Mathematics for Applied Science (MAS)

Topic 2
Functions
2.1 Definition of Functions
Learning Outcomes
Define a function and its various components
1
(independent variable, dependent variable, domain, range)

2 Apply the vertical line test to determine if a graph represents a function or not

3 Identify the different types of functions

4 Evaluate a given function

5 Determine the domain of a function

What is a Function?

A relationship between two variables (e.g. x and y) such that:

• for every value of the first variable (x), there is ONLY

ONE corresponding value of the second variable (y)

We say that the second variable is a function of the first

variable. i.e. y is a function of x.

Mathematically, this relationship is represented as

y = f(x)
What is a Function?
A function is very much like a vending machine; a function takes an
input (similar to the code you key in on the vending machine) and gives
you an output (like the snack you get out of the vending machine).

Each input must be matched with exactly one output. It's ok if there's
another input that gives the same output. For example, there might be
two slots in the vending machine that both hold the same flavour of
Input candy.

Every input is assigned to exactly One input assigned to two different

one output. outputs → this is NOT a function!

Output
✓ X
Components a Function
The first variable (x) is
called the independent
variable.
x y = f(x) The second variable (y) is
called the dependent
variable.
f +1
1 2
+1
2 3
+1
The complete set of 3 4 The complete set of
possible values of the possible values of the
independent variable (x) is dependent variable (y) is

y = f(x) = x + 1
called the domain of the called the range of the
function. function.
Representations of Functions
Equation Mapping Table Graph Set of Ordered Pairs

y = f x {(0,1), (1,2), (2,3), (3,4)}

= x + 1 x y
0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
Examples & Applications

Exponential functions pH is defined by the

The area of a circle, A
can be used to model following logarithmic
is a function of its
the concentration of a equation,
radius, r.
drug in a patient's
A r = πr 2 (humans/animals) body. pH = f( H + ) = −log[H + ] ,

C t = C0 e−rt where [H+] denotes the

molar hydrogen ion
*Topic 3
concentration. *Topic 3
Vertical Line Test
• Draw vertical lines across the graph.
• If any vertical line cuts the graph more than once, the graph is NOT a function.

These are functions.

Each vertical line cuts the graph at only one point.
Linear graph Quadratic graph Cosine graph
y=x+1 y = x2 y = cos x
Vertical Line Test
• Draw vertical lines across the graph.
• If any vertical line cuts the graph more than once, the graph is NOT a function.

These are NOT functions!!

The vertical line cuts the graph at more than one point.
Graph of the "sideway" parabola Graph of the circle Graph of the relation
x = y2 x2 + y 2 = 9 x = y3 – y + 2
Vertical Line Test – Are these functions?
Types of Functions

Polynomial Logarithmic
f (x) = 2x4 + 3x2 + 5 f (x) = 3 ln x

Exponential Trigonometric
f (x) = 3e2x f (x) = 2 sin x + 4 cos2 2x

Inverse Trigonometric Combination

f (x) = tan-1 x f (x) = 2 cos x + 4x2 - e2x + ln 2x
 Evaluating Functions
The value of a function is obtained by substituting a given value of x into the expression of f(x).

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

Given that f(x) = 5x2 - 2x. Given f(x) = 3x2 - 4x + 5. Find f(1). Find f(1) given that f(x) = 3 cos 2x.
Find the value of f(x) when x = 1 (radian mode)
i.e. f(1).

f x = 5x 2 − 2x f x = 3x 2 − 4x + 5 f x = 3 cos 2x

f 1 =5 1 2−2 1 f 1 =3 1 2−4 1 +5 f 1 = 3 cos(2(1))

=5−2 =3−4+5 = 3 cos(2)
=3 =4 = −1.24844
≈ −1.25 (3. s. f. )
Evaluating Functions - Practice
π
Given g(x) = e3x - 5 sin x. Given h(a) = 5a3 – 2a2 + a – 8. Given T(t) = 100 – 13 cos( (t – 3))
2
Find the value of g(2). Find the value of h(2). Find the value of T(5).
(use radian mode) (use radian mode)
Evaluating Functions - Practice
In an experiment, the pressure of a gas, P is monitored as the temperature, T is changed, while the volume
and amount of gas remain constant and the following relationship was established:

P = 0.052T

1. Identify the independent variable and dependent variable.

2. Given that T = 221 what is the value of P?

Domains of Functions

As defined previously, the domain of a function f(x) refers to

the complete set of possible values of the independent
variable (x).

To be part of the domain of the function, the value of the

independent variable (x) must result in a real value for the
dependent variable (y).

From previous examples, the value of y or f(x) can be found

by substituting values of x. However, if by substituting
certain values of x, real values f(x) do not exist, then those
values of x cannot be included in the domain of the function
Domains of Functions
Example 4
Find the indicated function values and determine if the given values are in the domain of
the function. Write down the domain of the functions.
1 1 Check on the denominator
a. f 1 and f 3 for f x =
x−3
Denominator ≠ 0
1 1 Since f(1) is real, x = 1
f 1 = =−
1−3 2 is in the domain of
f(x). Referring to the example on the left:

1 1 Since f(3) is undefined, denominator = x − 3 ≠ 0

f 3 = = = undefined
3−3 0 x = 3 is not in the ∴x≠3
domain of f(x).
Thus, the domain of f(x) is: 𝐱 ∈ 𝐑, 𝐱 ≠ 𝟑 .
By inspection, all other real values of x will result in real
values of f(x). Therefore, Domain of f(x) is: 𝐱 ∈ 𝐑, 𝐱 ≠ 𝟑
Domains of Functions
Example 4
Find the indicated function values and determine if the given values are in the domain of
the function. Write down the domain of the functions.
b. g 16 and g −7 for g x = 𝑥 + 5 2 Check for expression within the square root
g 16 = 16 + 5 = 9 Since g(16) is real, A
x = 16 is in the
domain of g(x).
We cannot take square root of a negative
number. Hence, any expression within a
g(−7) = −7 + 5 = undefined Since g(– 7) is
square root must be ≥ 0; i.e. A ≥0
undefined, x = – 7 is
not in the domain of
g(x).
By inspection, any real values of x ≥ 0 will result in
real values of g(x).
Therefore, Domain of g(x) is: 𝐱 ∈ 𝐑, 𝐱 ≥ 𝟎
Domains of Functions
Example 4
Find the indicated function values and determine if the given values are in the domain of
the function. Write down the domain of the functions.
c. g 3 and g 0 for g x = ln(𝑥) 3 Check on expression where 𝐥𝐧( ) or 𝐥𝐨𝐠( )
has been applied to it
g 3 = ln 3 = 1.0986 … Since g(3) is real, x = 3 is
in the domain of g(x). 𝐥𝐧( A ) 𝐥𝐨𝐠( A )
We cannot take ln( ) or log( ) on zero or any
g(0) = ln(0) = undefined Since g(0) is undefined, negative number. Hence, any expression
x = 0 is not in the where 𝐥𝐧( ) or 𝐥𝐨𝐠( ) has been applied to it
domain of g(x). must be > 0; i.e. A > 0.

By inspection, any real values of x > 0 will result in

real values of g(x).
Therefore, Domain of g(x) is: 𝐱 ∈ 𝐑, 𝐱 > 𝟎
Domains of Functions - Practice
Determine the domain of f x , Determine the domain of f x , Determine the domain of f x ,
2 where f x = 𝑥 + 5. where f x = ln 𝑥 + 1 .
where f x = .
x
Domains of Functions - Practice
Check all possible cases. Choose the most stringent criterion that satisfies all cases/inequalities.

2
Determine the domain of f x = .
ln x + 2

1 Denominator ≠ 0 2 A , A≥𝟎 3 𝐥𝐧 A , A>𝟎

Mathematics for Applied Science (MAS)

Topic 2
Functions
2.2 Composite and Inverse Functions
Learning Outcomes
1 Determine composite functions

2 Apply the horizontal line test to determine one-to-one functions

3 Determine the inverse of given functions

4 Prove the relationship between composite and inverse functions

What is a Composite Function?

A Composite function is also called “a function within a function”.

It is a formula within a formula.

For example,
f(x) = 2x − 1 g(x) = x2 + 3

Composite function fg(x)

Replace “x” with “g(x)”

fg x = f 𝐠 𝐱
f(x) = 2x − 1 g(x) = x2 + 3
= f 𝐱𝟐 + 𝟑
= 2 𝐱𝟐 + 𝟑 – 1
= 2x2 + 6 – 1
= 2x2 + 5
Composite Functions
Example 1
Given that f(x) = 2x − 1 and g(x) = x2 + 3 , find the composite function gf(x).

Composite function gf(x)

Replace “x” with “f(x)”

gf(x) = g 𝐟 𝐱 = g 𝟐𝐱 − 𝟏
g(x) = x2 + 3 f(x) = 2x − 1
= 𝟐𝐱 − 𝟏 2 + 3
= 4x 2 − 4x + 1 + 3
= 4x 2 − 4x + 4

Note: For f(x) = 2x − 1 and g(x) = x2 + 3,

fg x ≠ gf(x)
i.e. fg x is NOT necessarily the same as gf(x) !!! fg x = 2x2 + 5
gf(x) = 4x 2 − 4x + 4

fg x ≠ gf(x)
Composite Functions
Example 2
Given that 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝐱 and 𝐠(𝐱) = 𝐱 + 𝟑, find the expressions for fg(x) and gf(x). State the domain and
range of the composite functions.

Composite function fg(x) Composite function gf(x)

Replace “x” with “g(x)” Replace “x” with “f(x)”

fg(x) = f 𝐠 𝐱 =f 𝐱+𝟑 gf(x) = g 𝐟 𝐱 =g 𝐱

= 𝐱+𝟑 = 𝐱+3

Domain of fg(x): 𝐱 ∈ 𝐑, 𝐱 ≥ −𝟑 Domain of gf(x): 𝐱 ∈ 𝐑, 𝐱 ≥0

x+3≥0 x≥0
x ≥ −3

Range of fg(x): 𝐟𝐠(𝐱) ∈ 𝐑 Range of gf(x): 𝐠𝐟(𝐱) ∈ 𝐑

Composite Functions
Example 3 Practice
Given that f(x) = sin(2x + 1) and Given that f(x) = 3x and g x = 3sin(3x − 0.6551), find the
g(x) = 3x, calculate the value of fg(1). value of fg x and fg(1).

Composite function fg(x)

Replace “x” with “g(x)”

fg(x) = f 𝐠 𝐱 = f 𝟑𝐱
= sin 2 𝟑𝐱 + 1
= sin(6x + 1)

fg(1) = sin 6 1 + 1
= sin 7
= 0.65699
≈ 0.657 (3. s. f. )
Composite Functions - Practice
The number N of bacteria in a refrigerated food is given by

N T = 20T 2 − 80T + 500, 2 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 14

where T is the temperature of the food in degrees Celsius. When the food
it removed from refrigeration, the temperature of the food is given by

𝑇 𝑡 = 4t + 2, 0≤𝑡≤3
where t is the time in hours.

(a) Find N(T(t)). (b) Find the time when the bacterial count
reaches 2000.
One-One Functions (Horizontal Line Test)
For every value of x, there is one and only one corresponding value of y.
For every value of y, it is result of one and only one value of x.

• Draw a vertical line to confirm that graph is a function first.

• Draw horizontal lines across the graph.
• If any horizontal line cuts the graph more than once, the graph is NOT a one-one function.

This is NOT a function. This is a function but it is This is a one-one function.

NOT a one-one function.
Are these functions / 1-1 functions?
Inverse Functions: f-1(x)
An inverse function is simply a function which is the “reverse” of the original function.
Some common pairs of inverse functions are:

f (x) = loge (x) = ln (x) f (x) = sin x

f-1 (x) = ex f-1 (x) = sin-1 x

f (x) = log10 (x) f (x) = tan x

f-1 (x) = 10x f-1 (x) = tan-1 x

For a function to have an inverse function,

the function must be one-to-one.
Inverse Functions: f-1(x)

x f
y f-1
x x y = f(x)
f +1
f(x)= x2 f-1(x) = 𝒙 1 2
x y= x2 x –1
f-1 +1
2 3
Note: –1
f −1 x ≠ f x −1 ‼! +1
1
i.e. f −1 x is NOT the same as 𝑓 x !!! 3 4
–1

y = f(x) = x + 1
x = y – 1 ➔ f-1(x) = x – 1
Inverse Functions: f-1(x)
Example 1
Steps to find inverse function, f-1 (x) : Given that f(x) = 2x + 1.
Find the following:
1. Check if f(x) is one-one or define domain (a) f −1 (x)
where f(x) is one-one (b) f −1 (3)
x−1
2. Let f(x) = y and solve the given equation for (a)Let f(x) = y (b) f −1 x =
2
x (i.e. x is on the LHS of the equation and all
other terms on the RHS) y = 2x + 1 3−1
y − 1 = 2x f −1 3 =
y−1 2
3. Replace x with f-1 (x) and replace y with x 2
x = =
2 2
=1
x−1
Note: ∴ f −1 x =
f −1 x ≠ {f x }−1 ‼! 2
1
i.e. f −1 x is NOT the same as !!! Replace x on LHS with f-1(x) and
𝑓 x
replace y on RHS with x
Inverse Functions: f-1(x)
Example 2 Example 3
f(x) = x2 – 1 is not a one-one function. f x = x 3 + 3 is a one-one function. Find
Restrict the domain such that it is one-one and the inverse function of f(x) i.e. f −1 (x).
the range is not affected. Find 𝑓 −1 (1) of the
restricted function. Let f(x) = y

Restricted domain: x ≥ 0 y = 𝑥3 + 3
Let f(x) = y y − 3 = x3
x = 3 𝑦−3
y = x2 − 1
y + 1 = x2 3
∴ f −1 x = 𝑥−3
x = y+1

∴ f −1 x = x + 1

f −1 1 = 1 + 1
= 2 ≈ 1.41 (3. s. f. )
Inverse Functions: f-1(x)
Practice
f x = 3x 2 – 4, x ∈ R .
(a) Explain why f(x) does not have an inverse if its domain is x ∈ R.
(b) State the restricted domain of f x for it to have an inverse.
(c) By restricting the domain or otherwise, determine f −1 x .
Inverse Functions: f-1(x) – Application
TF TC = 1.8 TC + 32
(𝑓 𝑥 = 1.8 𝑥 + 32)

Determine 𝑓 −1 (𝑥). TF = 1.8 TC + 32

y = 1.8x + 32
y − 32 = 1.8x
y − 32
=x TC = (TF – 32) / 1.8
1.8
y − 32 TF − 32
x= TC =
1.8 1.8
x − 32
f −1 (x) =
1.8
Relation between composite & inverse functions
Composite function of a function and its inverse will result in an
identity function I(x) where I(x) = x and vice versa.

f f −1 x =x

f −1 f x =x

Example 1
Given that f x = ln x , prove that f(f −1 (x)) = x.

If f x = ln x
f −1 x = ex
f(f −1 (x)) = ln(ex ) = x
Relation between composite & inverse functions
−𝟏
The inverse function of f −1 x is f x . i.e., 𝐟 −𝟏 𝐱 = 𝐟(𝐱).

Example 2
Given that f(x) = x3. Prove that inverse function of f −1 (x) is f(x).

Let f x = y To find the inverse of f −1 (x), let f −1 x = y

y = x3 3
1
y= x= x3
1
3
x= y= y3 y3 = x
1
∴ f −1 x = 3
x= x3 x = y3
∴ f −1 −1 x = x 3 = f(x)
Relation between composite & inverse functions
Inverse functions of composite functions is related by: fg −1 (x) = g −1 (f −1 x )

Example 3
Given that f x = 2x + 3 and g x = x 2 , prove the relationship fg −1
(x) = g −1 (f −1 x ).

f g x = 2 x 2 + 3 = 2x 2 + 3 Let y = f x Let y = g x
Let y = f(g x ) y = 2x + 3 y = x2
y = 2x 2 + 3 y − 3 = 2x x= y
y−3
y − 3 = 2x 2 x= ∴ g −1 x = x
2
x−3
y−3 ∴ f −1 x =
= x2 2
2
y−3 x−3 −1 −1 −1
x−3 x−3 −1
x= ⇒ ∴ fg −1 x = ∴g f x =g = = fg x
2 2 2 2
Mathematics for Applied Science (MAS)

Topic 2 y

Functions
x
2.3 Graphs of Linear Functions
Learning Outcome
Sketch linear graphs and determine important parameters such as gradient and y
1
intercept from the sketched graph
Graphs of Linear Functions

∆y
m=
∆x
∆y

The equations of linear functions can always be

∆x
converted to the form below:
f(x) = mx + c
y-intercept, c
Where the constants m and c denote the gradient and
y-intercept respectively when f(x) is plotted against x.
Sketching Graphs of Linear Functions
• The y-intercept is given by c = point where the
∆y
line cuts the y-axis (i.e. when x = 0) m=
∆x
∆y
• The gradient, commonly called the slope, is
∆x
always constant and is given by the value of m.
∆y y −y
Gradient, m = = 2 1
∆x x2 −x1
y-intercept, c

• For m>0, f(x) is said to be an increasing

function in x, i.e. as x↑ , f(x)↑.

• For m<0, f(x) is said to be a decreasing f(x) = x f(x) = – x

(y = 1x + 0) (y = –1 x + 0)
function in x, i.e. as x↑ , f(x)↓ .
y-intercept, c = 0 y-intercept, c = 0
• The x-intercept = point where the line cuts the x-intercept = 0 x-intercept = 0
x-axis (i.e. when y = f(x) = 0).
Gradient, m = 1 > 0 Gradient, m = –1 < 0
Increasing function Decreasing function
Sketching Graphs of Linear Functions
Example 1 Example 2 Example 3
f(x) = x f(x) = 2x + 1 f(x) = – 2x + 1
Find the y-intercept, c = 1 (i.e. when x = 0), Find the y-intercept, c = 1 (i.e. when x = 0),
x -2 -1 0 1 2 f(x) = 2(0) + 1 = 1 ➔ Coordinates (0,1) f(x) = – 2(0) + 1 = 1 ➔ Coordinates (0,1)
f(x) -2 -1 0 1 2
Find the x-intercept (i.e. when f(x) = 0), Find the x-intercept (i.e. when f(x) = 0),
0 = 2x + 1 ➔ x = –0.5 ➔ Coordinates (– 0.5, 0) 0 = –2x + 1 ➔ x = 0.5 ➔ Coordinates (0.5, 0)
Sketching Graphs of Linear Functions
Practice Practice
f(x) = 0.5x + 2 f(x) = -3x + 7
Graphs of Linear Functions - Application
A spectrophotometer is a device that measures how much light
a solution absorbs, which often has a linear relationship to the
concentration of some chemicals in the solution.

John wants to measure the concentrations of a protein (Bovine

Serum Albumin, BSA) in two unknown solutions. After finding
the proper wavelength (280nm), the optical densities (ODs) of 1
mg/mL, 2 mg/mL, 4 mg/mL, and 8 mg/mL BSA solutions were
obtained. He then measured the ODs of two unknown BSA
solutions and obtained ODs of 0.7 and 1.1. What were the
concentrations of the protein solutions?
Mathematics for Applied Science (MAS)

Topic 2
Functions
2.4 Quadratic Graphs
Learning Outcomes
Sketch quadratic graphs with important parameters such as y-intercept, x-
1
intercepts and minimum/maximum point

Determine the minimum and maximum point of a quadratic equation using the
2
Complete the Square method
Quadratic Graphs
Quadratic functions have the following form:

f(x) = ax 2 + bx + c (a ≠ 0)

The shape of the graphs for quadratic functions is determined by the value of a.

𝐟 𝐱 = 𝐱𝟐 𝐟 𝐱 = −𝟑𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟔𝐱 + 𝟓
a > 0: ☺(minimum point, U) a < 0: (maximum point, ∩)
Determining the Minimum & Maximum Points

There are 2 methods for determining the minimum and maximum points of a quadratic equation:

dy
1. Differentiation method, i.e. = 0 (Topic 4)
dx

2. Completing the Square

In this topic, the focus is on the latter.

Completing the Square
Given a quadratic function f(x) = ax 2 + bx + c, the function can be rearranged as follows:

b 2
f x = ax 2
+ bx + c We know that x +
2a
≥ 0, and by
b 2
b taking x + = 0, the maximum
= a x2 +
2a
x +c or minimum value of f(x) is always
a given by the numerical value of the
2 2 b2
2
b b b term c −
4a
.
=a x +2 x+ +c −a
2a 2a 2a
Recall expansion of quadratic
𝟐
𝐛 𝐛𝟐 functions:
=𝐚 𝐱+ +𝐜− x 2 + 2px + p2 = x + p 2
𝟐𝐚 𝟒𝐚
a > 0: ☺ (minimum point, U) b2
a < 0:  (maximum point, ∩) minimum or maximum value of f x = c −
4a
b
x+ =0
2a
b
x=− is the x value at which the min or max of f x occurs
2a
Sketching Quadratic Graphs
1. y-intercept, c 3. minimum / maximum points
• when x = 0, i.e. substitute x = 0 into the • a > 0: ☺ (minimum point, U)
quadratic equation and solve for y = f(x). b b2
x= − 2a y=c−
• y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = a(0)2 + b(0) + c = c 4a

2. x-intercept(s) • a < 0:  (maximum point, ∩)

b b2
• when y = 0, i.e. substitute y = 0 in the x= − 2a y=c− 4a
equation and solve for x using factorisation
OR
−𝐛 ± 𝐛 𝟐 − 𝟒𝐚𝐜
𝐱= For sketching of quadratic graphs, DO
𝟐𝐚
include the following in the sketch:
• Discriminant, 𝐃 = 𝐛𝟐 − 𝟒𝐚𝐜 ✓ y-intercept
✓ x-intercept(s) (if any)
D Roots of Equation Graph cuts x-axis?
✓ Minimum/maximum points
D=0 Only 1 root Only one point ✓ Axis labels
D>0 2 roots At two points
D<0 Complex roots Does not cut at all
(no x-intercept)
Sketching Quadratic Graphs
Example 1 y − intercept, c = 4 ⇒ coordinates (0,4)
Determine the maximum or minimum value of
the following function, and hence sketch the Check discriminant:
D = b2 − 4ac = 3 2 − 4 2 4 = 9 − 32 = −23 < 0
graph of the function. Since D < 0, there are no x − intercepts.
f x = 2x 2 + 3x + 4
a = 2 > 0, minimum point

b 3 3
x=− =− =−
2a 2 2 4

b2 3 2 9 23
y=c− =4− =4− =
4a 4 2 8 8
- 0,4
23
∴ minimum value of f x = x
8 3 23
3 23 − ,
4 8
∴ minimum point of the graph is at − ,
4 8
Sketching Quadratic Graphs
Example 2 Check discriminant:
D = b2 − 4ac = 6 2 − 4 −3 5 = 36 − −60 = 96 > 0
Determine the maximum or minimum value of Since D > 0, there are two x − intercepts.
the following function, and hence sketch the
graph of the function. −b ± b 2 − 4ac −6 ± 62 − 4(−3)(5)
x= = = −0.633 or 2.633
f x = −3x 2 + 6x + 5 2a 2(−3)
The x − intercepts are: −0.633,0 and 2.633,0 .
a = −3 < 0, maximum point
1,8
b 6 x
x=− =− =1
2a 2 −3

b2 6 2 36 - 0,5
y=c− =5− =5− =8
4a 4 −3 (−12)

∴ maximum value of f x =8
∴ maximum point of the graph is at 1,8 −0.633,0 2.633,0
x x
y − intercept, c =5 ⇒ coordinates (0,5)
Sketching Quadratic Graphs
Practice
Determine the maximum or minimum value of the following function, and hence sketch the graph of the
function.
f x = 2x 2 − 8
Sketching Quadratic Graphs - Application
50, 12.5
The logistic equation gives the instantaneous ∆N = − 0.5 0.01 N 2 + 0.5 N ∆N x
rate of change of a population (∆N) as = −0.005N 2 + 0.5N
[𝑦 = −0.005𝑥 2 + 0.5𝑥] 0, 0 N
∆N = r 1 − αN N = −rαN + rN 2 x x
100, 0
a = −0.005 < 0, maximum point
where
• r > 0 is the growth rate of the population in b 0.5
x=− =− = 50
the absence of intraspecific competition 2a 2 −0.005
• α > 0 is the per individual effect of x
competition b2 0.5 2
y=c− =0− = 12.5
• ∆N represents the rate at which the 4a 4 −0.005
population is growing / decaying at any
instant in time ∴ maximum value of f x = 12.5
• N is the population size ∴ maximum point of the graph is at 50, 12.5

If the growth rate of a population, r is 0.5 and y − intercept, c = 0 ⇒ coordinates (0, 0)

the effect of competition, α is 0.01, sketch the x − intercepts, when y = 0
quadratic graph of the logistic equation ⇒ 0 = x −0.005x + 0.5 ⇒ x = 0 or x = 100
(include the intercepts and max/min point). The x − intercepts are: 0, 0 and 100, 0 .
Mathematics for Applied Science (MAS)

Topic 2
Functions
2.5 Apply the Linear Law to non-linear equations for coefficient
determination
Learning Outcomes
1 Apply straight-line fitting to non-linear data

2 Determine the coefficients of the fitted straight line for the non-linear data
 Fitting Non-Linear Equations
With some nonlinear equations you can still use straight-line fitting if you plot the data in a suitable manner.

Suppose, for example, that 𝑥 and 𝑦 are related by the equation y 2 = a𝑥 3 + 𝑏 . A plot of measured 𝑦 versus 𝑥
data would clearly be curved; however, a plot of 𝑦 2 versus 𝑥 3 would be a straight line with a slope and intercept .

𝑦 versus 𝑥 y 2 = 2𝑥 3 + 10 𝑦 2 versus 𝑥 3
 Fitting Non-Linear Equations
In general, if any two quantities are related by an equation of the form

(Quantity 1) = m (Quantity 2) + c

then a plot of the first quantity versus the second on rectangular coordinates yields a straight line with slope, m
and intercept, c .

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4

a
𝑦 = a𝑥 2 + 𝑏 𝑦2 = + 𝑏 1
= a(𝑥 + 3) + 𝑏 sin 𝑦 = a(𝑥 2 −4)
𝑥 𝑦

Plot y vs. x 2 Plot y 2 vs. 1/x Plot 1/y vs. (x + 3) Plot sin(y) vs. (x 2 − 4)

intercept = b intercept = b intercept = b intercept = 0

gradient = a gradient = a gradient = a gradient = a
Fitting Non-Linear Equations
Practice Practice
1 1
𝑦= 𝑦 =1+ 𝑚𝑥 2 +𝑛 2
𝐶1 𝑥 − 𝐶2 𝑥
Fitting Non-Linear Equations - Application
A storage tank containing hazardous waste is subjected to a chemical treatment that decomposes the waste to
harmless products. The concentration of the decomposing waste, C, has been reported to vary with time
according to the formula:
C = 1 /(a + bt)

When sufficient time has elapsed for the concentration to drop to 0.01 g/L, the contents of the tank are then
discharged into a river that passes by the plant.

What plot would yield a straight line that would enable you to determine the parameters a and b?