CHAPTER 5 (CONTINUATION)

THREE-VALUED LOGIC
Jan Lukasiewicz- was one of the first mathematicians to consider a three-valued logic in which a
statement is true, false, or “somewhere between true and false”. Lukasiewicz classified the truth value
of the statement as true (T), false (F), or maybe (M). The following table shows truth values for negation,
conjunction and disjunction.

Conjunction Disjunction
p q Negation (and) (or)
T T F T T
T M F M T
T F F F T
M T M M T
M M M M M
M F M F M
F T T F T
F M T F M
F F T F F

EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS

Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same value for all possible truth values of their
simple statements. Equivalent statements have identical truth values in the final columns of their truth
tables. The notation p≡q is used to indicate that the statements p and q are equivalent.

Example: Show that –(p ᵥ ~q) and ~p ᶺ q are equivalent statement.

p q ~ (p ᵥ ~q) p q ~p ᶺ q
T T F T T F T T F F T
T F F T T T T F F F F
F T T F F F F T T T T
F F F F T T F F F F F

Identical Truth Values

Thus, –(p ᵥ ~q) ≡ ~p ᶺ q.

DE MORGAN’S LAWS FOR STATEMENTS

De Morgan’s Laws
p q ~(pᵥq) ~pᶺq p q ~(pᶺq) ~p ᵥ q for Statements
T T F F T T F F
~(pᵥq) ≡~pᶺq
T F F F T F T T
F T F F F T T T ~(pᶺq) ≡~p ᵥ q
F F T T F F T T
TAUTOLOGIES AND SELF-CONTRADICTIONS

A Tautology is a statement that is always true. A self-contradiction is a statement that is always false.

Eample: Verify Tautologies and self-contradictions

Show that p ᵥ (~p ᵥ q) is a tautology

p q p ᵥ (~p ᵥ q)
T T T T F T T
T F T T F F F
F T F T T T T
F F F T T T F
1 5 2 4 3
Column 5 of the table shows that p ᵥ (~p ᵥ q) is always true. Thus the given is a tautology

SWITCHING NETWORKS

Application of symbolic logic to switching networks. In this topic, we make use of closure table to
determine under what condition a switching network is open or closed.

In a closure table, we use a 1 to designate that the switch is or switching network is close and a 0 to
indicate that it is open. Negation Closure Table
p ~p
p
1 0
~p 0 1

The figure shows switches P and Q connected to form a series network. The table below shows
that series network is closed if and only if both P and Q are closed.

Series Network Closure Table

p q pᶺq
1 1 1
P Q
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
 The figure shows switches P and Q connected to form a parallel network. The table below shows that
this parallel network is closed if and only if P is closed or if Q is closed.

Parallel Network Closure Table

P p q pᵥ q
1 1 1
Q 1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0

Consider the network shown above, to determine the required conditions under which the
network is closed, we first write a symbolic statement that represents the network, and then we
construct a closure table.

R R
Q
P ~P

A symbolic statement that represents the network

[(R ᵥ P) ᶺ Q ] ᶺ (R ᵥ ~P)

The closure table for this network is shown below.

P Q R [(R ᵥ P) ᶺ Q ᶺ (R ᵥ ~P)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 6 2 7 3 9 4 8 5
Rows 1 and 5 of the above table shows that the network is closed whenever

- P is closed, Q is closed, and R is closed, or

- P is open, is closed, and R is closed

Thus, the switching network in the figure above is closed provided Q is closed and R is
closed. The switching network is open under all conditions.