Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e12

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Quaternary International
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Cooking plant foods in the northern Aegean: Microbotanical evidence

from Neolithic Stavroupoli (Thessaloniki, Greece)

García-Granero a, b, *, Dushka Urem-Kotsou c, Amy Bogaard b, Stavros Kotsos d
Juan Jose
a
CaSEseComplexity and Socio-Ecological Dynamics Research Group, Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, IMF-CSIC, C/ Egipcíaques, 15, 08001,
Barcelona, Spain
b
School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, 36 Beaumont Street, Oxford, OX1 2PG, UK
c
Department of History and Ethnology, Democritus University of Thrace, 1 Panagi Tsaldari Street, 69100, Komotini, Greece
d
Ephorate of Antiquities of Thessaloniki City, Eptapyrgio, 54634, Thessaloniki, Greece

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Intensive archaeobotanical research in northern Greece and other circum-Mediterranean regions over
Received 11 July 2016 the last two decades has demonstrated an extensive spectrum of domestic and wild plants consumed by
Received in revised form Neolithic communities. However, macrobotanical remains are seldom associated with the artefact in
17 January 2017
which they were cooked, and therefore we know the list of ingredients but not what ingredients were
Accepted 3 April 2017
Available online xxx
cooked together or how were they cooked. By focusing on remains recovered from cooking vessels, this
paper explores the culinary practices of the inhabitants of the Neolithic settlement at Stavroupoli
(Thessaloniki, Greece) through combined starch grain and phytolith analyses from charred food crusts
Keywords:
Charred food crust
adhering to the inner walls of 17 late Middle and early Late Neolithic vessels (ca. 5600-5000 cal. BC). The
Starch grains results show that the food represented by burnt remains included domestic wheat(s) and lentils, as well
Phytoliths as weedy Setaria sp. and other wild plants. The presence of Setaria weeds suggests high soil fertility and
Cuisine disturbed growing conditions. These results further indicate that the inhabitants of different areas of the
Agricultural practices settlement had differential access to food resources (more vs. less valued food), which might be related
Neolithic Greece to a) different types of meals being prepared in separated areas of the site, or b) different preferences or
economic status of its inhabitants expressed through culinary practices. Further research at Stavroupoli
and other contemporary sites will help to unravel the role of food in shaping social identity and human-
environment interactions in the Neolithic northern Aegean.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction light on the exploitation of a variety of commodities consumed by

past societies including the archaeologically less visible ones like
The study of past culinary practices has traditionally relied on leafy vegetables (Evershed et al., 1991, 1994), aquatic plants (Dunne
the analysis of food-related artefacts. In particular, the morpho- et al., 2016), honey (Roffet-Salque et al., 2015) and dairy products
typological analysis of cooking pottery has often been the basis of (e.g., Craig et al., 2005; Evershed et al., 2008; Debono Spiteri et al.,
cuisine studies (e.g., Joyce and Henderson, 2007). The analysis of 2016), and has provided evidence for processing of fruits in ceramic
cooking wares offers broad information about cooking techniques vessels, such as date palm (Copley et al., 2001). However, the
(boiling, roasting, etc.), but does not inform on the ingredients used analysis of lipids absorbed in archaeological pottery appears to
or how they were combined. In the last few decades, the chemical favour animal ingredients when studying past culinary practices,
analysis of organic residues from ceramic vessels has shed new whereas the identification of cereals and pulses, which likely
formed the basis of the human diet from the Neolithic onwards, has
proved to be more elusive as their extremely rare identification
illustrate (Dunne et al., 2016; Heron et al., 2016 and references
* Corresponding author.CaSEseComplexity and Socio-Ecological Dynamics
Research Group, Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, IMF-CSIC, C/ therein).
Egipcíaques, 15, 08001, Barcelona, Spain. Thorough archaeobotanical research carried out in the last two
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.J. García-Granero), durem@he. decades has documented a wide spectrum of wild and domestic
auth.gr (D. Urem-Kotsou), [email protected] (A. Bogaard), skotsos@ plants consumed in Neolithic communities in northern Greece and
culture.gr (S. Kotsos).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.04.007
1040-6182/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: García-Granero, J.J., et al., Cooking plant foods in the northern Aegean: Microbotanical evidence from Neolithic
Stavroupoli (Thessaloniki, Greece), Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.04.007
2 J.J. García-Granero et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e12

other circum-Mediterranean regions (e.g., Antolín and Jacomet, Urem-Kotsou, 2006). Ongoing excavations revealed deposits
2015; Antolín et al., 2015; Asouti and Fuller, 2012; Colledge and dated to the Middle (Stavroupoli Ia) and early Late Neolithic
Conolly, 2007; Colledge et al., 2004; Livarda and Kotzamani, (Stavroupoli I), which covered the period between 5890 and
2013; Morales et al., 2013, 2016; Pen ~ a-Chocarro and Zapata, 2010; 5531 cal. BC according to radiocarbon dates (Maniatis, 2002). Pot-
Reed, 2015; Valamoti, 2004, 2015; Zohary et al., 2012). However, tery indicates, however, that the settlement was inhabited during
macrobotanical remains are seldom associated with the artefacts in the whole period of the early Late Neolithic (5400-5000 cal. BC).
which they were cooked, and therefore we know the list of in- The last habitation phase (Stavroupoli II) dates to the later phase of
gredients but not what ingredients were cooked together, how the Late Neolithic (5000-4500 cal. BC) or to the Final Neolithic
were they cooked, etc. (4500-3300 cal. BC), according to pottery typology (the chrono-
The application of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) offers logical framework for the Neolithic period in northern Greece fol-
the possibility to study ancient cereal cooking practices (Gonza
lez- lows Andreou et al., 2001). The total extent of the site reaches
Carretero et al., in press; Heiss et al., 2015; Samuel, 1996; Valamoti approximately 11.2 ha, but it appears it was never inhabited across
et al., 2008); however, the application of this technique is far from its total extent at the same time (Fig. 1) (Grammenos and Kotsos,
widespread in archaeobotanical research. Experimentation also 2002, 2004). The samples analysed in this study come from the
provides a way to develop new criteria for recognising culinary Stavroupoli I phase. In this phase the settlement was surrounded by
practices in the archaeological record, such as the preparation of a ditch and occupied an area of at least 8 ha. The houses had a
bulgur or the detoxification of pulses in Neolithic-Bronze Age rectangular plan and plastered floors, and ovens and hearths were
northern Greece (Valamoti, 2002; Valamoti et al., 2011). Further located both inside and outside the houses (Kotsos, 2014), implying
culinary information can be obtained from extraordinarily pre- cooking in private and in public.
served contexts, such as bog bodies (e.g., Behre, 2008) or from The analysis of macrobotanical remains shows that einkorn
particular contexts such as the example of the Neolithic settlement (Triticum monococcum L.) and emmer (Triticum turgidum ssp.
of Çatalho €yük, where a concentration of charred clean peas and dicoccon (Schrank) Thell.) were the main crops at Neolithic Stav-
barley grains was found fussed with small fish bones, probably roupoli, together with barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and lentils (Lens
representing food under preparation (Bogaard et al., 2013, sp.) (Margaritis, 2002, 2004)dany of these crops could have been
Fig. 7.28). When available, textual sources offer another proxy for produced for human consumption and/or as animal fodder. Other
the interpretation of the archaeobotanical record (e.g., Isaakidou, cereals and pulses, as well as wild fruits, were present in very low
2007), but this approach presents obvious chronological quantities, and therefore it is not possible to assess their role in the
limitations. settlement's economy.
In the last few decades, the analysis of charred food crusts The study of faunal remains from Stavoupoli shows that all four
preserved on the inner walls of cooking vessels has emerged as an domesticates are presentdwith a prevalence of ruminantsdand
alternative approach for the study of past culinary practices. By overwhelmingly dominant in comparison to wild fauna. The evi-
focusing on remains recovered from the actual cooking utensil, this dence for their exploitation points to a meat-oriented strategy.
approach allows a more secure identification of food preparation Mortality patterns for cattle and goat indicate a complementary
and consumption activities. Moreover, whereas other approaches management strategy pointing to exploitation for milk and dairy
such as the analysis of lipids absorbed by cooking pots represent an products (Yannouli, 2002; 2004), which is confirmed by chemical
accumulation of cooking events, charred food crusts likely repre- analysis of organic residues in cooking pottery (Urem-Kotsou, 2011;
sent the residue of individual meals. Plant residues on food crusts Debono Spiteri et al., 2016). This is further corroborated by stable
have been analysed by means of stable isotopes (see e.g. the pio- isotope analysis of the bones of two late Neolithic individuals,
neering work of Hastorf and DeNiro, 1985; Heron et al., 2016) or showing greater input of animal protein in their diet in comparison
microbotanical remains (Boyd et al., 2006, 2008; Peto € et al., 2013; to the inhabitants of other contemporary Neolithic settlements in
Saul et al., 2012, 2013; X. Yang and Jiang, 2010; X. Yang et al., northern Greece (Triantaphyllou, 2015)dthe latter also shows the
2012a, 2014; Zarrillo et al., 2008). Microbotanical remains offer a consumption of C3 plants. Morphological and use-alteration char-
unique opportunity to explore the role of plants in prehistoric acteristics of cooking pots indicate that boiling and stewing were
cuisine, since they can inform on the use of particular ingredients, the most frequent cooking techniques used in the preparation of
including spices (Saul et al., 2013), as well as on the specific cooking dishes in ceramic containers, though baking must have also been
techniques applied in their preparation. Experimentation shows used in the later phases (Lymperaki et al., 2016; Urem-Kotsou, in
that different types of processing/cooking (grinding, boiling, press).
roasting, etc.) produce different, identifiable damage to starch Thus, analyses of dietary and cooking practices carried out so far
grains (Henry et al., 2009; Valamoti et al., 2008); however, in order at Stavroupoli provide evidence of the consumption of animal
to be widely applicable in archaeological samples, this approach products (i.e., meat and dairy) and C3 plants. More detailed evi-
requires further experimentation, also considering the potential dence for plant consumption is, however, lacking. Organic residue
equifinality affecting starch preservation and damage patterns. analysis did not provide evidence for plant ingredients cooked in
This paper explores culinary practices at Neolithic Stavroupoli ceramic vessels, but the analysis of food residues focused on lipids
(Thessaloniki, Greece) through the analysis of microbotanical re- and thus could have been biased towards the animal side of the
mains (starch grains and phytoliths) from charred food crusts diet. The analysis of microbotanical remains from cooking vessels
recovered from late Middle and early Late Neolithic (ca. 5600- can therefore bring plants into the picture of the culinary habits of
5000 cal. BC) pottery. It also relates culinary practices to wider is- the inhabitants of Stavroupoli.
sues of environmental management and land use strategies based
on evidence for agricultural practices recovered from food remains. 2. Materials and methods

1.1. Stavroupoli: a flat-extended Neolithic site in modern Charred food crusts were collected from the inner walls of 17
Thessaloniki sherds dating roughly to the late Middle Neolithic and the early
Late Neolithic (Table 1; Fig. 2). The samples analysed in this study
Stavroupoli is a multi-phase flat-extended site located on a come from two different areas of the settlement, 50 m distant from
natural low hill in the modern town of Thessaloniki (Kotsos and one another: deposits located at Gorgopotamou Street, excavated in

Please cite this article in press as: García-Granero, J.J., et al., Cooking plant foods in the northern Aegean: Microbotanical evidence from Neolithic
Stavroupoli (Thessaloniki, Greece), Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.04.007
 J.J. García-Granero et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e12 3

Fig. 1. Urban plan of Stavroupoli, with the two streets (Gorgopotamou and Koromila) from which the samples discussed in the paper derived.

2009 (six samples), and deposits located at Koromila Street, exca-

vated in 2005e2006 (11 samples). In each area, remains of at least
Table 1 two houses were found.
Potsherds from Stavroupoli analysed in this study.
All laboratory procedures were carried out in a controlled
Context and Description Food crust weight environment at the BioGeoPal Laboratory (IMF-CSIC, Barcelona,
sample ID (g) Spain). The food crusts were carefully scraped from each potsherd
Gorgopotamou: with a stainless steel gouge, which was thoroughly washed be-
ST116 Base sherd of open-shaped vessel 0.0277 tween samples to avoid cross-contamination, and weighed into
ST123 Base and body sherd of open-shaped 0.0488 50 ml centrifuge plastic tubes. Samples were mildly oxidised with
vessel
10% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) for 15e120 min (samples with more
ST128 Base sherd of open-shaped vessel 0.0340
ST129 Base sherd of open-shaped vessel 0.0091 charred matter were left oxidising for a longer period) to release
ST131 Base and body sherd of open-shaped 0.2301 microbotanical remains and mounted on Entellan® for microscopic
vessel observation. This approach, which minimises microremain loss and
ST134 Body sherd of the vessel of unknown 0.0250
time investment, was successfully applied at the late Meso-
shape
Koromila: lithiceearly Neolithic site of Neustadt, northern Germany (Saul
ST156 Base and body sherd of vessel of 0.0019 et al., 2012). However, when samples from Stavroupoli were
unknown shape observed under the microscope at
630 magnifications, the high
ST176 Base and body sherd of vessel of 0.0257 amount of charred detritus made it impossible to see the micro-
unknown shape
botanical remains clearly. Therefore, we decided to add a solution
ST192 Base and body sherd of open-shaped 0.0126
vessel of sodium polytungstate with a specific gravity of 1.3 g/cm3 (SPT
ST193 Base and body sherd of vessel of 0.0120 1.3) to remove particles lighter than phytoliths and starch (Therin
unknown shape and Lentfer, 2006). Since this approach also proved unsuccessful
ST195 Body sherd of open-shaped vessel 0.0255
and did not remove the charred detritus, we proceeded to isolate
ST235 Base and body sherd of vessel of 0.0100
unknown shape
starch by adding SPT 1.8 and, once the starch residue had been
ST241 Body sherd of vessel of unknown shape 0.5615 removed, further oxidase the samples with 30% H2O2 to remove any
ST269 Base and body sherd of open-shaped >0.0001 remaining organic matter that might have hampered the observa-
vessel tion of phytoliths. For samples ST131, ST241 and ST296, for which
ST278 Base and body sherd of vessel of 0.0075
more charred food crust was available, SPT 2.35 was also added to
unknown shape
ST296 Base and body sherd of open-shaped 0.1755 isolate phytoliths (a detailed description of the protocol used in this
vessel study and a set of recommendations for future microremains
ST297 Base and body sherd of vessel of 0.0102 extraction from food crust samples based on this study can be
unknown shape
found in ESM 1 Methods). Prior to starch isolation with SPT 1.8, as

Please cite this article in press as: García-Granero, J.J., et al., Cooking plant foods in the northern Aegean: Microbotanical evidence from Neolithic
Stavroupoli (Thessaloniki, Greece), Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.04.007
4 J.J. García-Granero et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e12

Fig. 2. Charred food crust adhering to the wall of potsherd ST192 from Stavroupoli.

well as during starch sample preparation and analysis, no gloves 2015), the most diagnostic parameter for elongated dendritic
were worn to avoid contamination from modern starch (Crowther phytoliths within these taxa. The morphometric analysis included
et al., 2014). only complete dendritic long cells from silica skeletons with 5
Samples were observed under a Leica DM2500 microscope with long cells, since this is the minimum sample size for the analysis to
a Leica DFC490 camera attached for microphotography be statistically significant (Ball et al., 1999).
(resolution ¼ 0.078 mm). Besides the starch and phytolith samples,
the light residue resulting from the application of SPT 1.3 was also 3. Results
scanned under the microscope to check for the accidental loss of
microbotanical remains during this step of the extraction proced- Starch grains were present in both the light and the starch
ure. Thus, several slides were analysed per sample: the sub-sample residue (the results of each analysis can be found in ESM 2); in
resulting from the application of SPT 1.3 (light residue), the sub- Table 2, the starch counts have been combined for simplification.
sample resulting from the application of SPT 1.8 (starch residue) Six morphotypes were identified (Fig. 3):
and the sub-sample resulting from the application of SPT 2.35
(phytolith residue). For samples ST131, ST241 and ST296 the res- a) 34 medium/large discoidal grains (range: 17.128e31.567 mm,
idue left after the application of SPT 2.35 (heavy residue) was also average: 22.821 mm, SD: 4.971 mm; nine grains measured)
analysed. The first two samples were mounted on 50% glycerine characteristic of the Triticeae tribe (Pooideae, Poaceae) (Tri-
and fully scanned at
200 magnifications, whereas the phytolith ticeae Type A in X. Yang and Perry, 2013);
and the heavy residues were mounted in Entellan® and scanned b) >93 small spherical grains (ca. 5e10 mm, measurement was
at
630 magnifications until 250 identifiable single-cell phytoliths not possible because most grains were found in starch ag-
were observed or until 10% of the slide had been scanned. gregations), also characteristic of the Triticeae tribe (Triticeae
Where possible, starch grains were individually measured Type B in X. Yang and Perry, 2013);
(maximum length through the hilum) with the software Leica c) >30 small polyhedral grains (ca. 5e10 mm, measurement was
Application Suite V4.6.0; heavily damaged grains and those found not possible because all grains were found in a single starch
in starch aggregations were not measured. Dendritic long cells from aggregation), characteristic of small millets (Panicoideae,
Hordeum/Triticum silica skeletons were also morphometrically Poaceae) (e.g., Madella et al., 2016; X. Yang et al., 2012b);
analysed, as these can be diagnostic to genus or even species level d) 13 medium/large polyhedral grains (range:
(Ball et al., 1999). Measurements were carried out with the software 12.412e22.762 mm, average: 16.886, SD: 2.959; 12 grains
ImageJ, focusing on the parameter width (as defined in Ball et al., measured), characteristic of certain ‘big-grain’ taxa within

Please cite this article in press as: García-Granero, J.J., et al., Cooking plant foods in the northern Aegean: Microbotanical evidence from Neolithic
Stavroupoli (Thessaloniki, Greece), Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.04.007
 J.J. García-Granero et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e12 5

Table 2
Results of the starch grain analysis from Stavroupoli.

Taxa Gorgopotamou Koromila

ST116 ST123 ST128 ST129 ST131 ST134 ST156 ST176 ST192 ST193 ST195 ST235 ST241 ST269 ST278 ST296 ST297

Triticeae Type A 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 28 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
Triticeae Type B 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 >92 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Faboideae 0 0 0 2 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0
Panicoideae small 0 0 0 >30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Panicoideae big 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 0
Geophytes 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total starch grains 2 2 1 >33 4 2 2 2 >120 1 0 1 3 1 3 3 0

the Panicoideae subfamily (e.g., Madella et al., 2016; X. Yang 4. Discussion

et al., 2012b)da detailed description of possible ascriptions
of this starch grain type can be found on ESM 1 Discussion; 4.1. The culinary value of weeds
e) eight medium/large ovoid grains (range: 11.052e44.124 mm,
average: 26.593 mm, SD: 10.664 mm; six grains measured), The presence of small Panicoideae starch grains in the charred
characteristic of the Faboideae subfamily (Fabaceae) (e.g., food crust of sample ST129 suggests that the inhabitants of Stav-
Henry et al., 2009); and roupoli consumed small millets. Domestic broomcorn millet
f) two large ovoid grains with a highly eccentric hilum (Panicum miliaceum L.) was not introduced in northern Greece and
(measuring 31.709 mm and 35.241 mm), characteristic of un- neighbouring areas until the end of the third millennium BC
derground storage organs (geophytes). (Motuzaite-Matuzeviciute et al., 2013; Valamoti, 2016) and, there-
fore, it seems unlikely that the microbotanical evidence found at
Starch grains were very scarce or absent in most samples, but Stavroupoli belongs to this species.
samples ST129 (Gorgopotamou St) and ST192 (Koromila St) pre- Several wild panicoid grasses occur naturally in northern Greece
sented a high concentration of small Panicoideae and Triticeae (EuroþMed, 2006-). However, despite extensive sampling strate-
grains, respectively (Table 2). Faboideae and big Panicoideae starch gies, macrobotanical evidence of wild Panicoideae grains has
grains were present in both sets of samples, while geophytes were seldom been recorded in prehistoric contexts from northern Greece
only observed in samples from Gorgopotamou St. (Valamoti, 2004). When compared to larger-grained cereals such as
Phytoliths were present in both the phytolith and the heavy wheat or barley, small millet grains are less likely to be preserved
residue (the results of each analysis can be found in ESM 2); as with by charring due to more restrictive charring conditions (García-
the starch grains, phytolith counts have been combined in Tables 3 Granero et al., 2016; Ma €rkle and Ro €sch, 2008; Motuzaite-
and 4 for simplification. Overall, phytoliths were very scarce in all Matuzeviciute et al., 2012; Walsh, 2016; Q. Yang et al., 2011), and
samplesdthe threshold of 250 identified single cells was only thus their scarcity in the archaeobotanical record of prehistoric
reached in sample ST241 (Table 3). A total of 12 silica skeletons northern Greece might partially respond to taphonomical factors. It
were encountered: nine in samples from Gorgopotamou St and is therefore plausible that, despite the lack or scarcity of macro-
three in samples from Koromila St, all from grasses (Poaceae) botanical evidence, small millets were part of the plant economy at
(Table 4, Figs. 4 and 5). The results of the morphometric analysis of Stavroupoli and other contemporaneous sites. Indeed, a few grains
one silica skeleton from sample ST123 (Gorgopotamou St) (Fig. 5c) belonging to either green foxtail (Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv.) or
with five complete dendritic long cells (range: 13.849e19.776 mm, bristly foxtail (S. verticillata (L.) P. Beauv.) were recovered from
average: 16.155 mm, SD: 2.236 mm) are comparable to those of several Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements in northern Greece,
modern einkorn (range: 9.0e25.7 mm, average 16.4 mm, SD: 3.1 mm; including early Late Neolithic Makriyalos (Valamoti, 2004: Ap-
see Ball et al., 1999: Table 5). Other silica skeletons could not be pendix Table 3), a flat-extended site roughly contemporaneous
morphometrically analysed due to the small amount of dendritic with early Late Neolithic Stavroupoli I with whom it shares simi-
long cells preserved but presented features comparable to Triticum larity in pottery (especially coking pots typology) and general
spp. (e.g., Fig. 5d). ecological settings (Kotsos and Urem-Kotsou, 2006; Urem-Kotsou,
All observed morphotypes represent either grasses or phytoliths 2011; Urem-Kotsou and Kotsakis, 2007). Therefore, based on their
that occur in several taxa (including grasses) and therefore cannot morphological features and the macrobotanical evidence from
be securely taxonomically ascribed (“other phytoliths” in Table 3 prehistoric northern Greece, it can be suggested that the small
and Fig. 6). Grass long cells from both leaves/culms and in- Panicoideae starch grains from sample ST129 from Stavroupoli
florescences were observed in samples from Gorgopotamou St and belong to a wild Setaria species.
Koromila St, but inflorescence long cells (including el. crenate, Wild/weedy Setaria species are extremely small (less than 1 mm
columellate, echinate and dendritic phytoliths) were much more in length), so the chances of them being incorporated into a meal
abundant in the former. Crenate and columellate long cells are accidentally are very low, especially considering the size of the
found in several taxa of the Panicoideae subfamily (García-Granero crops being cultivated at Stavroupoli (emmer and einkorn, and
et al., 2015; Ge et al., 2016; Kealhofer et al., 2015; Lu et al., 2009; possibly barley and lentils). Small weeds are removed during the
Madella et al., 2016; Weisskopf and Lee, 2016; Zhang et al., 2011), early stages of crop processing; only weeds similar in size to the
as well as on certain weeds of the Pooideae subfamily (e.g., Hart, cultivated crop/s might accidentally remain in the final product
2011: Fig. 3f and h). In accordance with the starch data, samples (Jones, 1987). Moreover, microbotanical remains from other po-
from Koromila St presented a higher abundance of short cells from tential weeds (e.g. sedges, which produce diagnostic phytoliths and
Pooideae grasses (a subfamily including the Triticeae tribe), espe- starch grains) are absent from the food crust samples. Therefore,
cially trapeziform sinuate and trap. polylobate phytoliths. the presence of Setaria microremains in the charred food crusts
may be the result of a conscious culinary choice of the inhabitants

Please cite this article in press as: García-Granero, J.J., et al., Cooking plant foods in the northern Aegean: Microbotanical evidence from Neolithic
Stavroupoli (Thessaloniki, Greece), Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.04.007
6 J.J. García-Granero et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e12

Fig. 3. Modern and archaeological starch grains encountered in samples from Stavroupoli: a) aggregation of modern Triticum monococcum (einkorn) starch grains; b) aggregation of
>71 Triticeae Type A and B starch grains from sample ST192; c) aggregation of modern Setaria viridis (green foxtail) starch grains; d) aggregation of modern Setaria verticillata
(bristly foxtail) starch grains; e) aggregation of >30 small Panicoideae starch grains from sample ST129 with evidence of having been boiled; f) big Panicoideae starch grain from
sample ST123 entrapped in charred detritus; g) modern Lens culinaris (lentil) starch grain; h) Faboideae starch grain from sample ST156; i) Faboideae starch grain from sample
ST129 with evidence of having been boiled; and j) geophyte starch grain from sample ST123. Scale bars 20 mm. All images were taken under bright field and cross-polarised light.
The identification of cooking evidence is based on Henry et al., 2009.

of early Late Neolithic Stavroupoli. prevalent in archaeological narrative (see Valamoti, 2015 for a
Both green foxtail and bristly foxtail were (and, in some cases, discussion in this matter). Weeds and wild greens are still common
still are) commonly consumed by human populations worldwide food sources in Greece and other circum-Mediterranean areas (e.g.,
before domestic millets were introduced, both as a foodstuff (in Hadjichambis et al., 2008; Leonti et al., 2006; Łuczaj et al., 2012),
porridge, boiled, roasted or ground into flour) and to brew beer, as and the results discussed here suggest that this was also the case in
attested by ethnographic records (Austin, 2006 and references Neolithic northern Greece. An archaeological example of the culi-
therein). The fact that weeds (and wild geophytes) were consumed nary value of potential weeds is found at Neolithic Çatalho €yük,
at Stavroupoli challenges the traditional wild-domestic dichotomy where wild mustard (Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl) seeds

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Stavroupoli (Thessaloniki, Greece), Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.04.007
 J.J. García-Granero et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e12 7

Table 3
Results of the phytolith analysis from Stavroupoli, considering both single cells and silica skeletons.

Taxa Gorgopotamou Koromila

ST116 ST123 ST128 ST129 ST131 ST134 ST156 ST176 ST192 ST193 ST195 ST235 ST241 ST269 ST278 ST296 ST297

Poaceae
Elongate psilate 3 1 0 8 20 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 73 0 0 3 0
Elongate sinuate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
Elongate crenate 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Elongate columellate 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Elongate echinate 1 11 1 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 1 0 0
Elongate dendritic 0 6 0 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 10
Elongate irregular 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Saddle 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0
Bilobate 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
Rondel 0 3 0 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 0 0 0 0
Trapeziform 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 9 0 0 3 0
Trapeziform ovate 1 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 0 0 1 1
Trapeziform elongate 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0
Trapeziform sinuate 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 46 0 0 1 0
Trapeziform polylobate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0
Short cell indetermined 0 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cork cell 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Bulliform cuneiform 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 3 0 0
Other phytoliths
Parallelepipedal 0 0 1 2 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0
Trichome 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 0 0 0 0
Trichome base 0 1 0 3 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 1
Papillae 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Elongate indetermined 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total phytoliths id 5 30 6 26 52 16 0 1 1 0 0 1 260 0 4 8 13

Table 4
Taxonomical and anatomical adscription of the grass silica skeletons from Stavroupoli.

Taxa Gorgopotamou Koromila

ST116 ST123 ST128 ST129 ST131 ST134 ST156 ST176 ST192 ST193 ST195 ST235 ST241 ST269 ST278 ST296 ST297

Triticum sp. inflorescence 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Poaceae (weed) inflorescence 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Poaceae leaf/culm 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
Total silica skeletons 0 2 0 3 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

Fig. 4. Taxonomical and anatomical identification of the grass silica skeletons encountered in samples from Gorgopotamou St and Koromila St, expressed as total counts.

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8 J.J. García-Granero et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e12

Fig. 5. Modern and archaeological silica skeletons encountered in samples from Stavroupoli: aeb) modern Triticum monococcum lemma; c) Triticum monococcum-type (einkorn)
husk silica skeleton from sample ST123, note the dark coloration probably due to cooking (Parr, 2006); d) Triticum sp. husk silica skeleton from sample ST123; e) grass silica skeleton
with crenate long cells from sample ST134, probably from a weed husk; and f) bulliform silica skeleton from a grass leaf from sample ST278. Scale bars 50 mm. (For interpretation of
the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

were systematically stored within houses, presumably for human assemblage recorded at the settlement, the starch grains probably
consumption (Bogaard et al., 2009; Gonza
lez-Carretero et al., in belong to either einkorn or emmer (or both). This is supported by
press). the presence of husk phytoliths probably belonging to einkorn, as
attested by the morphometric analysis.
4.2. Cultivating the Neolithic landscape The presence of Faboideae starch further suggests the con-
sumption of pulses. Starch grains from different taxa among the
Domestic crops were also part of the diet of the inhabitants of Faboideae subfamily cannot be distinguished based on morpho-
Stavroupoli. The Type A Triticeae starch grains recovered from the logical traits, but the macrobotanical assemblage encountered at
charred food crust are relatively large (most measured grains the site suggests that the starch grains might belong to lentils, thus
measure >20 mm). Morphometric analyses carried out on modern confirming their exploitation for human consumption.
reference material show that assemblages of Triticeae starch grains Green foxtail and bristly foxtail belong to the Chenopodietea
with a majority of grains >20 mm belong to Aegilops sp., Agropyron phytosociological class (garden/root- or row-crop weeds, see
sp., Secale sp. or Triticum sp. (X. Yang and Perry, 2013). In order to Ellenberg et al., 1991). The presence of weeds from the Chenopo-
obtain a more precise taxonomic identification it is necessary to dietea class suggests high soil fertility and disturbed growing
take into account other grain features, such as the presence of conditions (Jones et al., 1999). The occurrence of wheat and lentils
lamellae and craters. This approach could not be applied at Stav- together with Setaria weeds thus supports the hypothesis that in
roupoli due to the damage to several starch grains and the presence Neolithic south-eastern Europe cereals and pulses were cultivated
of starch aggregates, where the features of individual grains are in intensively managed plots (Bogaard and Halstead, 2015).
difficult to discern. However, considering the macrobotanical

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Stavroupoli (Thessaloniki, Greece), Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.04.007
 J.J. García-Granero et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e12 9

Fig. 6. Counts of phytolith morphotypes encountered in samples from Gorgopotamou St and Koromila St, considering both single cells and silica skeletons. Data are expressed as
percentages to eliminate the bias created by different phytolith counts in each sample.

4.3. Different neighbourhoods, different tastes? preparation (intensive vs. non-intensive processing) at both areas
of the site is markedly different. A similar pattern of differential
The starch assemblage is strongly biased by samples ST129 access to food resources in different households emerged from the
(Gorgopotamou St) and ST192 (Koromila St), which might be analysis of dairy consumption, as evidenced by lipid analyses
creating a ‘false pattern’ in the data. The predominance of Pan- (Urem-Kotsou, 2011). These patterns might be related to the
icoideae starch grains (potentially from Setaria sp.) in the former preparation of different types of meals in separated areas of the
and Triticeae starch grains (potentially from Triticum sp.) in the settlementdi.e., daily vs. special commensal occasion (Halstead,
latter could be the result of a series of factors, including but not 2015)d or to different preferences of its inhabitants related to
limited to differential preservation of microbotanical remains or their economic status or to other aspects of their identity,
biases in the sample strategy due to the reduced number of samples expressed through culinary practices (see e.g. Appadurai, 1981;
available for this study. However, the phytolith data seem to rein- Goody, 1982; Gumerman, 1997; Le
vi-Strauss, 1964; Messer, 1984;
force the pattern observed in the starch assemblage. Phytoliths Mintz and Du Bois, 2002). At present, we lack enough evidence to
produced in Pooideae grasses (a grass subfamily including the favour one hypothesis over the others. Future research at Stav-
Triticeae tribe, and thus Triticum spp.) are much more abundant in roupoli will specifically target this issue through integrated
samples from Koromila St. Moreover, samples from Gorgopotamou microbotanical and lipid analyses from cooking vessels from
St present a greater presence of inflorescence phytoliths, both from different areas of the site.
domestic crops and weeds. This might be related to the use of
different processing methods at each area of the site. Einkorn and 5. Conclusions
emmer are hulled cereals, as are Setaria spp. and other weeds.
Hulled cereals require intensive processing such as milling or This study is an example of how microbotanical remains can
pounding to release the grains. The scarcity of inflorescence phy- inform on past socio-ecological dynamics, from agricultural prac-
toliths (from the cereals hulls) in samples from Koromila St sug- tices to culinary choices, and how the study of culinary practices
gests cereals were thoroughly cleaned before being cooked. On the relates to wider issues of environmental management and land use
other hand, cereals consumed at Gorgopotamou St had undergone strategies. The analysis of starch grains and phytoliths from charred
a less intensive processing before final cooking. food crust on ceramics added valuable information to previous
Both the starch and phytolith data suggest that the people studies on diet and foodways in Neolithic Stavroupoli. In particular,
inhabiting the area now occupied by Koromila St favoured the the remains preserved in cooking pottery confirm the culinary
consumption of domestic wheat, whereas the inhabitants of the value of plants, including wheat, lentils and, more interestingly,
areas now occupied by Gorgopotamou St chose to (or were forced weedy Setaria sp.
to) also consume weeds and wild plants (as attested by the pres- This approach brings plants into the picture on the basis of full-
ence of geophyte starch grains). The patterns observed in the spectrum food residue analyses from archaeological pottery.
combined starch and phytolith data suggest that the inhabitants of However, food crust can form as a result of cooking different
Koromila St had access to potentially more valued food (i.e., thor- foodstuffs, not exclusively plants. Some samples from Stavroupoli
oughly cleaned crops) than the inhabitants of Gorgopotamou St, yielded virtually no plant remains, and it is plausible that different
who consumed a mixture of incompletely processed crops, weeds ingredients (potentially including meat and dairy products, but also
and wild plants (Curet and Pestle, 2010; Halstead, 2015). The non-starchy plants) were used in the preparation of meals. There-
amount of labour invested in food acquisition (cultivation of do- fore, the use of integrative methods, considering multiple proxies,
mestic crops vs. gathering of weeds and wild plants) and is essential to gain a holistic understanding of ancient cooking

Please cite this article in press as: García-Granero, J.J., et al., Cooking plant foods in the northern Aegean: Microbotanical evidence from Neolithic
Stavroupoli (Thessaloniki, Greece), Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.04.007
10 J.J. García-Granero et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e12

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for help in selecting the pottery and Evgenia Tsafou (Aristotle Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 113, 13594e13599.
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mediterranean Plant Diversity. Published on the Internet. http://ww2.bgbm.
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Please cite this article in press as: García-Granero, J.J., et al., Cooking plant foods in the northern Aegean: Microbotanical evidence from Neolithic
Stavroupoli (Thessaloniki, Greece), Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.04.007
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Please cite this article in press as: García-Granero, J.J., et al., Cooking plant foods in the northern Aegean: Microbotanical evidence from Neolithic
Stavroupoli (Thessaloniki, Greece), Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.04.007