Mekelle University, Ethiopian Institute of Technology

Assessment of urban storm water management in

northern Ethiopia: towards sustainable mitigation of
drainage and water quality problems

Principal Investigator: Berhane Grum (PhD)

Mekelle, Ethiopia, August 2018

1. Research Project:
Assessment of urban storm water management in northern Ethiopia: towards
sustainable mitigation of drainage and water quality problems

2. Short summary of the project:

Urban areas in developing countries such as Ethiopia are growing fast and there is huge
demand for the development of different infrastructures such as housing, road and water
supply. So, developing countries face accelerated urbanization without due investment in
infrastructure for water and waste water treatment, drainage facilities, transport and health.
Due to the financial constraints, roads are constructed without adequate and/or proper storm
water management. Several reports indicate that water drainage related problems are common
in urban areas in Ethiopia. The most prominent problems are inadequate or lack of basic
drainage facilities, pondage of water in streets, blockage of drains by solid wastes, raising of
groundwater level and damage of hydraulic and building structures by flooding.
Consequently, these drainage related problems disrupt both human and traffic mobility during
and after rain events. The effects of improper water drainage management are pronounced in
semi-arid areas such as the northern Ethiopia in which intensive rainfall in the rainy season
usually causes the generation of concentrated runoff which can sometimes bypass drainage
facilities and damage the road section as well as nearby building structures.

Despite some efforts to solve the problems of urban storm water management, the problem
still continues to cause nuisance in many towns in northern Ethiopia. Therefore, there is a
strong need to investigate in detail so as to identify the key urban drainage management
related problems and foresee site-specific short and long-term term mitigation measures. This
study deals with the assessment of urban storm water management in northern Ethiopia, and
aims towards identifying and mitigating drainage related problems. The study will be
conducted in case study urban areas, namely Mekelle, Axum and Adigrat representing big
towns as well as Adigudom, Hawzien and Freweyni representing small towns. The
investigation includes literature review to understand world and country-wide urban storm
water management, identifying cross-cutting drainage related problems and conducting field
experiments to determine hydro-meteorological design parameters in urban areas in northern
Ethiopia. Hydrologic (e.g. HEC-HMS) and hydraulic (e.g. HEC-RAS) models will also be
used to simulate runoff processes and hence explore the effect of land management on
function of different drainage systems in urban areas. The study will be useful in developing
sustainable storm water management strategies in Ethiopia in particular and in other
developing countries in general. The research project will be conducted for three years and
has a budget requirement of 895,000.00 ETB.

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3. Research Work To date (if any)
Grum, B., Woldearegay, K., Hessel, R., Baartman, J.E.M., Abdulkadir, M., Yazew, E.,
t of water harvesting
techniques on event-based hydrological responses and sediment yield at a catchment scale
in northern Ethiopia using the Limburg Soil Erosion Model (LISEM). Catena 159, 20-34.
Grum, B., Assefa, D., Hessel, R., Woldearegay, K., Ritsema, C., Aregawi, B., Geissen, V.,
2017. Improving on-site water availability by combining in-situ water harvesting
techniques in semi-arid northern Ethiopia. Agricultural Water Management 193, 153-162.
Grum, B., Assefa, D., Hessel, R., Woldearegay, K., Kessler A., Ritsema C., Geissen, V.
2016. Effect of in situ water harvesting techniques on soil and nutrient losses in semi-arid
northern ethiopia. Land degradation and Development 28,1016 1027.
Grum, B., Hessel, R., Kessler, A., Woldearegay, K., Yazew, E., Ritsema, C., Geissen, V.
2016. A decision support approach for the selection and implementation of water
harvesting techniques in arid and semi-arid regions. Agricultural Water Management 173,
35-47.
Woldearegay, K., Van Steenbergen. F., Agujetas, M., Grum, B., Van Beusekom, M. 2015.
Water harvesting from roads: climate resilience in Tigray, Ethiopia. IRF Europe & Central
Asia Regional Congress September 15-18, 2015-Istanbul Turkey.
Grum, B., Woldearegay, K., Van Steenbergen. F., Puertas, D.G., Van Beusekom, M.,
Agujetas, M. 2014. Reconnaisance Report: Potentials of water harvesting from road
catchments: the case of Freweign-Hawzien-Abreha Weatsbeha route, Tigray, Northern
Ethiopia. http://roadsforwater.org.
Berhane, S., Zemadim, B., Melesse, A., 2013. Rainfall runoff processes and modeling: the
case of Meja watershed in the Upper Blue Nile basin of Ethiopia. In: Melesse, A.
,Abtew,w.(Ed.), Landscape dynamics,soils and hydrological processses in Varied
Climates. Springer, Switzerland, pp. 183 206.
Weldemichael, A.A., Pais, A., Zegras C. 2013. An optimization model for land-use
transportation decision making. 6th annual CITTA, May 17th 2013, Coimbra, Portugal.
Weldemichael, A.A., Pais, A., Zegras C. 2014. Evaluating solution methods for an
optimization based integrated land-use transportation model, 6th annual GET-Transportes,
January 6-7 2014, Covilha, Portugal.
Tadesse, A., Sibehatlea, M., Gebrelibanos, T., Gebru, F., Birhane, E., 2017. Hydrological
response to changes in land use land cover and water Harvesting technologies in Abreha
We-Atsbeha watershed, northern Ethiopia. Journal of the drly lands 7, 568-581.
Gebremedhin, B., Tesfahunegn, A., Solomon, G. 2013. Implication of groundwater quality to
corrosion problem and urban planning in Mekelle area, northern Ethiopia. Momona
Ethiopian Journal of Sciences 5, 51-70.

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4. Proposed Research Project:
a) Background and Justification:
By 2014, 54% of the global population live in urban areas and is expected to be 66% by 2050
[1]. The present growth of urbanization in developing countries demands accelerated
development of different infrastructures such as housing, road, water supply etc. However,
developing countries face accelerated urbanization without due investment in infrastructure for
water and waste water treatment, drainage facilities, transport and health [2]. It is still a challenge
for developing countries to establish modern and sustainable drainage management system in
urban areas due to socio-economic constraints as well as prevailing extreme climatic conditions.
With the current growth in urban areas in Ethiopia, drainage related problems are common, for
example, in Addis Ababa [3][4], Jimma [5], Bahir Dar [6], Assosa [7], and Kemisse [8].
The most common problems in relation to urban drainage in Ethiopia are inadequate or lack of
basic drainage facilities, pondage of water in streets, blockage of drains by solid wastes,
flooding, raising of groundwater level, damage of hydraulic and building structures [3][4][5].
Similar urban drainage problems are also reported in the semi-arid northern Ethiopia, for
example, in Adigrat [9] and Mekelle [10]. The most noticeable problem in northern Ethiopia, for
example, in Mekelle city is the concentration of runoff in streets disrupting human and traffic
mobility during and after rain events. The concentration of runoff in streets is mainly caused by
inadequacy of existing drainage facilities, improper alignment of manholes, usually inundated
with floods draining from feeders (e.g. cobble stone roads) without adequate drainage provision,
These and other similar drainage problems can be avoided or minimized only if proper and
sustainable storm water management practices are implemented.

In semi-arid areas such as the northern Ethiopia, the effects of drainage problems may be worse
considering the steeply sloping physical conditions and intense rainfall compared to other humid
and sub-humid areas [11]. Moreover, the effect of climate change on the prevalence of extreme
hydrologic events, such as flooding, is more pronounced in semi-arid than in humid areas [12].
Despite some attempts to study problems of urban storm water management in northern Ethiopia
[9] [10], the problem still persists and continues to cause nuisance to storm water management.
There is still a strong need to explore in detail the recurrent urban drainage problems in northern
Ethiopia and explore short-term specific mitigation measures as well as long lasting sustainable
solutions in urban drainage management. The findings from this research will give an insight
regarding sustainable urban storm water management policy for northern Ethiopia and other
similar regions in developing countries.

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 b) Objectives of the project:
General objective:
To assess urban storm water management in northern Ethiopia and propose short and
long-term sustainable mitigation measures.

Specific objectives:
Assessment and evaluation of existing drainage conditions (design, drainage problems,
operation, maintenance, etc.).
Impact of climate (e.g. rainfall, rain intensity, temperature) on urban runoff and safety of
infrastructures.
Impact of land use management on prevalence of flooding and safety of drainage
structures and surrounding infrastructures.
Determination of localized hydro-meteorological parameters for design and
implementation of urban drainage structures.
Effect of waste management on urban water quality and sanitation.
Propose short and long-term sustainable urban drainage management strategies for urban
area in northern Ethiopia.
Propose policy recommendations for sustainable storm water management for developing
countries.
a) Description of study area:
The study will basically be carried out in northern Ethiopia, in urban areas located in Southern,
Eastern and Central zones of Tigrai. The case study areas are Mekelle, Adigrat and Axum
representing big towns, and Adigudom, Hawzien and Freweyni representing small towns.
Mekelle is the capital of Tigrai regional state with 412,938 inhabitants. Similarly, Adigrat and
Axum have total residents of 95,358 and 74,007, respectively.

The northern Ethiopian highland is characterized by mountainous and undulating topography

usually with an altitude greater 1000 m above sea level. The northern Ethiopian highland is a
semi-arid area characterized by tropical climate, in which temperature is relatively constant
throughout the year except for some diurnal variations. The region has two seasons (dry and wet)
and the rainy season is short and often occurs between the month of June and September.
Rainfall is erratic with high temporal and spatial variations. Average annual rainfall for the
region ranges between 500 and 700 mm. Despite the short seasonal rainfall, the rain intensity is
usually high causing concentration of runoff in urban areas. More than 85% of the people in
northern Ethiopia, similar to other regions in the country, depend on subsistence agriculture. The
livelihood of urban dwellers is mainly dependent on employment and commercial incomes.

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 b) Methodology:
The study consists of literature review, assessment and investigation of existing road drainage
networks (adequacy, design, functionality, maintenance, etc.), and practical experimental
investigations.

Literature review includes both worldwide and countrywide (Ethiopia) review on urban
storm water management practices as well as waste management in relation to urban
storm water management. The review will also identify the cross-cutting problems in
urban storm water management particularly in northern part of Ethiopia.
The study will be mainly conducted in big towns in northern Ethiopia namely Mekelle,
Adigrat and Axum. The investigation will also include small towns (Adigudom, Hawzien
and Freweini) in northern Ethiopia to represent gravel road drainage conditions because
the big towns usually have roads with asphalt and gravel.
First, the availability and adequacy of drainage systems will be assessed for different road
surface (e.g. gravel, asphalt, and coble stone) conditions. For existing drainage systems,
the implemented design procedure will be reviewed if it complies with existing
topographic, land use, climatic and hydrological conditions of urban areas in northern
Ethiopia. The efficiency and adequacy of existing drainage systems for accommodating
incoming runoff will be checked by analyzing draining area, topographic and climatic
conditions.
The study will assess the effects of liquid and solid waste disposal on the function of
existing drainage systems. The study will first determine the extent of drainage structures
(e.g. manholes) negatively affected by solid waste disposal. Furthermore, the effect of
liquid and solid waste on water quality of existing rivers/streams will be assessed using
laboratory procedures. After collecting water sample from the rivers, it will be analyzed
for pH, nitrate, sulfate, chloride, phosphate and other harmful chemicals. In addition,
water samples will be collected from drinking water supply if liquid and solid wastes are
affecting domestic water.
As the effect of climate change is reported to have more effect in semi-arid than humid
areas, climate scenarios will be developed if changes in rainfall and rain intensity could
significantly alter urban hydrological processes mainly on the frequency and magnitude
of flooding. Similar scenarios will also be developed for land use, for example, the
expansion of cobblestone and its effect on the magnitude of runoff generation. The
simulation will be made using a hydrological HEC-HMS and SWMM and a hydraulic
HEC-RAS models. Hy8 will also be used to determine the capacity of culverts for design
discharge.
Once existing drainage conditions are investigated and problems are clearly identified,
field experiments will be setup to explore the possibility of improving design, efficiency
and functionality of drainage systems. Runoff coefficients for different land uses will be
determined using field runoff plots installed within the towns. Rain intensity will be
measured using automatic (e.g. tipping bucket) rain gauges which will be installed within
the towns considering recommended areal coverage. The experiments will help to
develop regional hydro-meteorological parameters, such as runoff coefficient and rain
intensity for urban areas in north Ethiopia.
Based on literature review, the results of the field investigations and experiments for the
case study towns, road sections and areas with prominent drainage problems will be

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 identified. A map, showing areas with drainage problems will be prepared. Short and
long-term mitigation measures will be proposed based on literature review on global best
practices and/or based on a new proposal with new design focusing on mitigation
measures solving existing drainage problem of a specific area.
Urban storm water management guidelines will be developed and can be scaled-up to
similar regions in the country or other developing countries. Brief policy
recommendations on sustainable urban storm water management strategies will also be
highlighted so as to mitigate existing problems of storm water management.

c) Expected output:
The expected research outputs from this research project will be:
Decision support maps showing drainage related problems in the case study urban areas
in northern Ethiopia and proposal on short and long-term mitigation measures.
Workshops with stakeholders about urban storm management.
Guidelines and policy recommendation on sustainable urban storm water management in
Ethiopia.
Graduation of three MSc students with theses.
Production of publishable scientific papers and technical reports. Three articles are
expected that could be published in referred journals:
1. Performance and design consideration of urban drainage systems: experiences from
northern Ethiopia. (Journal of hydrologic Engineering-ASCE, American Society of
Civil Engineers).
2. Effect of urban land use and climate change on performance of drainage systems in
northern Ethiopia. (Urban water journal, Taylor and Francis).
3. Development of regional hydro-meteorogical parameters for design of urban storm
water drainage systems: A case of northern Ethiopia. (Urban water, Elsevier).

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 Mekelle University, Ethiopian Institute of Technology

e) Duration:
Three years.

5. References:

[1]. UN, 2014. World Urbanization Prospects, 2014 Revision.

[2] Silveira, A.L.L., 2002. Problems of modern urban drainage in developing countries. Water
Science & Technology 45, 31 40.
[3] Belete, D.A., 2011. Road and urban storm water drainage network integration in Addis
Ababa: Addis Ketema Sub-city. Journal of Engineering and Technology Research 3, 217-225.
[4] Daniel, D.A., Tsutsumi, J., and Bendewald, M.J., 2010. Urban environmental challenges in
developing cities: the case of Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa. International Journal of
Environmental, Chemical, Ecological, Geological and Geophysical Engineering 4, 164-169.
[5] Warati, G.K., and Demissie, T.A., 2015. Assessment of the effect of urban road surface
drainage: a case study at Ginjo Guduru Kebele of Jimma town. International Journal of Science,
Technology and Society 3,164-173.
[6] Getie, Y.Z., 2012. The problem of urban utility infrastructure provision in Ethiopia: the case
of Bahir Dar city. MSc thesis, Addis Ababa university, Addis Ababba.
[7] Besha, K.Z., 2013. Challenges of urban drainage system in the emerging towns of Ethiopia:
the case study of Assosa town.
[8] Asfaw, B., 2016. Assessment of stormwater drainage systems in Kemise town. MSc thesis,
Addis Ababa university, Addis Ababba.
[9] Tiwari, A., 2016. Themes in urban infrastructure research in Ethiopian cities. In: Urban
Infrastructure Research. SpringerBriefs in Geography. Springer, Cham.
[10] Belete, D.A., 2011. Urban drainage management in Mekelle, Ethiopia: Part-I: Urban
drainage problems assessment in Mekelle city administration.
[11] Parkinson, J., 2002. Urban drainage in developing countries challenges and opportunities.
Waterlines 20, 1-5.

[12] IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of
Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. In M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani,
J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, eds. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, 976pp.