1.

0 INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE SYSTEMS

1.1 Basic definitions
i. Data
These are raw facts about an entity that is not processed

ii. Information
Processed data that is used for decision making

iii. Database

A database is an organized collection of structured information, or data, typically stored

electronically in a computer system

iv. Database Management System (DBMS)

A database management system (DBMS) is a software package designed to define,

manipulate, retrieve and manage data in a database

1.2 Evolution of databases

i. 1960s

Computerized database started in the 1960s, when the use of computers became a more
cost-effective option for private organizations. There were two popular data models in
this decade: a network model called CODASYL and a hierarchical model called IMS.

ii. 1970s

Two major relational database system prototypes were created between the years 1974
and 1977, and they were the Ingres, which was developed at UBC, and System R,
created at IBM San Jose. Ingres used a query language known as QUEL, and it led to the
creation of systems such as Ingres Corp., MS SQL Server, Sybase, Wang’s PACE, and
Britton-Lee.
A new database model called Entity-Relationship, or ER, was proposed by P. Chen this
year. This model made it possible for designers to focus on data application, instead of
logical table structure.

iii. 1980s
Structured Query Language, or SQL, became the standard query language.

Relational database systems became a commercial success as the rapid increase in

computer sales boosted the database market, and this caused a major decline in the
popularity of network and hierarchical database models. DB2 became the flagship
database product for IBM, and the introduction of the IBM PC resulted in the
establishments of many new database companies and the development of products
such as PARADOX, RBASE 5000, RIM, Dbase III and IV, OS/2 Database Manager, and
Watcom SQL.

iv. Early 1990s

After a database industry shakeout, most of the surviving companies sold complex
database products at high prices. Around this time, new client tools for application
development were released, and these included the Oracle Developer, PowerBuilder,
VB, and others. A number of tools for personal productivity, such as ODBC and
Excel/Access, were also developed. Prototypes for Object Database Management
Systems, or ODBMS, were created in the early 1990s.

v. Mid 1990s

The advent of the Internet led to exponential growth of the database industry. Average
desktop users began to use client-server database systems to access computer systems
that contained legacy data.

vi. Late 1990s

Increased investment in online businesses resulted in a rise in demand for Internet

database connectors, such as Front Page, Active Server Pages, Java Servelets, Dream
Weaver, ColdFusion, Enterprise Java Beans, and Oracle Developer 2000. The use of cgi,
gcc, MySQL, Apache, and other systems brought open source solution to the Internet.
With the increased use of point-of-sale technology, online transaction processing and
online analytic processing began to come of age.

vii. 2000s
Although the Internet industry experienced a decline in the early 2000s, database
applications continue to grow. New interactive applications were developed for PDAs,
point-of-sale transactions, and consolidation of vendors. Presently, the three leading
database companies in the western world are Microsoft, IBM, and Oracle.

viii. Today

Today, databases are everywhere and are used to enhance our day-to-day life. From
personal cloud storage to predicting the weather, many of the services we utilize today
are possible due to databases. Presently, there are many new players in the non-
relational database space offering specific solutions. Some of the current relational
databases include giants such as Oracle, MySQL, and DB2. We're also seeing new
trends emerging that focus on making powerful technology accessible to everyone.

1.4 Advantages of Databases

1. Improved data sharing
creation of an environment in which end users have better access to more and better-
managed data. Such access makes it possible for end users to respond quickly to
changes in their environment.

2. Improved data security

A database provides a framework for better enforcement of data privacy and security
policies.

3. Better data integration

Wider access to well-managed data promotes an integrated view of the organization’s

operations and a clearer view of the big picture. It becomes much easier to see how
actions in one segment of the company affect other segments.
4. Minimized data inconsistency
Data inconsistency exists when different versions of the same data appear in different
places. For example, data inconsistency exists when a company’s sales department
stores a sales representative’s name as “Peter Munyoki” and the company’s personnel
department stores that same person’s name as “William Kenyatta”

5. Improved data access

A database makes it possible to produce quick answers to queries. From a database

perspective, a query is a specific request issued to the DBMS for data manipulation—for
example, to read or update the data. The DBMS sends back an answer (called the query
result set) to the application.

6. Improved decision making

Better-managed data and improved data access make it possible to generate better-
quality information, on which better decisions are based. The quality of the information
generated depends on the quality of the underlying data.

7. Increased end-user productivity

The availability of data, combined with the tools that transform data into usable
information, empowers end users to make quick, informed decisions that can make the
difference between success and failure in the global economy.

1.5 Disadvantages
1. Increased costs
Database systems require sophisticated hardware and software and highly skilled
personnel. The cost of maintaining the hardware, software, and personnel required to
operate and manage a database system can be substantial. Training, licensing, and
regulation compliance costs are often overlooked when database systems are
implemented.
2. Management complexity

Database systems interface with many different technologies and have a significant
impact on a company’s resources and culture. The changes introduced by the adoption
of a database system must be properly managed to ensure that they help advance the
company’s objectives.

3. Maintaining currency
To maximize the efficiency of the database system, you must keep your system current.
Therefore, you must perform frequent updates and apply the latest patches and security
measures to all components.

4. Frequent upgrade/replacement cycles

DBMS vendors frequently upgrade their products by adding new functionality. Such
new features often come bundled in new upgrade versions of the software. Some of
these versions require hardware upgrades. Not only do the upgrades themselves cost
money, but it also costs money to train database users and administrators to properly
use and manage the new features.