SUBJECT: AUTOMATION IN MANUFACTURING

UNIT –I
INTRODUCTION

Some of the initial automations in the history of human civilization

Lever, winch(circa600B.C.),
Cam (circa A,D.1000),
Screw (A.D.1405),
Windmills (circaA.D.650),
Steamengines (A.D.1765).
Flourmills(circa85B.C.),
Weaving machines(flyingshuttle,1733),
Machine tools(boringmill,1775),
Steam boats (1787),
Rail road locomotives (1803).
Electrification(startingin1881)

The moving assembly line (1913), Mechanized transfer lines for mass production, whose
programs were fixed by their hardware configuration (1924),

A mathematical theory of control systems (1938and1948); and

The MARKI electromechanical computer at Harvard University (1944).

The first electronic digital computer was developed at University of Pennsylvaniain1946.

The first numerical control machine tool was developed and demonstrated in 1952 at
Massachusetts Institute of Technology based on a concept proposed by John Pamonsand Frank
Stulen

By the late 1968 and early 1970s, digital computers were being connected to machine tools.

In 1954, the first industrial robot was designed and patented (issued1961) by George Devol

The first commercial robot was installed toun load parts in a die casting operation in 1961.

In the late 1968, the first flexible manufacturing system in the United States was installed at
IngersollRand Company to perform machining operations on a variety of parts.

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 Around1969, the first programmable logic controller was introduced.

In 1978, the first commercial personal computer (PC) had been introduced by Apple
Computer, although a similar product had been introduced in kit form as early as 1975.
Developments in computer technology were made possible by advances in electronics,
including the transistor (1948),

hard disk for computer memory (1956),

Integrated circuits (1960),

The microprocessor (1971)

Random accesss memory (1984),

Mega byte capacity memory chips(circa1990), The
Pentium microprocessors (1993).
Software developments related to automation have been equally important, including the
FORTRAN computer programming language (1955),
The APT programming language for numerical control (NC) machine tools (1961),
The UNIX operating system (1969),
The VAL language for robot programming (1979),
Microsoft Windows (1985), and the JAVA programming language (1995).
Advances

BASIC ELEMENTS OF AN AUTOMATED SYSTEM

(1) Power,
(2) Program of instructions, and
(3) Control systems.

A FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM OR CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

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 Open loop control system

A positioning system consist of a lead screw driven by a DC Motor

1. Types of Automation System with examples

Automated production systems can be classified into three basic types:
1. Fixed automation,
2. Programmable automation, and
3. Flexible automation.

2. Fixed Automation examples

FIXEDAUTOMATION It is a system in which the sequence of processing (or assembly)
operations is fixed by the equipment configuration. The operations in the sequence are usually
simple. It is the integration and coordination of many such operations into one piece of equipment
that makes the system complex. The typical features of fixed automation are: a. High initial
investment for custom–Engineered equipment;
b. High production rates; and
c. Relatively inflexible in accommodating product changes.

The economic justification for fixed automation is found in products with very high demand rates
and volumes. The high initial cost of the equipment can be spread over a very large number of units,
thus making the unit cost attractive compared to alternative methods of production. Examples of
fixed automation include mechanized assembly and machining transfer lines.

PROGRAMMABLE AUTOMATION In this the production equipment is designed with the

capability to change the sequence of operations to accommodate different product
configurations. The operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions
coded so that the system can read and interpret them. New programs can be prepared and
entered into the equipment to produce new products. Some of the features that characterize
programmable automation are:

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a. High investment in general-purpose equipment;
b. Low production rates relative to fixed automation;
c. Flexibility to deal with changes in product configuration; and
d. Most suitable for batch production.
Automated production systems that are programmable are used in low and medium volume
production. The parts or products are typically made in batches. To produce each new batch of
a different product, the system must be reprogrammed with the set of machine instructions that
correspond to the new product. The physical setup of the machine must also be changed over:
Tools must be loaded; fixtures must be attached to the machine table also be changed machine
settings must be entered. This changeover procedure takes time. Consequently, the typical
cycle for given product includes a period during which the setup and reprogramming takes
place, followed by a period in which the batch is produced. Examples of programmed
automation include numerically controlled machine tools and industrial robots.
FLEXIBLEAUTOMATION It is an extension of programmable automation. A flexible
automated system is one that is capable of producing a variety of products (or parts) with
virtually no time lost for changeovers from one product to the next. There is no production time
lost while reprogramming the system and altering the physical setup (tooling, fixtures, and
machine setting). Consequently, the system can produce various combinations and schedules
of products instead of requiring that they be made in separate batches. The features of flexible
automation can be summarized as follows:
1. High investment for a custom-engineered system.
2. Continuous production of variable mixtures of products.
3. Medium production rates.
4. Flexibility to deal with product design variations.

The essential features that distinguish flexible automation from programmable automation are:
1. the capacity to change part programs with no lost production time; and
2. the capability to changeover the physical setup, again with no lost production time.

These features allow the automated production system to continue production without the
downtime between batches that is characteristic of programmable automation. Changing the
part programs is generally accomplished by preparing the programs off-line on a computer
system and electronically transmitting the programs to the automated production system.
Therefore, the time required to do the programming for the next job does not interrupt
production on the current job. Advances in computer systems technology are largely
responsible for this programming capability in flexible automation. Changing the physical
setup between parts is accomplished by making the changeover off-line and then moving it into
place simultaneously as the next part comes into position for processing.
The use of pallet fixtures that hold the parts and transfer into position at the workplace is one
way of implementing this approach. For these approaches to be successful; the variety of parts
that can be made on a flexible automated production system is usually more limited than a
system controlled by programmable automation.
3. Automation in Production system
Types of production automation

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Understand, simplify and automate the process
Following the USA Principle is a good first step in any automation project.
The USA Principle is a common-sense approach to automation projects. Similar procedures have
been suggested in the manufacturing and automation trade literature, but none has a more
captivating title than this one. USA stands for:
1. Understand the existing process
2. Simplify the process 3. Automate the process.
It may turn out that automation of the process is unnecessary or cannot be cost justified after it has
been simplified.
If automation seems a feasible solution to improving productivity, quality, or other measure of
performance, then the following ten strategies provide a road map to search for these improvements.
These ten strategies seem as relevant and appropriate today as they did in 1980. We refer to them
as strategies for automation and production systems because some of them are applicable whether
the process is a candidate for automation or just for simplification.
1. Specialization of operations
The first strategy involves the use of special-purpose equipment designed to perform one operation
with the greatest possible efficiency.
This is analogous to the concept of labour specialization, which is employed to improve labour
productivity.

2. Combined operations
Production occurs as a sequence of operations.
Complex parts may require dozens, or even hundreds, of processing steps. The strategy of combined
operations involves reducing the number of distinct production machines or workstations through
which the part must be routed.
This is accomplished by performing more than one operation at a given machine, thereby reducing
the number of separate machines needed.
Since each machine typically involves a setup, setup time can usually be saved as a consequence of
this strategy. Material handling effort and non-operation time are also reduced. Manufacturing lead
time is reduced for better customer service.

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3. Simultaneous operations
A logical extension of the combined operations strategy is to simultaneously perform the operations
that are combined at one workstation. In effect, two or more processing (or assembly) operations
are being performed simultaneously on the same work part, thus reducing total processing time.

4. Integration of operations
Another strategy is to link several workstations together into a single integrated mechanism, using
automated work handling devices to transfer parts between stations. In effect, this reduces the
number of separate machines through which the product must be scheduled.
With more than one workstation, several parts can be processed simultaneously, thereby increasing
the overall output of the system.

5. Increased flexibility
This strategy attempts to achieve maximum utilization of equipment for job shop and medium
volume situations by using the same equipment for a variety of parts or products. It involves the
use of the flexible automation concepts.
Prime objectives are to reduce setup time and programming time for the production machine. This
normally translates into lower manufacturing lead time and less work-in-process.

6. Improved material handling and storage

A great opportunity for reducing non-productive time exists in the use of automated material
handling and storage systems.
Typical benefits include reduced work-in-process and shorter manufacturing lead times.

7. On-line inspection
Inspection for quality of work is traditionally performed after the process is completed. This means
that any poor-quality product has already been produced by the time it is inspected. Incorporating
inspection into the manufacturing process permits corrections to the process as the product is being
made.
This reduces scrap and brings the overall quality of product closer to the nominal specifications
intended by the designer.

8. Process control and optimization

This includes a wide range of control schemes intended to operate the individual processes and
associated equipment more efficiently. By this strategy, the individual process times can be reduced
and product quality improved.

9. Plant operations control

Whereas the previous strategy was concerned with the control of the individual manufacturing
process, this strategy is concerned with control at the plant level. It attempts to manage and
coordinate the aggregate operations in the plant more efficiently.
Its implementation usually involves a high level of computer networking within the factory.

10. Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM)

Taking the previous strategy one level higher, we have the integration of factory operations with
engineering design and the business functions of the firm.
• It is a hardware which converts a controller command signal into a change in a physical
parameter

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It requires amplifier to strengthen the controller command
• Types
– Electrical
– Hydraulic
– Pneumatic

ADVANCED AUTOMATION FUNCTIONS

Advanced automation functions include the following:
(1) safety monitoring,
(2) Maintenance and repair diagnostics and
(3) error detection and recovery.
SAFETY MONITORING
The following list suggests some of the possible sensors and their applications for safety
monitoring:

Limit switch esto detect proper positioning of a part in a work holding device
Photoelectric sensors triggered by the interruption of a light beam
Temperature sensors to indicate that a metal work part is hot enough to proceed with a hot
forging operation.
Heat or smoke detectors to sense fire hazards.
Pressure-sensitive floor pads to detect human intruders into the work cell.
Machine vision systems to supervise the automated system and its surroundings.

2. MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR DIAGNOSTICS

1.Status monitoring: In the status monitoring mode, the diagnostic subsystem monitors and
records the status of key sensors and parameters of the system during normal operation.
2.Failure diagnostics: The failure diagnostics mode is invoked when a malfunction or failure
occurs.
3.Recommendation of repair procedure: In the third mode of operation, the subsystem provides
a recommended procedure to the repair crew as to the steps that should be taken to effect
repairs.

ERROR DETECTION AND RECOVERY

In the operation of any automated system, there are hardware malfunctions and unexpected
events that occur during operation. The seevents can result in costly delays and loss of
production until the problem has been corrected and regular operation is restored.
Traditionally, equipmentmal functions are corrected by human workers, perhaps with the aid
of a maintenance and repair diagnostics subroutine.
With the increase duseof computer control for manufacturing processes, there is a trend
toward using the control computernotonly to diagnose themal functions but also to
automatically take the necessary corrective action to restore the system to normal operation.
The term error detection and recovery isused when the computer performs these functions

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LEVELS OF AUTOMATION

1. Device level: This is the lowest level in our automation hierarchy. It includes the actuators,
sensors, and other hardware components that comprise the machine level. The devices are
combined into the individual control loops of the machine; for example, the feedback
control loop for one axis of a CNC machine or one joint of an industrial robot.

2. Machine level: Hardware at the device level is assembled into individual machines.
Examples include CNC machine tools and similar production equipment, industrial robots,
powered conveyors, and automated guided vehicles. Control function sat this level include
performing the sequence of steps in the program of instructions in the correct order and
making sure that each step is properly executed.
3. Cell or system level: This is the manufacturing cell or system level, which operates under
instructions from the plant level. A manufacturing cell or system is a group of machines or
workstations connected and supported by a material handling system, computer, and other
equipment appropriate to the manufacturing process. Production lines are sand material
handling system, and collecting and evaluating inspection data.

4. Plant level: This is the factory or production systems level. It receives instructions from the
corporate information system and translates them into operational plans for production.

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 Likely functions include: order processing, process planning, inventory control,
purchasing, material requirements planning, shop floor control, and quality control.
5. Enterprise level: This is the highest level, consisting of the corporate information system.
It is concerned with all of the functions necessary to manage the company: marketing and
sales, accounting, design, research, aggregate planning, and master production scheduling.

EXAMPLES OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Single-station

cells

Machine clusters

Manual assembly lines

Automated transfer lines

Automated assembly systems

Machine cells (cellular manufacturing)

Flexible manufacturing systems

PRODUCTION MACHINES
In virtually all modern manufacturing systems, most of the actual processing or assembly
work is accomplished by machines or with the aid of tools
Classification of production machines:
1.Manually operated machines are controlled or supervised by a human worker
2.Semi-automated machines perform a portion of the work cycle under some form of program
control, and a worker tends the machine the rest of the cycle
3.Fully automated machines operate for extended periods of time with no human attention
MANUALLY OPERATED MACHINE

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Manually operated machines are controlled or supervised by a human worker. The machine
provides the power for the operation and the worker provides the control. The entire work cycle
is operator controlled.

SEMI-AUTOMATED MACHINE

A semi-automated machine performs a portion of the workcycle under some form of program control,
and a worker tends to the machine for the remainder of the cycle. Typical worker tasks include loading
and unloading parts

FULLY-AUTOMATED MACHINE

Machine operates for extended periods (longer than one work cycle) without worker attention
(periodic tending may be needed).

MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM

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 In most manufacturing systems that process or assemble discrete parts and products, the following
material handling functions must be provided:
1.Loading work units at each station
2.Positioning work units at each station
3.Unloading work units at each station
4.Transporting work units between stations in multi-station systems
5.Temporary storage of work units

WORK TRANSPORT BETWEEN STATIONS

Two general categories of work transport in multi-station manufacturing systems:
1.Fixed routing
Work units always flow through the same sequence of workstations
Most production lines exemplify this category
2.Variable routing
Work units are moved through a variety of different station sequences
Most job shops exemplify this category

(A) FIXED ROUTING AND (B) VARIABLE ROUTING

AUTOMATION AND MANNING LEVELS

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 Level of workstation automation
Manually operated
Semi-automated
Fully automated
Manning level Mi=proportion of time worker is in attendance at station i
Mi=1 means that one worker must be at the station continuously
Mi≥1 indicates manual operations
Mi<1 usually denotes some form of automation

CNC MACHINING CENTER WITH AUTOMATIC PALLET CHANGER -STORES ONE PART
Machining centers:
Various designs of parts storage unit interfaced to automatic pallet changer (or other automated
transfer mechanism) Turning centers:
Industrial robot interface with parts carousel
Plastic molding or extrusion:
Hopper contains sufficient molding compound for unattended operation Sheet
metal stamping:
Starting material is sheet metal coil
STORAGE CAPACITIES GREATER THAN ONE

Machining centre and automatic pallet changer with pallet holders arranged radially; parts storage
capacity = 5
STORAGE CAPACITIES GREATER THAN ONE
Machining centre and inline shuttle cart system with pallet holders along its length; parts storage
capacity = 16

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“Machine tool capable of performing multiple operations that use rotating tools on a work part in one
setup under NC control”
Typical operations: milling, drilling, and related operations Typical
features to reduce non-productive time:
Automatic tool changer
Automatic work part positioning
Automatic pallet changer
CNC TURNING CENTER

“Machine tool capable of performing multiple operations on a rotating work part in one setup under
NC control”
Typical operations:
Turning and related operations, e.g., contour turning
Drilling and related operations along work part axis of rotation

MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM

(1) loading and unloading work units
(2) positioning the work units at each station.
(3) transporting work units between stations
(4) Temporary storage function

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TYPES OF ROUTING IN MULTIPLE STATION MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

(a) Variable routing (b) Fixed routing

3. COMPUTER CONTROL SYSTEM
Communicate instructions to workers. In manually operated work stations that perform different tasks
on different work units, processing or assembly instructions for the specific work unit must be
communicated to the operator.
Download part programs to computer-controlled machines (e.g.- CNC machine tools).
Material handling system control. This function is concerned with controlling the material handling
system and coordinating its activities with those of the workstations.
Schedule production. Certain production scheduling functions are accomplished at the site of the
manufacturing system.
Failure diagnosis. This involves diagnosing equipment malfunctions, preparing preventive
maintenance schedules, and maintaining spare parts inventory.
Safety Monitoring. This function ensures that the system does not operate in an unsafe condition. The
goal of safety monitoring is to protect both the human workers manning the system and the equipment
comprising the system.
Quality Control. The purpose of this control function is to detect and possibly reject defective work
units produced by the system.
Operations management. Managing the overall operations of the manufacturing
CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
(1) Types of operations performed,
(2) Number of workstations and system layout,
(3) Level of automation, and
(4) Part or product variety
1. TYPES OF OPERATIONS PERFORMED
1.Processing operations on individual units
2.Assembly operations to combine the individual parts into assembled entities

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2.NUMBER OF WORK STATIONS AND SYSTEM LAYOUT
Type I Single station. This is the simplest case, consisting of one workstation (n=1), usually including
a production machine that can be manually operated, semi-automated, or fully automated.
Type II Multiple stations with variable routing. This manufacturing system consists of two or more
stations (n>1) that are designed and arranged to accommodate the processing or assembly of different
part or product styles.
Type III Multiple stations with fixed routing. This system has two or more work stations (n>1), which
are laid out as a production line.
. LEVEL OF AUTOMATION
Manning level of a workstation (Mi) is proportion of time that a worker is in attendance at the station.
If Mi=1 for station I, it means that one worker must be at the station continuously.
4. PART OR PRODUCT VARIETY
Examples of possible variations that a manufacturing system may have to cope with include:
variations in type and / or color of plastic of moulded parts in injection moulding
variations in electronic components placed on a standard size printed circuit board
variations in the size of printed circuit boards handled by a component place
variations in geometry of machined parts
variations in parts and options in an assembled production a final assembly line

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