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A simple thought experiment to discuss the mass–energy equivalence in

the special theory of relativity
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 PAPER
Phys. Educ. 56 (2021) 035028 (7pp) iopscience.org/ped

A simple thought
experiment to discuss the
mass–energy equivalence
in the special theory of
relativity
Sergio Duarte1,∗ and Nathan Lima2
1
Department of Physics, Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Suckow da
Fonseca (CEFET/RJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
2
Department of Physics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto
Alegre, Brazil

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Einstein’s relation between mass and energy is perhaps the most famous
equation of Physics. Despite its simplicity, the meaning of E0 = mc2 is not
easy to grasp. Furthermore, its traditional derivations rely either on the
integral of momentum, on properties of electromagnetic radiation, or even on
the expression for transformation of energy. In the present work, we provide
a simple thought experiment with an inelastic collision between two particles
observed from two inertial reference frames. We show that for the
conservation of relativistic momentum to hold, the mass of the system must
increase after the collision. We also show that the increase of mass relates to
the loss of kinetic energy according to the equation ∆K = −∆mc2 ,
which enables p us to define the equation for relativistic energy
(E = mc2 / 1 − v2 /c2 ), rest energy (E0 = mc2 ) and relativistic kinetic
energy (K = E − E0 ). There are two main advantages in this presentation:
first, it relies only on simple algebra, not depending on differential calculus
and on any property of radiation; second, it leads directly to a
comprehensible physical meaning of the relation of equivalence, which can
sometimes be too obscure in more formal derivations.

Keywords: special theory of relativity, relativity, equivalence relation, mass, energy

∗
Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.

1361-6552/21/035028+7$33.00 1 © 2021 IOP Publishing Ltd

S Duarte and N Lima

1. Introduction mass increase (∆m) is proportional to the loss of

The relation between mass and energy discussed kinetic energy (∆K), it is possible to show that
by Albert Einstein (1992a) in 1905 originated the ∆K = −∆mc2 .
most famous equation of Physics (E0 = mc2 ). Its The study of this equation allows us to
meaning, however, is not easy to grasp since it define
 three concepts,
 the total relativistic energy
E = √mc
2
contradicts our very intuitive notions about these , the rest energy E0 = mc2 and kin-
two concepts. Also, the difficulty in comprehend- 1−β 2

ing the relation of equivalence is due to the fact etic energy (K = E − E0 ).

that the equation brings a whole new understand- The first advantage of this derivation is that it
ing to the conception of inertia that does not fit relies only on basic principles of the special the-
in Newtonian physics (Jammer 2000). Further- ory of relativity and basic mathematics. More spe-
more, Einstein’s relation is also encompassed by cifically, along the analysis, we use the following
a dispute around the concept of ‘relativistic mass’ physical concepts:
(Kneubil 2018b)—which can also bring uncer-
tainty to the meaning of this concept in the context (a) velocity-addition formula of the Special The-
of special theory of relativity3 . ory of Relativity
Another aspect that can be challenging in (b) the relation between relativistic momentum
a first presentation of the equivalence relation and mass
is its derivation. Albeit mathematically simple, (c) relativistic momentum conservation
Einstein’s original derivation already relied on (d) reduction of relativistic expressions into New-
the expression of energy transformation. Without tonian expressions in the limit of low speed.
using differential calculus, Einstein has also
presented other derivations, but they still even- And we need the following mathematical
tually depend on properties of electromagnetic tools:
radiation (Einstein 1992c). Moreover, popular
contemporary derivations are usually based on (a) algebra
defining the expression of work, a method that (b) Newton’s Binomial.
demands the computation of an integral (Tipler
and Llewellyn 2012, p 70). In any case, the deriv- In section 2, we review the basic concepts
ation can be difficult to follow in introductory of STR that are necessary to discuss the thought
levels or it can lead to the wrong impression that experiment. In section 3, we present the thought
the equation is only valid for the case of absorp- experiment and the derivation of the equations,
tion or emission of radiation. then discuss their meanings. In section 4, we
In the present work, we discuss a simple present our concluding remarks. The mathemat-
thought experiment with an inelastic collision ical framework used allows this approach to be
between two particles, i.e. a collision in which presented in high school or introductory under-
momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is graduate Physics courses.
not. Relying on the expression of relativistic
momentum and on the velocity-addition formula,
2. Fundamental concepts of the Special
we show that, after the collision, the mass of
Theory of Relativity
each particle increases. If we suppose that the
In 1905, Albert Einstein (1992b) showed that, for
electromagnetic theory to be considered valid in
3 In this paper, we adopt the notation according to which all inertial reference frames, important alterations
mass is an invariant property (Okun 1989, Hecht 2009). In should be done in Newtonian Physics. Proposing
this case, it is not necessary to make a distinction between the principle of relativity (i.e. all laws of Phys-
m0 (rest mass)
√ and m (mass). What we distinguish ( is energy
) ics must be valid in reference frames in which
(E = mc2 / 1 − v2 /c2 ) from rest energy E0 = mc2 . It
should be noted however that the analysis to be presented steers
mechanics holds good) and the principle of con-
away from this controversy. Independently of using m0 or m, stancy of the speed of light (i.e. the speed of light
the derivation and the analysis remain valid. in vacuum is the same independently of the speed

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 A simple thought experiment to discuss the mass–energy equivalence

of the source), Einstein has shown that the set of Furthermore, since the relativistic momentum
equations that relate the coordinates in a refer- should be conserved for a closed system, we may
ence S′ moving with velocity +V along the x-axis say that
in relation to a reference frame S is given by the X
p = constant. (5)
Lorentz Transformations. For the x-component,
one has Thus, for instance, in a collision process,
(x − Vt)
x′ = q . (1) the sum of the relativistic momentum of all
1 − Vc2
2
the particles before the collision must be equal
to the sum of the relativistic momentum of all
Since S′ is moving in the x-direction, the other the particles after the collision. Although the
coordinates remain unchanged in both frames (i.e. momentum assumes different values in different
y ′ = y and z ′ = z). Also, in special theory of inertial reference frames, its value is kept constant
relativity, the time coordinate is different in S′ in each frame. Finally, it should be noted that for
and S: low speeds, the relativistic momentum reduces to


′ t − Vx the Newtonian expression.
t =q c2
. (2)
1 − Vc2
2

3. A simple thought experiment

Neither the spatial coordinate nor the time are In a laboratory (inertial reference frame S′ ), a
measured equally in both systems, thus velocities collision between two particles, each one with
also assume different values in different inertial mass m, is carried out for an experiment. In this
frames. For a velocity v measured in the reference frame, particle 1 has an initial velocity equal to
S along the x-direction, the value v ′ measured in v1′ = +v, and particle 2 has an initial velo-
S′ is city equal to v2′ = −v. The collision is perfectly
∆x ′ (v − V) inelastic, which means that the two particles stick
v′ = = . (3)
∆t ′ 1 − vV together in reference S′ after the collision.
c2
When an inelastic collision happens, even
An important feature of these new relations though the momentum is conserved, the kinetic
is that in the limit of low velocity V between the energy is not. The lost kinetic energy is considered
two frames, they reduce to what one would expect to be dissipated in different forms of energy such
in Newtonian mechanics (i.e. the Galilean trans- as with internal modes of movement and vibra-
formations). tion. As will be discussed, this increase of internal
In this context, it is possible to show that in energy leads to a corresponding increase in mass.
the same way that in Newtonian Mechanics there By studying this collision experiment, it is pos-
is a property called momentum, which is always sible to determine not only the expression of
conserved for a closed system, in special theory relativistic kinetic energy but also the relation
of relativity, there is a property called relativistic between mass and energy.
momentum, which is also always conserved for a In order to do so, one may assume that the
closed system (Tipler and Llewellyn 2012, p 66). collision experiment is also observed in a second
The relativistic momentum may be written as reference frame S, moving with velocity V ′ = − v
mv in relation to S′ . It means that the reference frame
p= q , (4) S is moving in relation to S’ with the same velo-
1 − vc2
2
city of the particle 2. One can think about this as if
an observer at rest in S was traveling on particle 2.
in which m is the mass of the body. The mass The thought experiment is represented in figure 1.
in expression (4) is invariant, i.e. it is considered
to be independent of the velocity of the body4 .
what is used in expression (4) is the rest mass, i.e. p = √m0 v .
2
1− v2
c
4 As we had said, we use a notation for invariant mass. For So, in both notations, the ‘mass’ that is part of the expression
those who prefer to work with the concept of relativistic mass, of relativistic momentum is invariant.

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S Duarte and N Lima

v2 , respectively) can be obtained with the

velocity-addition formula (equation (3)):

2v
v1 = 2 (10)
1 + vc2

and
v2 = 0. (11)

The momentum of each particle can be

described using equations (4)–(11):
Figure 1. Inelastic collision between two particles
observed from two different inertial reference frames. 2mv 1 2mv
p1 = v
v2 u
= (12)
1 − vc2
2
4v2
1 + c2 u
t1 − (
c2
)2
We start our analysis by describing the conserva- 2
1+v / c2
tion of relativistic momentum in both inertial ref-
erence frames.
and

3.1. Momentum conservation in S’ p2 = 0. (13)

In the laboratory frame (S’), the initial momentum After the inelastic collision, the bound sys-
(p1′ and p2′ ) of the two particles are tem (that is at rest in S′ , i.e. v′ = 0) has the velo-
city in S given by the velocity addition formula
mv
p1′ = q (6) (equation (3)):
1 − vc2
2
v+0
vf = = v. (14)
1 − 0. cv2
and
mv Consequently, considering that the bound
p2′ = − q . (7) system has a mass M, and using the definition of
1 − vc2
2
momentum (equation 4):

Thus, the total initial momentum of the sys- Mvf Mv

pf = q =q . (15)
tem is v ′ 2f
1 − vc2
2
1 − c2
p1′ + p2′ = 0 . (8)
Considering the conservation of momentum,
After the collision, the system is bound and at the initial total momentum must be equal to the
rest, and the total final momentum pf is final momentum:
2mv Mv
pf′ = 0. (9) = q (16)
1 − c2
v2
1 − vc2
2

Since the initial total momentum and the final

total momentum are the same, the conservation of thus, the mass M of the bound system in the
momentum clearly holds. reference frame S is
2m
M= q . (17)
3.2. Conservation of momentum in
1 − vc2
2

reference frame S
In the reference frame S, before the collision, According to equation (17), the mass of the
the velocities of particle 1 and 2 (v1 and bound system after the collision is greater than

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 A simple thought experiment to discuss the mass–energy equivalence

the sum of the original masses. Our next step is to for kinetic energy must reduce to the Newtonian
investigate how the increase of mass can be related expression. Thus, in the limit of low velocities, the
to other physical parameters and how it can be left side of equation should be considered to be
explained.
1
∆K ≈ 0 − mv2 (21)
2
3.3. Relation between mass and energy
and the right side of equation (20) can be re-
As we have discussed, the mass in the expression written using Newton’s binomial
of momentum is invariant, so it is the same in the
Xn  
reference frames S and S′ : n
a n−k bk
n
(a + b) = (22)
2m k
M′ =M= q . (18) k=0
1 − vc2
2

Using equation (22) to determine the expres-

n
sion for (1 + x) and if x ≈ 0, one may eliminate
We stress the fact that M is an invariant prop-
all terms with x for k ⩾ 2. Thus5 ,
k
erty, in a way to highlight that equation (18) is
not a transformation equation of mass for differ- n
(1 + x) ≈ 1 + nx. (23)
ent inertial frames. It expresses the new mass of
the system after the full inelastic collision with the v2
Taking x = c2 , then:
established conditions. Equation (18) leads us to
recognize that the mass increase in each particle is 1 1 v2
q ≈ 1+ . (24)
1 − vc2
2 2 c2
 
1
∆m =  q − 1 m. (19) Substituting the results obtained in (21) and
1 − vc2
2
(24) in equation (20):

Something in the process of collision is 1 2 1 v2

mv = α m 2 . (25)
responsible for this increase. Since we are work- 2 2 c
ing with an idealized model, the problem does
Thus,
not involve many parameters. In simple lines, we
know that the momentum is constant, the mass α = c2 . (26)
increased and the kinetic energy diminished. It is
It is possible to conclude, therefore, that
reasonable to suppose that the increase of mass
the loss of energy ∆K was accompanied by an
in each particle is proportional to their loss of
increase of mass ∆m that looks like this:
kinetic energy. This hypothesis is from the very
beginning, leading us to interpret that the original ∆K = −∆mc2 . (27)
kinetic energy, that is dissipated in the system
through the inelastic collision, is responsible for Equation (27) expresses the fact that the dis-
the increase in mass. This loss of kinetic energy is sipation of energy ∆K in internal modes of trans-
very clear in the reference frame S, because, after lational or vibrational movement is responsible
the collision, the particles are at rest (which may for a correspondent increase in mass equal to
not be so obvious in S′ ). Thus, we can write the ∆K/c2 . Also, substituting (19) in (27) and recog-
proportionality equation in reference frame S: nizing that ∆K = 0 − Ki = −Ki :
   
1 1
∆K = −α  q − 1 m . (20) Ki =  q − 1 mc2 . (28)
1 − cv2
2
1 − c2
v2

We have not determined yet the expression

for the relativistic kinetic energy. We know, how- 5 Although equation (23) is derived as long as n is a positive

ever, that in the low-speed limit, the expression integer, the expression is valid for any real n.

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S Duarte and N Lima

Equation (24) is a subtraction of two terms, relativity, energy (in different forms) may contrib-
one that is dependent on the velocity of the body, ute to the inertia of a physical system.
and the other that is not velocity-dependent. If
velocity-independent term E0 (rest energy) and
velocity-dependent-term E (relativistic energy)
Data availability statement
are brought to the equation, then kinetic energy All data that support the findings of this study are
(the energy related to the movement of a body) is included within the article (and any supplement-
simply the subtraction of a body’s total energy and ary files).
its rest energy. In synthesis, total energy equals

mc2 Acknowledgments
E (total energy) = q . (29)
1 − vc2
2 We would like to thank Professor Maria de
Fátima Alves da Silva from Rio de Janeiro State
The rest energy equals University for her comments on the text.

E0 (rest energy) = mc2 . (30)

ORCID iDs
And, finally, the kinetic energy looks like this Sergio Duarte  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-
0392-8886
Nathan Lima  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-
K (Kinetic Energy) = E − E0 . (31)
0566-3968
Following our interpretation on equation (27),
Received 6 February 2021, in final form 2 March 2021
equation (30) leads us to interpret that the mass Accepted for publication 9 March 2021
of a system is a measurement of its energy con- https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6552/abed3b
tent, i.e. what is measured as mass is also taking
into account different sorts of internal energy of
a body (binding energy, kinetic energy, vibra-
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NJ: Princeton University Press) pp 140–71
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May 2021 6 P hy s . E d u c . 5 6 ( 2 0 2 1 ) 0 3 5 0 2 8
 A simple thought experiment to discuss the mass–energy equivalence

Sergio Duarte studied physics at Nathan Lima studied physics at

Universidade Federal do Rio de Potinfícia Universidade Católica
Janeiro, worked as a high school do Rio Grande do Sul and obtained
and higher education professor, his PhD in Physics Education at
obtained his PhD in physics at Centro Universidade Federal do Rio Grande
Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas. do Sul, where he is currently working.
Currently, he works at the Centro
Federal de Educação Tecnológica
Celso Suckow da Fonseca.

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