
used in houses automobiles and industries. This causes devastation of marine environment
Radioactive materials enter the ocean from nuclear weapon testing.
Toxics: Toxic waste is the most harmful form of marine pollution. Once toxic wastes affects an
organism it quickly passes along the food chain and as sea food which cause various problems.
Marine Debris: Garbage like plastic bags, ropes helium balloons
Control Measures
Laboratory generated nuclear wastes should be disposed off safely and scientifically.
Nuclear power plants should be located in areas after careful study of the geology of the area, tectonic
activity and meeting other established conditions.
Appropriate protection against occupational exposure.
Leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors, careless use of radioactive elements as fuel
and careless handling of radioactive isotopes must be prevented.
Safety measure against accidental release of radioactive elements must be ensured in nuclear plants.
Unless absolutely necessary, one should not frequently go for diagnosis by x- rays.
Regular monitoring of the presence of radioactive substance in high risk area should be ensured.
Among the many options for waste disposal, the scientists prefer to bury the waste in hundreds of
meters deep in the earth’s crust is considered to be the best safety long term option.
SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Introduction:
From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development
Man is part of the nature and he is bound to obey the laws of nature. He depends on his environment
for basic things. More developmental activities are adopted in order to increase the quality of life.
For that he uses the available resources. The Earth has limited supply of resources and renewable
resources. These are to be managed in a scientific manner for availing the generations to come. Hence
developmental activities are to be taken with more care about the environment and its protection. It
brings benefits to all not only to the present generation but also for future generations.
Sustainable development: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generation to meet their own needs.
Important components of Sustainable development:
Economic development
Community development
Environmental protection
True sustainable development aims at optimum use of natural resources with high degree of
reusability, minimum wastage, least generation of toxic by-products and maximum productivity.
Aspects of sustainable development:
Inter generational equity-It states stat we should hand over a safe, healthy and resourceful
environment to future generation.
Intra generational equity:
A technological development of rich countries should support the economic growth of poor
countries and help in narrowing the wealth gap and lead to sustainability.
Approaches for sustainable development:
1. Devloping appropriate technology-technology which is locally adoptable, ecofriendly,
resource efficient and culturally suitable should be adopted. It uses local labour, less resources and
produces minimum waste.
2. Reduce ,Reuse and Recycle (3Rapproach) –Optimum use of natural resources using it
again and again instead of throwing it on wasteland or water and recycling the material in to further
products. It reduces waste generation and pollution.
3. Providing environmental education and awareness-Thinking and attitude of people
towards earth and environment should be changed by providing environmental awareness and
education.
4. Consumption of renewable resources- It is very important to consume the natural
resources in such a way that the consumption should not exceed the regeneration capacity.
5. Non-renewable resources should be conserved by recycling and reusing.
6. By population control we can make sustainable development.
Rainwater harvesting. It is a technique of collecting and storing rain water for use in non-
monsoon periods. In the present age, concrete houses, well-built roads, footpaths and well –
concreted courtyards have left few open grounds. With the decrease in natural forest cover, increase
in concrete jungles and the decrease in exposed earth; very little open ground is left for water to soak
in and thereby increase the ground water table. So, artificial recharging of the ground water is
extremely essential. It is done through rain water harvesting. For the purpose, rain water is collected
at the roof top or in an open well and then carried down for immediate use or it is directed into the
aquifer.
Rain water harvesting techniques
There are two main techniques for rain water harvesting:
1. Storage of rain water on the surface for future use
2. Recharge of ground water
Objectives of rain water harvesting.
1. To raise the water table by recharging the ground water.
2. To minimize water crises and water conflicts
3. To reduce rain water run off and soil erosion.
4. To reduce the ground water contamination from intrusion of saline water
Concept of rain water harvesting
Rain water harvesting involves collecting water that falls on roof of house during Rain and
conveying water through PVC or Al pipe to a near by covered storage tank.
Method of rain water harvesting
Roof top method: collecting rain water from roof of the building and storing in the ground. It is the
low cost and effective technique for urban houses and buildings.
The rain water from roofs, road surfaces, play grounds is diverted into the surface tank or recharge
pits. The pit base is filled with stones and sand which serves as a
Advantages:
Rise in ground water level and minimizing the soil erosion and flood Hazards. Scarcity of water is
reduced.
Rainwater harvesting systems channel rainwater that falls on to a roof into storage via a system of
gutters and pipes. The first flush of rainwater after a dry season should be allowed to run to waste
as it will be contaminated with dust, bird droppings etc. Roof gutters should have sufficient incline
to avoid standing water. They must be strong enough, and large enough to carry peak flows. Storage
tanks should be covered to prevent mosquito breeding and to reduce evaporation losses, contamination
and algal growth. Rainwater harvesting systems require regular maintenance and cleaning to keep the
system hygienic.
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Water shed (or) drainage basin: It is defined as land area from which water drains under the
influence of gravity into stream, lake, reservoir (or) other body of surface water. Watershed
management of rain fall and resultant run off is called watershed management.
It refers to issues, principles and guidelines related to human interactions with their Environment.
Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It deals with morals and values. An ethic is a principle or value
that we use to decide whether an action is good or bad. Ethics differs from country to country.
Functions of Environment:
1. It moderates climate conditions of the soil.
1 A healthy economy depends on healthy environment.
2 It is the life supporting medium for all organisms.
2. It provides food , air , water and other important natural resources to the human beings
3. Environmental problems : Deforestation activities , population growth and urbanization water
Pollution due to effluents and smoke from industries, Scarcity.
Solution to environmental problems:
Reduce the waste matter and energy resources.
Recycle and reuse as many of our waste product And resources as possible. Avoid over
exploitation of natural resources.
Minimse soil degradation and Protect the biodiversity of the earth. Reduce population and increase
the economic growth our country.
Ethical guidelines on environmentalprotection:
1. The earth is the habitat of all living species and not of human beings alone.
2. Natural resources and energies are depleting fast. We must protect them.
3. Involve yourself in the care of the earth and experience nature.
4. Respect nature, you are a part of it.
5. Think of the global cause and act for localprotection
6. Keep yourself informed about ecological changes and developments.
7. Observe austerity, reserve scarce resources for the future and the future generations.
8. We must be cooperative, honest, affectionate and polite to society and nature.
ACID RAIN:
Normal rain water is always slightly acidic (pH 5-5.6) because of Co2 present in the atmosphere gets
dissolved in it. Because presence of SO2 and NO2 gases as pollutants in the atmosphere. The pH
of the rain is further lowered. This type of precipitation of water is called acid rain.
Formation:
Acid rain means the presence of excessive acids in the rain water. The thermal power plants
industries and vehicles release NO2 and SO2 in to the atmosphere due to the burning of coal and
oil. These gases reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere and from acids like HNO3 ,H2SO4
.These acids descends on to the earth as acid rain through rain water.
EFFECTS: Effect on human being:
Human nervous system respiratory system and digestive system are affected by acid rain.It cause
premature death from heart and lung disorder like asthma, bronchitis.
On building:
At present Taj mMahal in Agra is suffering due to SO2 and H2SO4 fumes from Madura refinery.Acid
rain corrodes houses, monuments ,statues ,bridges and fences. Acid rain causes corrosion of metals.
Terestrial and lake Ecosystem.
Reduce the rate of photosynthesis and growth in terrestrial vegetation.
Acid rain retards the growth of crops like beans potatoe ,carrot ,spinach. Acid rain rduces fish
population ,black flies,mosquitoes ,deer flies occurs largely which causes number of complications
in ponds rivers and lakes. Activity of bacteria and other microscopic animals is reduced in acidic
water.
2. Increases the rate of non melanin skin cancer in fair colored people.
3. Prolonged expose to UV rays leads to actinia Katatities ( slow blindness) and cataracts.
Effect of population explosion (OR) environmental and social impacts of growing population
1 Population explosion leads to environmental degradation.
2 Population explosion causes over exploitation of natural resources.
3 Increase in population will increases diseases, economic in equity and command wars.
Human Rights
Human rights are the fundamental rights possessed by human beings irrespective caste,
nationality, sex & language.
The aim of Govt. is to ensure happiness to the entire citizen with equal rights.
Under the Indian constitution the following fundamental rights have been guaranteed to human
beings.
Human right to freedom
Human right to property
Value education
Education is nothing but learning through which knowledge about a particular thing can be acquired
with the help of our knowledge and expedience we can identify our value to understand ourselves
and our relationship with other and their environment.
Types of Education:
Format Education:- (In this all leaning process are self related). All people will read write, will
Objectives:
Improve integral growth of human being.
To create altitudes and improvement towards sustainable life style.
To increase awareness about our national history, cultural heritage, constitutional rights,
national integration.
To understand (about the our) natural environment in which how land, air and water are
interlinked.
To know about various living and non living organism and their interaction with the
environment.
Types of values:
2. Cultural values:
These values various with respect to time and place. These are concerned with rights &
wrong, good & bad true & false and behavior of human beings. It is reflected in language,
education, law, economics, philosophy etc.
African countries were affecters HIV. India ranks 2 nd in the world with 5 million affects people.
Scenario in India:
Large number of infected people are in Maharastra & Tamil Nadu followed by Delhi, UP,
Karnataka & Goa. Till sept. 2003 24,667 cases are found in Tamil Nadu.
Smog:- Mixture of smoke from coal combustion and fog in suspended droplets form photochemical
smog cause irritation to eyes and lungs (ii) many damage plants (iii) Irritation to nose & throat (iv)
asthma
Role of IT in Environment
IT plays a vital role in the field of environment education. IT means collection, processing, storage
and dissemination of information. The internet facilities, information through satellites,www and
geographical information provides up to date information on various aspects of environment,
weather.
Remote sensing
It refers to any method which can be used to gather information about an object without coming in
contact with it. Gravity, magnetic, electro magnetic forces could be used for remote sensing. Remote
sensing covers various disciplines from laboratory testing to astronomies. Now remote sensing is
used to denote identification of earth feathers by detecting the characteristic electro magnetic
lighted
5.Comprehensive administrative system can be developed by using computer network techniques.
6.Remote sensing-Graphical Interface System are useful for coral reef mapping and ocean resources.
They are also useful to access the loss of biodiversity/hot spots etc.