Mr.

Rajesh S C
Asst. Prof.
MODULE 5
Geothermal Energy Conversion: Principle of working, types of geothermal station with schematic
diagram, geothermal plants in the world, problems associated with geothermal conversion, scope of
geothermal energy.

Energy from Bio Mass: Photosynthesis, photosynthetic oxygen production, energy plantation, bio
gas production from organic wastes by anaerobic fermentation, description of bio-gas plants,
transportation of bio-gas, problems involved with bio-gas production, application of bio-gas,
application of bio-gas in engines, advantages.

Hydrogen Energy: Properties of Hydrogen with respected to its utilization as a renewable form of
energy, sources of hydrogen, production of hydrogen, electrolysis of water, thermal decomposition
of water, thermo chemical production bio-chemical production.

Geothermal Energy Conversion

Introduction

The geothermal power plant operates on a simple, low-pressure steam power cycle. and fuel handling'
equipment are not required. Also, since there is no need to conserve the condensate, a direct contact
condenser can be used. The geothermal steam discharged from a well contains a quantity of non-
condensable gases that can cause operating difficulties, including corrosion in the condensing system.
These gases are removed from the steam in the condenser by the vacuum pump, usually a steam jet
ejector, and expelled into the atmosphere.

Most of the wells drilled for geothermal power production discharge a mixture of steam and water.
If the hydrostatic pressure is sufficiently high at the bottom of the well, the water will flow, unaided
to the surface. Hot water rising in the well and subjected to reduced pressure, partially flashes into
vapour. At the well head the water is mechanically removed from the mixture in cyclone separators,
and the relatively dry steam is transported to the power station.

The steam and water mixture flowing from the geothermal wells contains dissolved solids that are
particularly troublesome. It ranges from 1 to 20 gm per kg of water. In addition to the dissolved solids
some wells may give out the mixture containing some acids. In general, the dissolved solids and acids
in geothermal water cause scaling a corrosion. Scale formation can be particularly severe in the
outflow pipeline in which the discarded water is carried away from the separator. Geothermal power

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production cause air and water pollution in operation. Ear splitting noise caused by escaping steam
and the escape of radioactive gases are other objectionable characteristics that have been observed.

Types of Geothermal Energy Sources

There are different kinds of Geothermal sources

1. Hydro thermal convective systems

a. Vapour dominated or dry steam fields

b. Liquid dominated system or wet steam fields

c. Liquid dominated system or binary cycles

a) Vapour dominated or dry steam fields

➢ This system is best suitable for electric power generation as steam from the geothermal field
is directly fed to the steam turbine for power generation.

➢ The arrangement of the components is as shown in figure.

➢ Dry steam from the Wells and approximately at about 200°C, is collected, and liquid particles,
suspended solids etc., are filtered by passing through centrifugal separators.
➢ Then the steam is expanded in a turbine to generate electric power.

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➢ Then the exhaust from the steam turbine passes through a condenser and condensate is pump
back to the hot field.
➢ The steam suffers from the problems of corrosive and erosive material and environmental
problems.
➢ The Geysers plant in USA and Larderello in Italy are of this type plants.

b. Liquid dominated system or wet steam fields

➢ In these systems, the hot water at a temperature of 175°C to 315°C is trapped from the
underground.
➢ The water in the Reservoir remains in the liquid state due to high pressure.
➢ But when water reaches surface, a sudden pressure drop results in rapid boiling and hence liquid
water flashes into a mixture of hot water and steam and the mixture is liquid dominated.
➢ The power can be generated by allowing steam to expand in a turbine and separated hot water may
serves the purpose of space heating and other similar applications.
➢ The arrangements of the components are as shown in the figure.
➢ The water at high temperature is trapped from hot well and is flashed in a flash chamber.
➢ The liquid dominated (low quality) mixture is throttled in the flash chamber and separated dry
steam enters into a steam turbine for power generation.
➢ The condensed steam with brine separated in the flash chamber is again pump back to the
geothermal field.

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c. Liquid dominated system or binary cycles

➢ Basically, it is a Rankine cycle and consists of an organic working fluid (Isobutene).

➢ The binary cycle concept isolates turbine from all corrosive and erosive materials.
➢ The arrange of the components is as shown in fig.
➢ A primary heat exchanger facilitates transfer of heat from hot brine or steam to an organic fluid
(Isobutene) thus converting it to a super-heated vapour.
➢ The superheated vapour is then expanded in a turbine which is coupled to a generator to produce
electric power.
➢ The exhaust from the turbine is cooled in a regenerative heat exchanger and condensed organic
fluid is sent back to the primary heat exchanger.
➢ The binary cycle consists of hot geothermal fluid and organic fluid.
➢ The use of two fluids eliminates corrosion and scaling problems in the components.

Geothermal plants in the India

The geothermal reservoirs suitable for power generation have been located at Tattapani (in
Sarguja district), Chhattisgarh and Puga valley of Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir. Binary cycle
system may be used for power generation from these medium enthalpy resources. A study by
National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad has confirmed the presence of
a 260 °C hydrothermal reservoir at a depth of 3 km at Tattapani. The Ministry of New

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and Renewable Energy Sources is planning to develop this field for power generation.
Nation Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) has been entrusted the job of installing a
300 kW demonstration electric power production plant at a cost of Rs. 4.6 crore. Exploratory
study is underway by NGRI, Hyderabad at Sutluj-Spiti, Beas and Parbati valley in Himachal
Pradesh, Badrinath- Tapovan in Uttaranchal and Surajkund in Jharkhand to explore
potential sites for power generation.

Advantages & Disadvantages of GTE

Advantages

1) Environmentally Friendly: Geothermal energy is more environmentally friendly than

conventional fuel sources such as coal and other fossil fuels. In addition, the carbon
footprint of a geothermal power plant is low. While there is some pollution associated
with geothermal energy, this is relatively minimal when compared to fossil fuels.
2) Renewable: Geothermal energy is a source of renewable energy that will last until the
Earth is destroyed by the sun in around 5 billion years. The hot reservoirs within the Earth
are naturally replenished, making it both renewable and sustainable.
3) Huge Potential: Worldwide energy consumption is currently around 15 terawatts,
which is far from the total potential energy available from geothermal sources.

4) Sustainable / Stable: Geothermal provides a reliable source of energy as compared

to other renewable resources such as wind and solar power. This is because the resource
is always available to be tapped into, unlike with wind or solar energy.

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5) Heating and Cooling: Effective use of geothermal for electricity generation requires
water temperatures of over 150°C to drive turbines. Alternatively, the temperature
difference between the surface and a ground source can be used.

6) Reliable: Energy generated from this resource is easy to calculate since it does not
fluctuate in the same way as other energy sources, such as solar and wind. This means
we can predict the power output from a geothermal plant with a high degree of accuracy.

7) No Fuel Required: Since geothermal energy is a naturally occurring resource there is

no fuel required, such as with fossil fuels that are a finite resource which needs mining
or otherwise extracting from the earth.

8) Rapid Evolution: There is a great deal of exploration into geothermal energy at the
moment, meaning that new technologies are being created to improve the energy
process. There are an increasing number of projects to improve and grow this area of
industry.

Disadvantages

1) Location Restricted: Geothermal plants need to be built in places where the energy is
accessible, which means that some areas are not able to exploit this resource.
2) Environmental Side Effects: Although geothermal energy does not typically release greenhouse
gases, there are many of these gases stored under the Earth’s surface which are released into the
atmosphere during digging.
3) Earthquakes: Geothermal energy also runs the risk of triggering earthquakes. This is due to
alterations in the Earth’s structure as a result of digging. This problem is more prevalent with
enhanced geothermal power plants, which force water into the Earth’s crust to open up fissures to
greater exploitation of the resource.
4) High Costs: Geothermal energy is an expensive resource to tap into, with price tags ranging from
around $2-$7 million for a plant with a 1 MW capacity.
5) Sustainability: In order to maintain the sustainability of geothermal energy fluid needs to be
pumped back into the underground reservoirs faster than it is depleted. This means that geothermal
energy needs to be properly managed to maintain its sustainability.

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Problems associated with Geothermal Energy
a) Solid particles and non-condensable Gases: The steam/water from hydrothermal reservoirs
contain solid particles and non: condensable gases. The solid particles are removed using
centrifugal separators at the well exit and by strainers before the turbine entry. This leads to
pressure and temperature loss and hence loss of the thermal efficiency of the complete system.
b) Discharge of Used Water: Discharging large quantities of used water from the geothermal
systems to rivers and seas will cause water pollution (both thermal and chemical). This may make
the water toxic and becomes hazardous to the animals and users.
c) Noise Pollution: In geothermal systems noise pollution is also a major problem. Exhaust, blow
down and centrifugal separators work always with high noise, which is hazardous to the working
people. The noise can be minimized by using silencers and its effect on working people can be
reduced by using noise protective devices.
d) Atmospheric Pollution: The harmful gases in the geothermal water after use will escape (from
the cooling tower, separator, etc.) and cause atmospheric pollution. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is
highly toxic and harmful to the living beings.
e) Subsidence: The removal of huge quantities of underground water causes land subsidence, causes
stressing pipelines and damage to the foundations.
f) Fog due to escaping steam: The entry of steam from the cooling towers, separators into the
environment may lead to the formation of dense fog which many drift to the nearby busy living
areas and causes problems.

Scope of Geothermal Energy

a) There is a vast scope to use geothermal energy for various applications like space heating, cooking
and medical purposes and for industrial process heating.
b) It’s varied application and versatility make the source suitable for many purposes.
c) This source of energy for electric generation has proved most economical.
d) Geothermal energy can be tapped from any point on the earth simply by drilling deep enough holes.
e) It is cheaper, less pollutant and has highest load factor.
f) It is renewable, inexhaustible and posses highest energy density.
g) It is estimated that the thermal value of the geothermal field in the world is equivalent to 5x1010
barrels of oil per year.
h) This is almost equivalent to the present world yearly consumption, in comparison with the size of
the source, the energy available for exploitation and extraction is less.
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ENERGY FROM BIOMASS
Introduction
Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. It most often refers
to plants or plant-derived materials which are specifically called biomass. As a renewable energy
source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after
converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by
different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods.

2.1 Benefits of Using Biomass

1) Biomass used as a fuel reduces need for fossil fuels for the production of heat, steam,
andelectricity for residential, industrial and agricultural use.

2) Biomass is always available and can be produced as a renewable resource.

3) Biomass fuel from agriculture wastes maybe a secondary product that adds value to
agriculturalcrop.

4) Growing Biomass crops produce oxygen and use up carbondioxide.

5) The use of waste materials reduces landfill disposal and makes more space for everything else.

6) Carbon Dioxide which is released when Biomass fuel is burned, is taken in by plants.

7) Less money spent on foreign oil.

Photosynthesis

➢ It is the biological conversion of sun’s radiant energy into sugars and starches which
are rich energy compounds.

➢ The green pigment chlorophyll of the plant absorbs sun’s energy and it is stored in
the form of chemical bond energy.

➢ It is possible to harvest and burnt the plants with high photosynthesis efficiency to
generate steam which could be used to generate electricity as in thermal power plants.
➢ It is the best way of harnessing solar energy and is a renewable resource.
➢ In plants, solar energy conversion is only about 1% and overall efficiency of
conversion of sunlight to electricity is 0.3%.

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➢ Hence in comparison with photovoltaic cells, which have 10% efficiency this concept
is less attractive.

Photosynthesis oxygen production

It is a complex process in which water and CO2 molecules are broken down in sunlight and
releases carbohydrates and pure oxygen.

6H2O + 6CO2 ----- > C6H12O6+6O2 +6H2O

six molecules of water plus six molecules of carbon dioxide produce one molecule of sugar
plus six molecules of oxygen
The absorbed light is in the ultraviolet and infrared range. The chlorophyll absorbs visible
light and passes its energy on to the water molecules and releases an hydrogen atom.
Thus, photosynthesis is a reduction and oxidation process which produces carbohydrates
such as sugar in the green leaf. The O2 is liberated from H2O molecules.
Mainly the photosynthesis consists of two steps.
1) Due to action of chlorophyll and sunlight, water molecules break in to H2 and O2, this
phase is called light reaction in which solar energy is converted in to potential chemical
energy, the O2 escapes and H2 gets converted into some unknown compound.
2) This phase of reaction is called dark reaction which forms CO2 and starch or sugar from
unknown compound of H2 and does not required sunlight.

Energy Plantation

Energy plantations are the plants planted only for use as fuel. The woody plants have
been used since ancient times to generate fire for dome stic and industrial purpose. In
recent years, to meet the ever-growing demand of energy, plantation of energy plants is

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been encouraged. We are all aware that trees are cut in many of the forest belts of India
like Gangetic plains, Siwalik region and foot -hills of Himalayas.
In terms of fuel wood production, India is the biggest, but the per capita fuel wood
production is very low. In India, people of hill area hardly get fire -wood plants and they
have to go to interior of forest to collect wood -falls. Also, introduction of technologies
developed for plains is not achievable in these areas.

For example, they cannot be motivated to use solar cooker, because of being solely
traditional and religious. Even gobar gas plant cannot be useful in hills, due to low
temperatures. Therefore, renewable source of energy is highly desirable for survival of
population in hills and for reducing the pressure on forests. And thus, energy plantation
has got great support in our country.

Bio gas production from organic wastes by anaerobic fermentation

The decomposition of animal, plant and human wastes generates biogas and is a mixture of methane
(50 to 70%), carbon dioxide (30 to 40%), hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen. The biogas is a
clean, slow burning gas with its calorific value ranging from 21000 kJ/kg to 23028 kJ/kg. Biogas is
mainly used for cooking applications. The materials used for biogas generation retains its fertilizer
properties and return to the soil.

The biogas is generated from cow dung, piggery waste, poultry droppings, algae, crop residues,
garbage kitchen waste etc., The cellulosic organic material of animal or plant origin forms raw material
with high potential for biogas generation.

Anaerobic fermentation

It is the method of generating biogas through fermentation or bio digestion of different types of wastes
by a number of anaerobic and facultative organisms. Facultative organisms are bacteria which grow
with or without oxygen. Bacteria are classified in to two groups, aerobic-which grow in presence of
oxygen and anaerobic-does not require oxygen to grow. The biodegradation or decomposition of the
organic matter by fermentation process through anaerobic digestion, results in the formation of biogas.

The phases of anerobic digestion are:

1) Enzymatic hydrolysis: In this phase, the fats, starches and proteins present in the cellulose biomass
are converted in to simple compounds.

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2) Acid formation: In this phase, the complex organic compounds converted in to simple organic
acids. The acids and volatile solids are formed by hydrolysis and fermentation from micro-
organism of facultative and anaerobic group and together called acid formers.
3) Methane formation: In this phase, the acids produced from previous phase converted in to methane
(CH4) and CO2 by anaerobic bacteria which are also known as methane fermenters. For digestion
process to be efficient, these acid formers and methane fermenters must be in a state of dynamic
equilibrium.
The anaerobic digestion is represented by the general equation
Cx HyOz + H2O ----------→ CO2 + CH4
For cellulose,
(C6H10O5)n + nH2O -----→ 3nCO2 + 3nCH4

Classification of biogas plants

Biogas is produced mostly by anaerobic digestion. Digestion is a biological process taking place in
the absence of oxygen and in the presence of anaerobic organisms at atmospheric pressures and
around 45OC. the digestion process takes place in a container called the digester. The complete system
to generate biogas is termed the biogas plant. The biogas can be classified as follows:

1) Continuous type
a) Single stage process
b) Double stage process
2) Batch type
3) Dome type
a) Floating dome type-Indian Design
b) Fixed dome type- Chinese Design
1) Continuous type Biogas plant
As the name indicates, in this type of digester, the slurry is fed regularly from one end, and biogas
is produced by the continuous process of biogas conversion in the digester.
a) Single stage process: in this operation, the slurry is fed regularly at the inlet, so as to produce
the gas continuously. Also the digested sludge other spent residue (scum and supernatant) are
periodically removed at their respective outlets. The fed slurry enters the main digestion
chamber, and as the reaction proceeds the digested sludge moves down, and the scum and

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supernatant move up. The gas generated gets collected at the upper portion of the dome which
can be used for various applications.

b) Double Stage Process:

➢ In this process consists of two digesters, in the first stage digester, the raw slurry is fed at
the top
➢ The slurry is thoroughly mixed with a stirrer and heated using an external heat supply to
obtain an optimum reaction.
➢ In this chamber only the acidogenic reaction takes place in the slurry.
➢ This slurry is then fed to the second stage digester, in which methonogenic reaction takes
leading to the formation of biogas.

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➢ The digested sludge settles down in the second digester, with the scum rising top.
➢ The generated gas is collected above the scum in the dome
➢ The spent resides i.e., digested sludge, supernatant and the scum are periodically
discharged from the second stage digester.
➢ The biogas is taken out from the top of the second stage digester for use.

Batch type biogas plant

➢ In this type of biogas plant the gas generation takes place in intermittent batches. The plant
consists of a battery(series) of digesters with a common gas holder. A batch type biogas plant
is schematically illustrated.
➢ The battery of digesters is charged periodically with cow dung, lime urea and allowed to
ferment for above 40 to 50 days.
➢ Each battery produces biogas and the generated gas gets accumulated in the common gas
holder.
➢ Later the digester are emptied and charged one after the other in a synchronous manner, so
that a regular supply of gas is maintained through the common gas holder.
➢ Each digester may take about 10-15 days to start generating biogas after charging.
➢ Initially for about 3 to 5days, the fresh charge can be stirred in open atmosphere for better
results before closing the dome.

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3. Dome type biogas plant
These are the most popular biogas plants suitable for small to medium capacity gas production. The
two important designs of this type are:
a) The floating dome type gas plant
b) The fixed dome type gas plant
a) The floating dome type gas plant

Fig. The Floating dome type biogas plant

Raw materials required Forms of biomass listed below may be used along with water.
• Animal dung
• Poultry wastes
• Plant wastes (Husk, grass, weeds etc.)
• Human excreta
• Industrial wastes (Saw dust, wastes from food processing industries)
• Domestic wastes (Vegetable peels, waste food materials)
➢ Principle
Biogas is produced as a result of anaerobic decomposition of biomass in the presence of water.
➢ Construction
The floating gas holder type of biogas plant has the following chambers/sections:
Mixing Tank - present above the groundlevel.
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Digester tank - Deep underground well-like structure. It is divided into two chambers by a
partition wall in between.
It has two long cement pipes:
1. Inlet pipe opening into the inlet chamber for introduction of slurry.
2. Outlet pipe opening into the overflow tank for removal of spent slurry.
Gas holder - an inverted steel drum resting above the digester. The drum can move up and
down i.e., float over the digester. The gas holder has an outlet at the top which could be
connected to gas stoves.
Over flow tank - Present above the ground level.
Working
i. Slurry (mixture of equal quantities of biomass and water) is prepared in the mixing tank.
ii. The prepared slurry is fed into the inlet chamber of the digester through the inlet pipe
iii. The plant is left unused for about two months and introduction of more slurry is stopped.
iv. During this period, anaerobic fermentation of biomass takes place in the presence of water and
produces biogas in the digester.
v. Biogas being lighter rises up and starts collecting in the gas holder. The gas holder now starts
moving up.
vi. The gas holder cannot rise up beyond a certain level. As more and more gas start’s collecting,
more pressure begins to be exerted on the slurry.
vii. The spent slurry is now forced into the outlet chamber from the top of the inlet chamber.
viii. When the outlet chamber gets filled with the spent slurry, the excess is forced out through the
outlet pipe into the overflow tank. This is later used as manure for plants.
ix. The gas valve of the gas outlet is opened to get a supply of biogas.
x. Once the production of biogas begins, a continuous supply of gas can be ensured by regular
removal of spent slurry and introduction of fresh slurry.
b) Fixed dome type biogas plant

Raw materials required

Forms of biomass listed below may be used along with water.
• Animal dung
• Poultry wastes
• Plant wastes (Husk, grass, weeds etc.)
• Human excreta
• Industrial wastes (Saw dust, wastes from food processing industries)
• Domestic wastes (Vegetable peels, waste food materials)

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Principle
Biogas is produced as a result of anaerobic decomposition of biomass in the presence of
water.

Constructions:
The biogas plant is a brick and cement structure having the following five sections

➢ Mixing tank present above the ground level

➢ Inlet chamber: The mixing tank opens underground into a sloping inlet chamber.
➢ Digester: The inlet chamber opens from below into the digester which is a huge tank
with a domelike ceiling. The ceiling of the digester has an outlet with a valve for the
supply of biogas.
➢ Outlet chamber: The digester opens from below into an outlet chamber.
➢ Overflow tank: The outlet chamber opens from the top into a small over flow tank

Working

➢ The various forms of biomass are mixed with an equal quantity of water in the mixing tank.
Thisforms the slurry.
➢ The slurry is fed into the digester through the inlet chamber.
➢ When the digester is partially filled with the slurry, the introduction of slurry is stopped and
theplant is left unused for about two months.
➢ During these two months, anaerobic bacteria present in the slurry decomposes or ferments
thebiomass in the presence of water
➢ As a result of anaerobic decomposition, biogas is formed, which starts collecting in the dome
ofthe digester.
➢ As more and more biogas start collecting, the pressure exerted by the biogas forces the spent
slurry into the outlet chamber.
➢ From the outlet chamber, the spent slurry overflows into the over flow tank.
➢ The spent slurry is manually removed from the overflow tank and used as manure for plants.
➢ The gas valve connected to a system of pipelines is opened when a supply of biogas is
required.

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Problems involved with bio-gas production

There are some problems associated with the operation of biogas plant. Some of the problems are as
follows:
1) Handling of effluent slurry: This is a major problem when there is not sufficient open space or
compost pit for drying the slurry. Otherwise, the transportation of the slurry to long
distances/fields adds to the cost and production becomes costlier.
2) Temperature variation: Temperature has an effect on the gas forming bacteria reaction. During
winter seasons the activity of gas forming bacteria reduces, thus there will be a reduction in the
gas formation
3) Improper loading of slurry: The slurry should be properly mixed with water and uniformly
loaded. The solid content to water should be in the proportion of 0.85 to 0.15. If the water
quantity is reduced, the slurry becomes thick and the flow from the inlet to the outlet slows down
thereby reducing the gas production.
4) pH and Volatile fatty acids: For continuous and affective gas production, it is essential to
maintain an optimum value of pH and volatile fatty acids in the slurry.
5) Leakage of gas: Once the gas holder is filled up completely, further gas generation causes
leakage problems at the water seal and joints.

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Application of Biogas
Biogas can be used for various applications. These include domestic, industrial and in engines. These
applications are briefly discussed here.
1) Use of Domestic and General applications:
➢ In general biogas can be used as a source of heat for any purpose-both domestic and industrial.
➢ In villages where the availability of cow dung is maximum, they are very popular in domestic
cooking.
➢ For cooking, the gas is to be burnt in a gas burner which is similar to normal LPG gas burner
except for the het size and gas flow rate.
➢ Generally, the biogas plant is located in a free space from where pipe line is laid up to the kitchen
to carry the gas produced from the digester collector tank.
➢ Biogas can be used as a source of light also. It needs a mantle type burner lamp (like petromax
lights using kerosene).
2) Use of Biogas in Engines
➢ Biogas can also be used in I.C engines in place of petrol and diesel.
➢ However, engines using biogas become more hotter thereby requiring more cooling.
➢ The other problem is that they cannot produce high power per unit volume of gas burnt like that
of liquid fuels.
➢ Petrol engines can be run 100% on biogas except for the initial starting where petrol is required.
➢ Diesel engines need modifications to run as duel fuel engines which use both diesel and biogas.
➢ The diesel is to be injected into the compressed biogas in the cylinder to ignite it.
➢ This is because the temperature at the end of compression strokes in diesel engines is around
700OC, where as the ignition temperature required for the methane-air mixture is around 815OC.

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HYDROGEN ENERGY

Introduction

Hydrogen is the simplest element. An atom of hydrogen consists of only one proton
and one electron. It is also the most plentiful element in the universe. Despite its
simplicity and abundance, hydrogen doesn’t occur naturally as a gas on the Earth – it
is always combined with other elements. Water, for example, is a combination of
hydrogen and oxygen (H2O).
Hydrogen holds the potential to provide clean, reliable and affordable energy supply that
can enhance economy, environment and security. It is flexible and can be used by all
sectors of economy.
Hydrogen can be produced by using a variety of energy sources, such as solar, nuclear
and fossil fuels and can be converted to useful energy forms efficiently and without
detrimental environmental effects. When burned as fuel or converted to electricity it
joins with oxygen to produce energy with water as the only emission. When air is used
for combustion instead of oxygen, some NOx is also produced, which can be reduced
by lowering the combustion temperature.

Properties of Hydrogen
Hydrogen is an odorless and colorless gas. It has the simplest and lightest atom with
one proton and one electron and molecular weight of 2.016. Important properties are
listed and compared with natural gas and gasoline in Table.
SN Properties Gasoline Natural gas Hydrogen
1 Density (kg/𝑚3) 730 0.78 0.0837
2 Boiling point, (°C) 38 to 204 –156 –253 (20.3 K)
3 Lower heating value, (MJ/kg) 44.5 48 125
(MJ/𝑚3) 32 37.3 10.4 (gas),
8520 (liquid
4 Higher heating value, (MJ/kg) 50.8 55 141.90
(MJ/𝑚3) 36.6 42.6 11.89 (gas),
10046 (liquid)
5 Flammable limit, % in air 1.4–7.6 5–16 4–75
6 Flame speed, (m/s) 0.4 0.41 3.45
7 Flame temperature, (°C) 2197 1875 2045
8 Flame luminosity High Medium Low

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Asst. Prof.
Production of Hydrogen
1) Electrolysis of Water
2) Thermal Decomposition of Water (thermolysis of water)
3) Bio photolysis
4) Thermochemical Production
1) Electrolysis of Water

➢ It is the process of splitting hydrogen from water by passing a direct electric current.
➢ The above fig. shows a simple electrolytic cell which consists of the following parts:
i) Anode
ii) Cathode
iii) Electrolyte solution
➢ Both the electrodes are submerged in an aqueous conducting solution (KOH + Water) i.e.,
electrolyte solution.
➢ A direct electric current is passed into the electrolyte through the anode.
➢ Current passes from anode to cathode through electrolyte. As a result, water is decomposed
into Hydrogen and Oxygen.
➢ Theoretically, a voltage of about 1.23 volts is required for the decomposition of water.
➢ But practically a voltage of about 2volts is supplied in order to increase the rate of hydrogen
production.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., SKIT, B’lore 20

 Mr. Rajesh S C
Asst. Prof.
➢ Electrolysis is a slow process, to increase the efficiency of electrolysis process, the electrodes
are coated by catalyst materials such as platinum, nickel etc.,
➢ Practically, platinum is not used as catalyst, because of its high cost. So, electrodes are
generally made of nickel-plated steel.

Anode Reaction:

2H2O ----→ O2 + 4H+ 4e-

Cathode Reaction:

4H+ + 4e- ---→ 2H2

Overall Reaction:

2H2O -----→ O2 + 2H2

2) Thermal Decomposition of Water (thermolysis of water)

When primary energy is available in the form of heat (e.g. solar thermal), it is more
logical to produce hydrogen by splitting water directly from heat energy using
thermolysis. This would be more efficient than conversion of heat, first to electricity
(using heat engine generator) and then producing hydrogen through electrolysis. The
efficiency of thermal plant is usually in range 32–38 per cent and that of electrolysis
is 80 per cent. The overall efficiency through thermal-electrical-hydrogen route would
thus be only 25– 30 per cent.
Direct thermal decomposition of water is possible but it requires a temperature of at
least 2500 °C; because of temperature limitations of conversion process equipment,
direct single-step water decomposition cannot be achieved. However, sequential
chemical reactions at substantially lower temperature can be devised to split water
into H2 and O2. In the reaction series, water is taken up at one stage and H2 and O2 are
produced in different stages. The energy is supplied as heat at one or more stages and
partly released at some stage in the cycle. One such cycle is given below:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., SKIT, B’lore 21

 Mr. Rajesh S C
Asst. Prof.

3) Bio photolysis:

Fig: Functional components of bio photolysis

In this method the ability of the plants (especially algae) to split water during
photosynthesis process is utilized. An artificial system is devised, which could
produce hydrogen and oxygen from water in sunlight using isolated
photosynthetic membrane and other catalysts. Since this process is essentially a
decomposition of water using photons in the presence of biological catalysts, the
reaction is called photolysis of water. There are three distinct functional components
coupled together in the system as shownin Fig.
(i) Photosynthetic membrane, which absorbs light, split water to generate
oxygen,electrons and protons,
(ii) An electron mediator, which is reducible by photo-synthetically generated
electronsand
(iii) A proton activator that will accept electrons from the reduced mediator and
catalyze the reaction:
2𝐻++ 2𝑒−------------→𝐻2
A system with chloroplast (small bodies containing the chlorophyll in green plants) as a
photosynthetic membrane to split hydrogen and oxygen, ferredoxin as e– mediator and
hydrogen as (an enzyme) or finely dispersed platinum as proton activator, has been
successfully tested. The method is being extensively studied further.
4) Thermochemical Production:
Hydrogen bound in organic matter and in water makes up 70% of the earth’s surface.
Breaking up these bonds in water allows us produce hydrogen, and then, to use it as a
fuel. There are numerous processes that can be used to break these bonds.
1. Steam Reforming::
Steam reforming uses thermal energy to separate hydrogen from the carbon components
in methane and methanol and involves the reaction of these fuels with steam on catalytic
surfaces. The first step of the reaction decomposes the fuel into hydrogen and carbon

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., SKIT, B’lore 22

 Mr. Rajesh S C
Asst. Prof.
monoxide. Then, a ‘shift reaction’ changes the carbon monoxide and water to carbon
dioxide and hydrogen. These reactions occur at temperatures of 2000C or greater. Steam
reforming of natural gas is currently the least expensive method and is responsible for more
than 90% of hydrogen production worldwide. Natural gas is first cleared from sulphur
compounds. It is then mixed with steam and send over a nickel– alumina catalyst inside
a tubular reactor heated externally, where carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) are
generated. This step is followed by a catalytic water-gas shift reaction that converts the CO
and water to hydrogen and carbon dioxide (CO2). The hydrogen gas is then purified.
The endothermic reforming reaction is,

CH4 + H2O + 206 (kJ/kg) CO + 3H2

It is usually followed by the exothermic shift reaction:

CO + H2O CO2 +H2 + 41(kJ/kg)

The overall reaction is:
CH4 + 2H2O +165 (kJ/kg) CO2 + 4H2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., SKIT, B’lore 23