HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

Q1. What is reproduction?

Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms or "offspring" are produced from
their "parent" or parents. Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism
exists as the result of reproduction.

Q2. Is reproduction necessary to maintain life?

Reproduction is not necessary to maintain the life of an individual organism, unlike the essential life
processes such as nutrition, respiration, or excretion. On the other hand, if an individual organism is going to
create more individuals, a lot of its energy will be spent in the process. It is essential for the continuation of
species.

Q3. Why do organisms reproduce?

1.It increases the population of a species.
2. It allows perpetuation of species.
3. If the organisms would not reproduce, the species to which they belong to would be extinct once they are
dead.
4. Reproducing organisms create new individuals that look very much like themselves.

Q4. Do organisms create exact copies of themselves?

Organisms look similar because their body designs are similar. If body designs are to be similar, the
blueprints for these designs should be similar. Thus, reproduction at its most basic level will involve making
copies of the blueprints of body design. Chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information for
inheritance of features from parents to next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid)
molecules. The DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making proteins. If the information is
changed, different proteins will be made. Different proteins will eventually lead to altered body designs.
Therefore, a basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy. Cells use chemical reactions to build
copies of their DNA. This creates two copies of the DNA in a reproducing cell, and they will need to be
separated from each other. However, keeping one copy of DNA in the original cell and simply pushing the
other one out would not work, because the copy pushed out would not have any organised cellular structure
for maintaining life processes. Therefore, DNA copying is accompanied by the creation of an additional
cellular apparatus, and then the DNA copies separate, each with its own cellular apparatus. Effectively, a
cell divides to give rise to two cells. These two cells are of course similar. The extent of similarity will
depend on how accurately the copying reactions involved occur. No bio-chemical reaction is absolutely
reliable. Therefore, it is only to be expected that the process of copying the DNA will have some variations
each time. As a result, the DNA copies generated will be similar, but may not be identical to the original.

Q5. What leads to evolution?

The new DNA copy cannot work with the cellular apparatus it inherits. Such a newborn cell will simply die.
On the other hand, there could still be many other variations in the DNA copies that would not lead to such a
drastic outcome. Thus, the surviving cells are similar to, but subtly different from each other. This inbuilt
tendency for variation during reproduction
is the basis for evolution.

Q6. What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?

DNA copying has following importance in reproduction:
• It maintains the characteristics of species.
• It maintains the continuity of life.
• From this, the characteristics and features of organisms are transformed to their progeny.
• It produces variations in organisms which is the basis of evolution of new species.

Q7. What is variation? What is the importance of variation?

Variations are the differences present between the individuals of the same species or different species. - The
variation between different species is greater than that of the variation between the individuals of the same
species.
It helps a species to survive, it also helps us to determine who is who, it helps organisms to adapt to their
environment as well as to changes which do occur in the environment, however it also helps a species to
emerge strong if favoured by natural selection.

Q8. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual?
The various populations of organisms interact with many types of ecological niches. This is important for
them to survive in given conditions. In case of any damage caused to the ecological conditions of the
population, the population gets adversely affected. The organisms which are able to survive, may reproduce
to develop population which is adapted or suited to the varied conditions. Hence variation is beneficial to
species, but not to the individuals.

Q9. What are the different modes of reproduction?

The modes by which various organisms reproduce depend on the body design of the organisms. There are
two types of reproduction.
1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction

Q10. What is asexual reproduction? What are the different modes of asexual reproduction?
Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction in which a new offspring is produced by a single parent.
The new individuals produced are genetically and physically identical to each other. Asexual reproduction is
observed in both multicellular and unicellular organisms. This process does not involve any kind of gamete
fusion and there won’t be any change in the number of chromosomes either.
Various modes of asexual reproduction are :
1.Fission - For unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission, leads to the creation of new individuals. Many
different patterns of fission have been observed.
a) Binary Fission - Many bacteria and protozoa simply split into two equal halves during cell division. In
organisms such as Amoeba, the splitting of the two cells during division can take place in any plane.

Some unicellular organisms show somewhat more organisation of their bodies, such as is seen in
Leishmania (which cause kala-azar), which have a whip-like structure at one end of the cell. In such
organisms, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to these structures.
b) Multiple Fission - Single-celled organisms, such as the malarial parasite, Plasmodium, divide into many
daughter cells simultaneously by multiple fission.

2.Fragmentation - In multi-cellular organisms with relatively simple body organisation, simple

reproductive methods can still work. Spirogyra, for example, simply breaks up into smaller pieces upon
maturation. These pieces or fragments grow into new individuals.

3.Regeneration - Many fully differentiated organisms have the ability to give rise to new individual
organisms from their body parts. If the individual is somehow cut or broken up into many pieces, many of
these pieces grow into separate individuals. For example, simple animals like Hydra and Planaria can be cut
into any number of pieces and each piece grows into a complete organism. This is known as regeneration.
Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells. These cells proliferate and make large numbers of cells.
From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to become various cell types and tissues. These
changes take place in an organised sequence referred to as development.
4. Budding - Organisms such as Hydra use regenerative cells for reproduction in the process of budding. In
Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site (Fig. 7.4). These
buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from the parent body and become new
independent individuals.

5.Vegetative propagation - There are many plants in which parts like the root, stem and leaves develop into
new plants under appropriate conditions. Unlike in most animals, plants can indeed use such a mode for
reproduction. This property of vegetative propagation is used in methods such as layering or grafting to
grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes for agricultural purposes. Plants raised by vegetative
propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those produced from seeds. Such methods also make
possible the propagation of plants such as banana, orange, rose and jasmine that have lost the capacity to
produce seeds. Another advantage of vegetative propagation is that all plants produced are genetically
similar enough to the parent plant to have all its characteristics.

6.Spore formation - Spore formation is another means of asexual reproduction very common in most of the
fungi. During unfavourable conditions, the organism develops sac-like structures called sporangium that
contain spores. When the conditions are favourable, the sporangium burst opens and spores are released that
germinate to give rise to new organisms. The thread-like structures that develop are the hyphae of the bread
mould(Rhizopus). They are not reproductive parts. On the other hand, the tiny blob-on-a-stick structures are
involved in reproduction. The blobs are sporangia, which contain cells, or spores, that can eventually
develop into new Rhizopus individuals. The spores are covered by thick walls that protect them until they
come into contact with another moist surface and can begin to grow.
Q11. How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?

Q12. How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores?

An organism is benefited by reproducing through the spores because spores are surrounded by a thick layer
which protects them in adverse conditions. When the favourable conditions occur, these spores start to grow
again. In this way they successfully live in unfavourable conditions.

Q13. Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms cannot give rise to new individuals
through regeneration?
In complex multicellular organisms, specialised cells make up tissues, tissue make up organs, organs make
up organ systems and finally organ systems make up organisms. Since complex multicellular organisms
have a very high degree of organisation in their body, they cannot be reproduced from their cut body parts by
the process of regeneration. For example, a dog is a complex multicellular organism which cannot be
regenerated from its cut body part say, a cut tail. This is because the cells present in the cut tail of a dog
cannot produce dog’s organs like heart brain, lungs, stomach, intestines and limbs, etc, needed for the
making of a complete dog.
Q14. Why is vegetative propagation practised for growing some types of plants?
Vegetative propagation helps in the propagation of plants such as banana, orange, rose and jasmine that have
lost the capacity to produce seeds.

Q15. Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of reproduction?

DNA copying is essential part of the process of reproduction so that the characteristics of the parent
organisms are transmitted to its offspring and at the same time some occasional variations are also produced
in the offspring. The changes in the copy of DNA provide an organism the capability to survive in changing
conditions.
Q16. What is sexual reproduction?
Sexual reproduction is a natural way of reproduction and takes place in all multicellular organisms. This
process involves two individuals to produce offspring. In this, the male and the female gametes fuse together
and give rise to a new cell called zygote.

Q17. What is the need of sexual reproduction?

The advantages of sexual reproduction:
 produces genetic variation in the offspring.
 the species can adapt to new environments due to variation, which gives them a survival advantage.
 a disease is less likely to affect all the individuals in a population.
 have a greater survival rate as compared to asexual reproduction as organisms have variation which
is adapted to various environments.

Q18. What are the differences between a male gamete and a female gamete?
Male gamete (germ cell) Female gamete (germ cell)
1.Smaller in size. 1.Larger in size.
2. Motile 2. Non motile
3.Does not contain stored food. 3.Contains stored food.

Q19. What are the differences between asexual and sexual reproduction?

Q20. Describe the structure of a flower.

A typical flower consists of the following 4 whorls:
a)Calyx/ Sepals – Calyx is the outermost whorl which is made of sepals that are green in colour. They
protect the flower in the bud stage and can also photosynthesise.
b) Corolla/ Petals – Corolla lies inside the calyx and consists of petals. Petals are colourful and attract
insects for pollination and protect the reproductive parts.
c) Androecium/ Stamens – Androecium (male reproductive part) lies inner to the corolla and made of
stamens. Each stamen consists of a stalk – the filament and a swollen part on the top of stamen – the anther.
Anther contains pollen grains and each pollen grain have two male gametes.
d) Gynoecium/ Pistils – It is the female reproductive part and consists of pistils. Each pistil consists of a
swollen bottom part called ovary which has ovules which in turn contains egg cells. The middle elongated
part called style through which the pollen tube grows to reach the ovary. The terminal part of the pistil
which is sticky is called stigma that receives pollen grains from the anther during pollination.

Q21. What are the reproductive parts of the flower?

The reproductive parts of angiosperms are located in the flower. Stamens and pistil are the reproductive
parts of a flower which contain the germ-cells. Stamen is the male reproductive part and it produces pollen
grains that are yellowish in colour. Pistil is present in the centre of a flower and is the female reproductive
part. It is made of three parts. The swollen bottom part is the ovary, middle elongated part is the style and
the terminal part which may be sticky is the stigma. The ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg
cell. The male germ-cell produced by pollen grain fuses with the female gamete present in the ovule. This
fusion of the germ-cells or fertilisation gives us the zygote which is capable of growing into a new plant.
The flower may be unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it contains either stamens or pistil or bisexual
(Hibiscus, mustard) when it contains both stamens and pistil.

Q22. What is pollination? What are the two types of pollination?

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther of a plant to the stigma of a plant, later enabling
fertilisation and the production of seeds, most often by an animal or by wind. Pollination are of two types:
a)Self pollination - Self-pollination occurs when the pollen from the anther is deposited on the stigma of the
same flower or another flower on the same plant.
b) Cross pollination - Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the
stigma of another flower on a different plant of the same species.

Q23. What are the differences between self and cross pollination?
Q24. Describe the process of fertilisation in plants.
After the pollen lands on a suitable stigma, it has to reach the female germ-cells which are in the ovary. For
this, a tube grows out of the pollen grain and travels through the style to reach the ovary. After fertilisation,
the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule develops a tough coat and is
gradually converted into a seed. The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit. Meanwhile, the petals,
sepals, stamens, style and stigma may shrivel and fall off. The seed contains the future plant or embryo
which develops into a seedling under appropriate conditions. This process is known as germination.

Q25. Draw the diagram of fertilisation in a flower.

Q26. What are the differences between pollination and fertilisation?

Q27. What are the differences between unisexual and bisexual flowers?

Q28. What are the changes observed in both boys and girls during adolescence?
1.Thick hair growing in new parts of the body such as armpits and the genital area between the thighs, which
can also become darker in colour.
2. Thinner hair can also appear on legs and arms, as well as on the face.
3. The skin frequently becomes oily and begin to develop pimples.
4. They begin to be conscious and aware of their own bodies.

Q29. What are the changes observed in girls during adolescence?

In girls, breast size begins to increase, with darkening of the skin of the nipples at the tips of the breasts.
Also, girls begin to menstruate at around this time.

Q30. What are the changes observed in boys during adolescence?

Boys begin to have new thick hair growth on the face and their voices begin to crack. Further, the penis
occasionally begins to become enlarged and erect, either in daydreams or at night.

Q31. What is puberty?

The onset of changes that lead to sexual maturity is called puberty. Puberty is the time when adolescent boys
and girls reach sexual maturity and become capable of reproducing.

Q32. Describe the male reproductive system.

The male reproductive system consists of portions which produce the germ-cells and other portions that
deliver the germ cells to the site of fertilisation.
a) Testes - The formation of germ-cells or sperms takes place in the testes. These are located outside the
abdominal cavity in scrotum because sperm formation requires a lower temperature than the normal body
temperature. Testes also secrete the hormone, testosterone. In addition to regulating the formation of sperms,
testosterone brings about changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty.
b) Vas deferens - The sperms formed are delivered through the vas deferens which unites with a tube
coming from the urinary bladder. The urethra thus forms a common passage for both the sperms and urine.
c) Accessory glands - Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like the prostate and the seminal vesicles
add their secretions so that the sperms are now in a fluid which makes their transport easier and this fluid
also provides nutrition. The sperms are tiny bodies that consist of mainly genetic material and a long tail that
helps them to move towards the female germ-cell.
d) Penis - The penis is the external male organ that serves as the copulatory organ to transfer the male
gametes or sperms to the inside of the female body.
Q33. Describe the female reproductive system.
a)Ovary- The female germ-cells or eggs are made in the ovaries. They are also responsible for the
production of some hormones
b) Oviduct/ fallopian tubes - The egg is carried from the ovary to the womb(uterus) through a thin oviduct or
fallopian tube. It is also the place where fertilisation takes place.
c) Uterus - The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus. Development of the
embryo takes place in the uterus. The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
d) Vagina – It receives sperms from the male during sexual intercourse. It is a passage through which the
fully developed foetus is born and hence called birth canal.

Q34. Describe sexual reproduction in humans.

The sperms enter through the vaginal passage during sexual intercourse. They travel upwards and reach the
oviduct where they may encounter the egg. The fertilised egg (zygote) starts dividing and form a ball of cells
or embryo. The embryo is implanted in the lining of the uterus where they continue to grow and develop
organs to become foetus. The uterus prepares itself every month to receive and nurture the growing embryo.
The lining thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo. The embryo gets
nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called placenta. This is a disc which is
embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue. On the mother’s side
are blood spaces, which surround the villi. This provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen
to pass from the mother to the embryo. The developing embryo will also generate waste substances
which can be removed by transferring them into the mother’s blood through the placenta. The
development of the child inside the mother’s body takes approximately nine months. The child is born as a
result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus.

Q35. What happens when the egg is not fertilised?

If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one day. Since the ovary releases one egg every month, the
uterus also prepares itself every month to receive a fertilised egg. Thus its lining becomes thick and spongy.
This would be required for nourishing the embryo if fertilisation had taken place. Now, however, this lining
is not needed any longer. So, the lining slowly breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood and
mucous. This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as menstruation. It usually lasts for about
two to eight days.

Q36. What is reproductive health?

Reproductive health refers to the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being in all aspects
related to the reproductive system. It deals with the reproductive processes and functioning of reproductive
system at all stages of life and not merely the absence of disease.

Q37. What are sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)?

Many diseases can be sexually transmitted. These include bacterial infections such as gonorrhoea and
syphilis, and viral infections such as warts and HIV-AIDS. These are called STDs.

Q38. What are the different methods of contraception ?

The different methods of contraception are as follow :
(i)Mechanical Barrier method : In this method, condom, diaphragm and cervical caps are used. These
prevent the entry of sperms in the female genital tract during sexual intercourse.
(ii) Chemical method : In this method a woman uses two kinds of pills (oral and vaginal pills). The oral
pills are hormonal preparations which suppress the release of ovum in fallopian tube. These are called oral
contraceptives. The vaginal pills/ creams are spermicidal. The chemicals in these spermicidals kill the
sperms during their journey in the vaginal tract.
(iii)Intrauterine contraceptive devices : Intrauterine contraceptive devices such as copper-T are placed
safely in the uterus by a skilled doctor. It prevents the sperms to reach the uterus.
(iv)Surgical method : In this method, a small part of vas deferens of male and fallopian tube of female is
cut or tied by surgery. It is called vasectomy in males and tubectomy in females.

Q39. What is population size?

Reproduction is the process by which organisms increase their populations. The rates of birth and death in a
given population will determine its size. The size of the human population is a cause for concern for many
people. This is because an expanding population makes it harder to improve everybody’s standard of living.

Q40. What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods ?

The reasons for adopting contraceptive devices are as follows :
1. To control the birth rate and prevent the increase in population.
2. To reduce the adverse effects on mother’s body due to frequent pregnancy.
3. To provide safety from sexually transmitted diseases.
4. Spacing the birth of children.
5. Restricting the number of children born.