GTM 71 Riemann Surfaces (Hershel M. Farkas, Irwin Kra (Auth.) )

H. M. Farkas I.
Kra
Riemann Surfaces
27 Figures
With 27
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Springer-Verlag
New York Heidelberg Berlin
Hershel M. Farkas Irwin Kra
Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem S.U.M.Y. at Stony Brook
Jerusalem Stony Brook, NY 11794
Israel USA
Editorial Board
P. R. Halmos F. W. Gehring
Managing Editor University of Michigan
Indiana University Department of Mathematics
Department of Mathematics Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104
Bloomington, Indiana 47401 USA
USA
C. C. Moore
University of California
Department of Mathematics
Berkeley, California 94720
USA
AMS Classification (1980): 30Fxx, 14H15, 20H10
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Farkas, Hershel M
Riemann surfaces.
(Graduate texts in mathematics; v. 71)

Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Riemann surfaces. I. Kra, Irwin, joint author.
II. Title. III. Series.
QA333.F37 515'.223 79-24385
All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any
form without written permission from Springer-Verlag.
C 1980 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
Printed in the United States of America.
987654321
ISBN 0-387-90465-4 Springer-Verlag New York Heidelberg Berlin
ISBN 3-540-90465-4 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York
To
Eleanor
Sara
Preface
The present volume is the culmination of ten years' work separately and joint-
ly. The idea of writinfthis book began with a set of notes for a course given
by one of the authors in 1970-1971 at the Hebrew University. The notes
were refined serveral times and used as the basic content of courses given sub-
sequently by each of the authors at the State University of New York at
Stony Brook and the Hebrew University.
In this book we present the theory of Riemann surfaces and its many dif-
ferent facets. We begin from the most elementary aspects and try to bring the
reader up to the frontier of present-day research. We treat both open and
closed surfaces in this book, but our main emphasis is on the compact case.
In fact, Chapters III, V, VI, and VII deal exclusively with compact surfaces.
Chapters land II are preparatory, and Chapter IV deals with uniformization.
All works on Riemann surfaces go back to the fundamental results of Rie-
mann, Jacobi, Abel, Weierstrass, etc. Our book is no exception. In addition
to our debt to these mathematicians of a previous era, the present work has
been influenced by many contemporary mathematicians.
At the outset we record our indebtedness to our teachers Lipman Bers and
Harry Ernest Rauch, who taught us a great deal of what we know about this
subject, and who along with Lars V. Ahlfors are responsible for the modem
rebirth of the theory of Riemann surfaces. Second, we record our gratitude
to our colleagues whose theorems we have freely written down without attri-
bution. In particular, some of the material in Chapter III is the work of
Henrik H. Martens, and some of the material in Chapters V and VI ultimately
goes back to Robert D. M. Accola and Joseph Lewittes.
We thank several colleagues who have read and criticized earlier versions
of the manuscript and made many helpful suggestions: Bernard Maskit,
Henry Laufer, Uri Srebro, Albert Marden, and Frederick P. Gardiner. The
errors in the final version are, however, due only to the authors. We also
thank the secretaries who typed the various versions: Carole Alberghine and
Estella Shivers.
August, 1979 H. M. FARKAS 1. KRA

Contents
Commonly Used Symbols xi

r-
CHAPTER 0
An Overview
0.1 Topological Aspects, Uniformization, and Fuchsian Groups 2
0.2 Algebraic Functions 4
0.3. Abelian Varieties 6
0.4. More Analytic Aspects 7
CHAPTER I
Riemann Surfaces 9
1.1. Definitions and Examples 9
1.2. Topology of Riemann Surfaces 13
1.3. Differential Forms 19
1.4. Integration Formulae 26
CHAPTER II
Existence Theorems 30
ILL Hilbert Space Theory—A Quick Review 30
11.2. Weyl's Lemma 31
11.3. The Hilbert Space of Square Integrable Forms 37
11.4. Harmonic Differentials 43
11.5. Meromorphic Functions and Differentials 48
CHAPTER III
Compact Riemann Surfaces 52
111.1. Intersection Theory on Compact Surfaces 52
111.2. Harmonic and Analytic Differentials on Compact Surfaces 54
111.3. Bilinear Relations 62
111.4. Divisors and the Riemann–Roch Theorem 67
111.5. Applications of the Riemann–Roch Theorem 76
111.6. Abel's Theorem and the Jacobi Inversion Problem 86
111.7 , Hyperelliptic Riemann Surfaces 93
111.8. Special Divisors on Compact Surfaces 103
111.9. Multivalued Functions 119
Contents
111.10. Projective Imbeddings 129

111.11. More on the Jacobian Variety 132
CHAPTER IV
Uniformization 151
IV.!. More on Harmonic Functions (A Quick Review) 151
IV.2. Subharmonic Functions and Perron's Method 156
N.3. A Classification of Riemann Surfaces 163
I 1.4. The Uniformization Theorem for Simply Connected Surfaces 179
PLS. Uniformization of Arbitrary Riemann Surfaces 188
IV.6. The Exceptional Riemann Surfaces 192
IV.7. Two Problems on Moduli 196
PJ.8. Riemannian Metrics 198
I 1.9. Discontinuous Groups and Branched Coverings 205
IV. 10. Riemann–Roch—An Alternate Approach 222
N.11. Algebraic Function Fields in One Variable 226
CHAPTER V
Automorphisms of Compact Surfaces — Elementary Theory 241
VI. Hurwitz's Theorem 241
V.2. Representations of the Automorphism Group on Spaces of
Differentials 252
V.3. Representations of Aut Mon 111 (M) 269
V.4. The Exceptional Riemann Surfaces 276
CHAPTER VI
Theta Functions 280
VI. 1. The Riemann Theta Function 280
VI.2. The Theta Functions Associated with a Riemann Surface 286
VI.3. The Theta Divisor 291
CHAPTER VII
Examples 301
VII. 1. Hyperelliptic Surfaces (Once Again) 301
VII.2. Relations among Quadratic Differentials 311
VII.3. Examples of Non-hyperelliptic Surfaces 315
VII.4. Branch Points of Hyperelliptic Surfaces as Holomorphic Functions
of the Periods 326
VII.5. Examples of Prym Differentials 329
Bibliography 330
Index 333
Commonly Used Symbols
Z integers
0 rationals
,. real numb&
n-dimensional real Euclidean spaces
C" n-dimensional complex Euclidean spaces
Re real part
Im imaginary part
H absolute value
C infinitely differentiable (function or differential)
Jr(M) linear space of holmorphic q-differentials on M
.r(M) field of meromorphic functions on M
deg degree of divisor or map
L(D) linear space of the divisor D
r(D) dim L(D) = dimension of D
Q(D) space of meromorphic abelian differentials of the divisor D
i(D) dim Q(D) = index of specialty of D
[] greatest integer in
c(D) Clifford index of D
ordpf order off at P
ni(M) fundamental group of M
1-1 1(M) first (integral) homology group of M
J(M) Jacobian variety of M
II period matrix of M
M„ integral divisors of degree n on M
Mr. {D e Mn ;r(D-1 )._ r + 1.}
W. image of M. in J(M)
W'„ image of M:; in J(M)
Z canonical divisor
K vector of Riemann constants (usually)
tx transpose of the matrix X (vectors are usually written as columns;
thus for x e Or, rx is a row vector)
CHAPTER 0
An Overview
The theory of Riemann surfaces lies in the intersection of many important

areas of mathematics. Aside from being an important field of study in its
own right, it has long been a source of inspiration, intuition, and examples
for many branches of mathematics. These include complex manifolds, Lie
groups, algebraic number theory, harmonic analysis, abelian varieties, alge-
braic topology.
The development of the theory of Riemann surfaces consists of at least
three parts: a topological part, an algebraic part, and an analytic part. In
this chapter, we shall try to outline how Riemann surfaces appear quite
naturally in different guises, list some of the most important problems to
be treated in this book, and discuss the solutions.
As the title indicates, this chapter is a survey of results. Many of the
statements are major theorems. We have indicated at the end of most
paragraphs a reference to subsequent chapters where the theorem in question
is proven or a fuller discussion of the given topic may be found. For some
easily verifiable claims a (kind of) proof has been supplied. This chapter
has been written for the reader who wishes to get an idea of the scope of
the book before entering into details. It can be skipped, since it is independent
of the formal development of the material. This chapter is intended primarily
for the mathematician who knows other areas of mathematics and is inter-
ested in finding out what the theory of Riemann surfaces contains. The
graduate student who is familiar only with first year courses in algebra,
analysis (real and complex), and algebraic topology should probably skip
most of this chapter and periodically return to it.
We, of course, begin with a definition: A Riemann surface is a complex
1-dimensional connected (analytic) manifold.
2 0 An Overview
0.1. Topological Aspects, Uniformization,

and Fuchsian Groups
Given a connected topological manifold M (which in our case is a Riemann
surface), one can always construct a new manifold Xi known as the universal
covering manifold of M. The manifold fti has the following properties:
I. There is a surjective local homeomorphism irJ -■ M.
2. The manifold M is simply connected; that is, the fundamental group of
ft;i is trivial (n 1 (1171) = (1)).
3. Every closed curve which is not homotopically trivial on M lifts to an
open curve on Al, and the curve on 21-4 is uniquely determined by the
curve on M and the point lying over its initial point.
In fact one can say a lot more. If Mt is any covering manifold of M, then
n i (Mt) is isomorphic to a subgroup of n i(M). The covering manifolds of
M are in bijective correspondence with conjugacy classes of subgroups of
ir,(M). In this setting, k corresponds to the trivial subgroup of ir,(M).
Furthermore, in the case that the subgroup N of 7r 1 (M) is normal, there is
a group G .11--.7r1 (M)/N of fixed point free automorphisms of M* such that
M*/G M. Once again in the case of the universal covering manifold Si- ,
G n i(M). (1.2.4; IV.5.6)
If we now make the assumption that M is a Riemann surface, then it is
not hard to introduce a Riemann surface structure on any M* in such a
way that the map it: Mt --+ M becomes a holomorphic mapping between
Riemann surfaces and G becomes a group of holomorphic self-mappings of
Mt such that M*/G M. (IV.5.5 -IV.5.7)
It is at this point that some analysis has to intervene. It is necessary to
find all the simply connected Riemann surfaces. The result is both beautiful
and elegant. There are exactly three conformally ( = complex analytically)
distinct simply connected Riemann surfaces. One of these is compact, it is
conformally equivalent to the sphere C u {co}. The non-compact simply
connected Riemann surfaces are conformally equivalent to either the upper
half plane U or the entire plane C. (IV.4)
It thus follows from what we have said before that studying Riemann
surfaces is essentially the same as studying fixed point free discontinuous
groups of holomorphic self mappings of D, where D is either C u {col, C,
or U. (IV.5.5)
The simplest case occurs when D = C u {col. Since every non-trivial
holmorphic self map of C u {x} has at least one fixed point, only the
sphere covers the sphere. (IV.5.3)
The holmorphic fixed point free self maps of C are z z + b, with
b E C. An analysis of the various possibilities shows that a discontinuous
subgroup of this group is either trivial or cyclic on one or two generators.
The first case corresponds to M = C. The case of one generator corresponds
0.1. Topological Aspects, Uniformization, and Fuchsian Groups 3
to a cylinder which is conformally the same as a twice punctured sphere.

Finally, the case of two generators z z -1-• (01, Z a)2 with w2/w 1 =
and Im T > 0 (without loss of generality) corresponds to a torus. We consider
the case involving two generators. This is an extremely important example.
It motivates a lot of future developments. The group G is to consist of
mappings of the form
where T e C is fixed with Im t > 0, and in and n vary over the integers. (This
involves no loss of generality, because conjugating G in the automorphism
group of C does notechange the complex structure.) If we consider the
closarparallelogram it with vertices 0, 1, 1-+ -r, and r as shown in Figure 0.1,
then we see that
1. no two points of the interior of .41 are identified under G,
2. every point of C is identified to at least one point of II (.,/i is closed), and
3. each interior point on the line a (respectively, b) is identified with a unique
point on the line a' (respectively, b').
From these considerations, it follows rather easily that C/G is J1 with the
points on the boundary identified or just a torus. (IV.6.4)
These tori already exhibit a very important phenomenon. Every r E C,
with Im t > 0, determines a unique torus and every torus is constructed as
above. Given two such points T and r', when do they determine the same
torus? This is the simplest illustration of the general problem of moduli of
Riemann surfaces. (IV.7.3; VII.4)
The most interesting Riemann surfaces have the upper half plane as
universal covering space. The holomorphic self-mappings of U are z 1—*
(az + b)/(cz + d) with (a,b,c,d) E and det[ bd] > 0. We can normalize so
that ad — bc = 1. When we do this, the condition that the mapping be
fixed point free is that la + dl 2. It turns out that for subgroups of the
group of automorphisms of U, Aut U, the concepts of discontinuity and
discreteness agree. Hence the Riemann surfaces with universal covering
space U (and these are almost all the Riemann surfaces!) are precisely U/G
for discrete fixed point free subgroups G of Aut U. In this case, it turns out
that there exists a non-Euclidean (possibly with infinitely many sides and
Im z -O
Re Z=0
Figure 0.1
4 0 An Overview
possibly open) polygon contained in U and that U/G is obtained by certain

identifications on the boundary of the polygon. (IV.5 and IV.9)
We thus see that via the topological theory of covering spaces, the study
of Riemann surfaces is essentially the same as the study of fixed point free
discrete subgroups of Aut U, which is the canonical example of a Lie group,
SL(2,R)/ +1.
It turns out that the Riemann surfaces U/G are quite different from those
with C as their holomorphic universal covering space. For example, a
(topological) torus cannot have U as its holomorphic universal covering
space. (111.6.3; 111.6.4; IV.6)
Because we are mainly interested in analysis and because our objects of
study have low dimensions, we shall also consider branched ( = ramified)
covering manifolds. The theory for this wider class of objects parallels the
development outlined above. (IV.9)
In order to obtain a clearer picture of what is going on let us return to the
situation mentioned previously where M = C and G is generated by z
z + 1, z z + r, with r E U. We see immediately that dz, since it is invariant
under G, is a holomorphic differential on the torus C/G. (Functions cannot
be integrated on Riemann surfaces. The search for objects to integrate
leads naturally to differential forms.) In fact, dz is the only holomorphic
differential on the torus, up to multiplication by constants. Hence, given
any point z e C there is a point P in the torus and a path c from 0 to that
point P such that z is obtained by integrating dz from 0 to P along c. Now
this remark is trivial when the torus is viewed in the above way; however,
let us now take a different point of view.
0.2. Algebraic Functions

Let us return to the torus constructed in the previous section. The mero-
morphic functions on this torus are the elliptic (doubly periodic) functions
with periods 1, r. The canonical example here is the Weierstrass p-function
with periods 1,
1 1 1
(z) = E
z (z - n — nrr) 2 (n + mr) 2 •
(n.m) e 1 2
The 9-function satisfies the differential equation

P' 2 = 4(ed — ei)(So — ez)(go — ez).
The points ej can be identified as
e3 = go (1 +
ei = PG), e2 = (0,
2 ).
0.2. Algebraic Functions 5
It is important to observe that p' is again an elliptic function; hence a

meromorphic function on the torus. If we now write w = p', z = p, we
obtain
W 2 = 4(z — e i )(z — e2)(z — e3),
and we see that w is an algebraic function of z. The Riemann surface on
which w is a single valued meromorphic function is the two-sheeted branched
cover of the sphere branched over z = ef , j = 1, 2, 3, and z = co. Now it is
not difficult to show that on this surface dz/w is a holomorphic differential.
Once again, given any point z in the plane there is a point P on the surface
and a path c from co to P such that z is the result of integrating the holo-
morphic differential kw from..co to P. That this is true follows at once by
letting z = p(a So we are really once again back in the situation discussed
at the end of the previous section. This has, however, led us to another
way of constructing Riemann surfaces.
Consider an irreducible polynomial P(z,w) and with it the set S = {(z,w)E
C 2 ; P(z,w)= 01. It is easy to show that most points of S are manifold points
and that after modifying the singular points and adding some points at
infinity, S is the Riemann surface on which w is an algebraic function of z;
and S can be represented as an n-sheeted branched cover of C u (co ), where
n is the degree of P as a polynomial in w. The branch points of S alluded to
above, and the points lying over infinity are the points which need to be
added to make S compact. (IV.11.4 -IV.11.11)
In the case of the torus discussed above, we started with a compact
Riemann surface and found that the surface was the Riemann surface of an
algebraic function. The same result holds for any compact Riemann surface.
More precisely, given a compact Riemann surface (other than C u {co})
there are functions w and z on the surface which satisfy an irreducible
polynomial P(z,w)= O. Hence every compact Riemann surface is the
Riemann surface of an algebraic function. Another way of saying the pre-
ceding is as follows: We saw in the case of the torus that the field of elliptic
functions completely determined the torus up to conformal equivalence.
If M is any compact Riemann surface and sr(M) is the field of meromorphic
functions on M we can ask whether the field has a strictly algebraic charac-
terization and whether the field determines M up to conformal equivalence.
Now if
f:M N
is a conformal map between Riemann surfaces M and N, then
f* :S(N) -4 S(M)
defined by
f *9 = 9 f, E .(N),
is an isomorphism of if(IV) into or(M) which preserves constants. If M and
N are conformally equivalent (that is, if the function f above, has an analytic
inverse), then, of course, the fields Je(M) and dr(N) are isomorphic. If,
6 0 An Overview
conversely, 0:,e(N)— ■ .,r(M) is an isomorphism which preserves constants,

then there is an f such that eço = f *9. and M can be recovered from y(w)
in a purely algebraic manner. The above remarks hold as well in the case
of non-compact surfaces. The compact case has the additional feature that
the field of meromorphic functions can be characterized as an algebraic
function field in one variable; that is, an algebraic extension of a transcen-
dental extension of C. (IVA 1.10)
0.3. Abelian Varieties

Every torus is a compact abelian group. When we view the torus as C/G
where G is the group generated by z + 1, z z + r, addition of points
is clearly well-defined modulo m + nt with m, n E Z. What can we say about
other compact surfaces? The only two compact surfaces we have actually
seen are the sphere and the torus. The sphere is said to have genus zero
and the torus genus one. In general a compact surface is said to have genus
g, if its Euler characteristic is 2 — 2g. Examples of compact Riemann surfaces
of genus g are the surfaces of the algebraic functions
2g+ 2
w2 = ( z - e), ej ek for j o k.
1
We will show that on the above surfaces of genus g, the g differentials

dz/w, , z9-1 dz/w are linearly independent holomorphic differentials. In
fact, on any compact surface M of genus g, dim yew)
= g, where OW)
is the vector space of holomorphic differentials on M. Furthermore, the
rank of the first homology group (with integral coefficients) on such a sur-
face is 2g. Let a 1 ,. , ag , b„ . . . , b, be a canonical homology basis on M.
It is possible to choose a basis (p 1 , , cp, of 0' (M ) so that fj a, k 3- fit
(= Kronecker delta).
In this case the matrix
Il = (7r), It jk = fbj (Pk
is symmetric with positive definite imaginary part. It then follows that C 9

the group of translations of C. generated by the columns offactoredby
the matrix (1,17) is a complex g-torus and a compact abelian group. Hence
we will see that each compact surface of genus g has associated with it a
compact abelian group. (III.6)
In the case of g = 1, we saw that choosing a base point on the surface
and integrating the holomorphic differentials from the base point to a
variable point P on the surface gave an injective analytic map of the Riemann
surface onto the torus. In the case of g > 1 we have an injective map into
the torus by again choosing a base point on the surface and integrating the
0.4. More Analytic Aspects 7
vector differential 0 = ((p i , . . ,99) from a fixed base point to a variable

point P. In this case the map cannot, of course, be surjective. If we want to
obtain a surjective map, we must map unordered g-tuples of points into the
torus by sending (P 1,.. ,P9) into the sum of the images of the points Pk.
This result is called the Jacobi inversion theorem. Two proofs of this theorem
will be found in this book; one of them using the theory of Riemann's theta
function. (111.6.6; V1.3.4)
A complex torus is called an abelian variety when the g x 2g matrix
(A,B), whose columns are the generators for the lattice defining the torus,
has associated with it a 2g x 2g rational skew symmetric matrix P with the
property that
(A,B)P (BA ): 0
and
i(A,B)P( A;.)
is positive definite. In this case one can demonstrate the existence of multi-
plicative holomorphic functions. These functions then embed the torus as
an algebraic variety in projective space. In our case the matrix P can always
be chosen as the intersection matrix of the cycles in the canonical homology
basis; that is, [_?
0.4. More Analytic Aspects

The most important tools in studying (compact) Riemann surfaces are the
meromorphic functions on them. All surfaces carry meromorphic functions.
(11.5.3; 1V.3.1 7)
What kind of singularities can a meromorphic function on a compact
surface have? The answer is supplied by the Riemann—Roch theorem.
(111.4.8 —111.4.1 1 ; IV.10)
We finish this introductory chapter with one last remark. Let M be a
compact Riemann surface. Assume that M is not the sphere nor a torus;
that is, a surface of genus g > 2. For each point P E M, we construct a se-
quence of positive integers
v < v2 < • • • < vk < - • • ,
as follows: vk appears in the list if and only if there exists a meromorphic
function on M which is regular (holomorphic) on M \ {P} and has a pole
of order vk at P. Question: What do these sequences look like? Answer:
For all but finitely many points the sequence is
g + 1, g + 2, g + 3, ....
8 0 An Overview
The finite number of exceptions are the Weierstrass points; they carry a
lot of information about the surface M. One of the fascinating aspects of
the study of Riemann surfaces is the ability to obtain such precise information
on our objects. (III.5)
We shall see how to use the existence of these Weierstrass points in order
to conclude that Aut M is always finite for g 2. (V.1)
Another object of study which is extremely important is the Jacobi=
variety J(M). It, together with the theory of Riemann's theta function, also
is a source of much information concerning M. (111.6; 111.8; 111.1 1; VI; VII)
CHAPTER1
Riemann Surfaces
In this chapter we define and give the simplest examples of Riemann surfaces.
We derive some basic properties of Riemann surfaces and of holomorphic
maps between compact surfaces. We assume the reader is familiar with the
elementary concepts in algebraic-topology and differential-geometry needed
for the study of Riemann surfaces. To establish notation, these concepts
are reviewed. The necessary surface topology is discussed. In later chapters
we will show how the complex structure can help obtain many of the needed
results about surface topology. The chapter ends with a development of
various integration formulae.
1.1. Definitions and Examples

We begin with a formal definition of a Riemann surface and give the simplest
examples: the complex plane C, the extended complex plane or Riemann
sphere C = C L.) {Go}, and finally any open connected subset of a Riemann
surface. We define what is meant by a holomorphic mapping between
Riemann surfaces and prove that if f is a holomorphic map from a Riemann
surface M to a Riemann surface N, with M compact, then f is either constant
or surjective. Further, in this case, f is a finite sheeted ramified covering map.
1.1.1. A Riemann surface is a one-complex-dimensional connected com-
plex analytic manifold; that is, a two-real-dimensional connected manifold
M with a maximal set of charts { i " on M (that is, the { U2}1 A con-
stitute an open cover of M and
z2 :11,z --■ C (1.1.1)
10 I Riemann Surfaces
is a homeomorphism onto an open subset of the complex plane C) such that

the transition functions
= z.. n p) ---■ z.(U. n Up) (1.1.2)
are holomorphic whenever U. n Up Ø. Any set of charts (not necessarily
maximal) that cover M and satisfy condition (1.1.2) will be called a set of
analytic coordinate charts.
The above definition makes sense since the set of holomorphic functions
forms a pseudogroup under composition.
Classically, a compact Riemann surface is called closed; while a non-
compact surface is called open.
1.1.2. Let M be a one-complex-dimensional connected manifold together
with two sets of analytic coordinate charts 91 1 = {1./2 ,z2}224 , and 91 2 =
Vp,Wp}p e B. We introduce a partial ordering on the set of analytic coordinate
charts by defining 91 1 > 91 2 if for each a e A, there exists afleB such that
c Vp and Z2 =
It now follows by Zom's lemma that an arbitrary set of analytic coordinate.
charts can be extended to a maximal set of analytic coordinate charts. Thus
to define a Riemann surface we need not specify a maximal set of analytic
coordinate charts, merely a cover by any set of analytic coordinate charts.
Remark. If M is a Riemann surface and {U.z} is a coordinate on M, then

for every open set V c U and every function f which is holomorphic and
injective on z( V), {V, f o (4)} is also a coordinate chart on M.
1.1.3. Examples. The simplest example of an open Riemann surface is the

complex plane C. The single coordinate chart (C,id) defines the Riemann
surface structure on C.
Given any Riemann surface M, then a domain D (connected open subset)
on M is also a Riemann surface. The coordinate charts on D are obtained
by restricting the coordinate charts of M to D. Thus, every domain in C is
again a Riemann surface.
The one point compatification, C u { oo } , of C (known as the extended
complex plane or Riemann sphere) is the simplest example of a closed ( = com-
pact) Riemann surface. The charts we use are tUi,Z.J.i = 1 . 2 with
U1 = C
U2 = (CVO)) L.) {00}
and
z i(z) = z, z E U1,
z 2(z) = 11z, ze U2.
(Here and hereafter we continue to use the usual conventions involving

meromorphic functions; for example, 1/co = O.) The two (non-trivial) tran-
1.1. Definitions and Examples 11
sition functions involved are

C\{0} C\{0}, k Ej, k, j = 1,2
with
fki(z) = l/z.
1.1.4. Remark. Coordinate charts are also called local parameters, local
coordinates, and uniformizing variables. From now on we shall use these
four terms interchangeably. Furthermore, the local coordinate {U,z} will
often be identified with the mapping z (when its domain is clear or not mate-
rial). We can always choose U to be simply connected and f(U) a bounded
domain in C. In this case U wilI•be called I parametric disc, coordinate disc,
or uniformizing disc.
1.1.5. A continuous mapping

f :M --• N (1.5.1)
between Riemann surfaces is called holomorphic or analytic if for every
local coordinate {U.::} on M and every local coordinate {V,1} on N with
U f i (V) 0 0, the mapping
of z -1 :z(U f -1 (V)) --• 'C(V)
is holomorphic (as a mapping from C to C). The mapping f is called con-
formal if it is also one-to-one and onto. In this case (since holomorphic
mappings are open or map onto a point)
f' :N M
is also conformal.
A holomorphic mapping into C is called a holomorphic function. A holo-
morphic mapping into C {cc} is called a meromorphic function. The ring
(C-algebra) of holomorphic functions on M will be denoted by Ye(M); the
field (C-algebra) of meromorphic functions on M, by AIM). The mapping
f of (1.5.1) is called constant if f (M) is a point.
Theorem. Let M and N be Riemann surfaces with M compact. Let f :M ---• N

be a holomorphic mapping. Then f is either constant or surjective. (In the latter
case, N is also compact.) In particular, le(M) = C.
PROOF. Iff is not constant, then f(M) is open (because f is an open mapping)
and compact (because the continuous image of a compact set is compact).
Thus f(M) is a closed subset of N (since N is Hausdorff). Since M and N are
connected, f(M) = N. LI
Remark. Since holomorphicity is a local concept, all the usual local properties
of holomorphic functions can be used. Thus, in addition to the openess
property of holomorphic mappings used above, we know (for example) that
holomorphic mappings satisfy the maximum modulus principle. (The prin-

ciple can be used to give an alternate proof of the fact that there are no non-
constant holomorphic functions on compact surfaces.)
1.1.6. Consider a non-constant holomorphic mapping between Riemann
surfaces given by (1.5.1). Let P e M. Choose local coordinates 2' on M van-
ishing at P and C on N vanishing at f(P). In terms of these local coordinates,
we can write
C = fm= E ake, n >0, an 0.
k2n
Thus, we also have (since a non-vanishing holomorphic function on a disc

has a logarithm) that
= rh(5). ----
where h is holomorphic and h(0) 0. Note that n(7) is another local

coordinate vanishing at P, and in terms of this new coordinate the mapping
f is given by
= f. (1.6.1)
We shall say that n (defined as above—this definition is clearly independent
of the local coordinates used) is the ramification number off at P or that f takes
on the value f(P)n-times at P or f has multiplicity n at P. The number (n — 1)
will be called the branch number off at P, in symbols b f (P).
Proposition. Let f:M N be a non-constant holomorphic mapping between

compact Riemann surfaces. There exists a positive integer m such that every
Q e N is assumed precisely m times on M by f—counting multiplicities; that is,
for all Q e N,
E (b f (P) + 1) = m.
Pn 441
PROOF. For each integer n 1, let
E = IQ e N; E (b 1(P) + 1) n}.
Pef '(Q)
The "normal form" of the mapping f given by (1.6.1) shows that E, is open
in N. We show next that it is closed. Let Q = lirnk Qk with Qk e E„. Since
there are only finitely many points in N that are the images of ramification
points in M, we may assume that b f (P) = 0 for all P e f i (Qk), each k. Thus
f -1 (Qk) consists of n distinct points. Let P k1 , , P,„, be n points in f `(Q„).
Since M is compact, for each j, there is a subsequence of {Po} that con-
verges to a limit P. We may suppose that it is the entire sequence that
converges. The points P. need not, of course, be distinct. Clearly f (13 f) = Q,
and since f(Pki) = Qk, it follows (even if the points Pi are not distinct) that
Ep Er_. (Q) (bf (p)+1). n. Thus each E,, is either all of N or empty. Let
Q 0 e N be arbitrary and let m = Ep ef -I (Q) (bf (P)+ 1). Then 0 < m < co,
and since Q 0 e Em , Z„, = N. Since Qo # 1 , E„,, i must be empty.
Definition. The number m above, will be called the degree of f (= deg f),
and we will also say that f is an m-sheeted cover of N by M (or that f has m
sheets).
Remarks
1. If f is a non-constant meromorphic function on M, then (the theorem
asserts that) f has as many zeros as poles.
2. We have used the fact that (compact) Riemann surfaces are separable, in
order to conclude that it suffices to work with sequences rather than nets.
We will establish this in 1V.5.
3. The- above considetttions have established the fact that a single non-
constant meromorphic function completely determines the complex structure
of the Riemann surface. For iff e let(M)\ C. and P e M, and n - 1 = k(P),
then a local coordinate vanishing at P is given by
(f - f(P)) lin if f(P)
and
f— li n if f(P) = co.
1.1.7. Since an analytic function (on the plane) is smooth (Cœ), every
Riemann surface is a differentiable manifold. If {U,z} is a local coordinate
on the Riemann surface M, then x = Re z, y = Im z (z = x + iy) yield
smooth local coordinates on U. In 1.3 we shall make use of the underlying
Cm-structure of M.
Remark. Every surface (orientable topological two-real-dimensional rri'ani-

fold with countable basis for the topology) admits a Riemann surface struc-
ture. We shall not prove (and not have any use for) this fact in this book.
1.2. Topology of Riemann Surfaces

Throughout this section M denotes an orientable two-real-dimensional
manifold.
We review the basic notions of surface topology to recall for the reader the
facts concerning the fundamental group of a manifold and the simplicial
homology groups. This leads us naturally to the notion of covering manifold
and finally to the normal forms of compact orientable surfaces. Covering
manifolds lead us to the monodromy theorem, and the normal forms lead
us to the Euler-Poincaré formula. As one application of these ideas, we
establish the Riemann-Hurwitz relation.
1.2.1. We assume that the reader has been exposed to the general notions
of surface topology, in particular to the fundamental group and the simplicial
homology groups. We thus content ourselves with a brief review of these
14 I Riernann Surfaces
ideas. In this section the word curve on M will mean a continuous map c of
the closed interval I = [0,1] into M. The point c(0) will be called the initial
point of the curve, and c(1) will be called the terminal or end point of the
curve. Furthermore since we shall be primarily interested in compact
Riemann surfaces, we shall (in general) assume that the manifold is compact,
triangulable, and orientable. (All Riemann surfaces are triangulable and
orientable.)
1.2.2. n, (M)= Fundamental Group of M. If P, Q are two points of M and
c l and c, are two curves on M with initial point P and terminal point Q, we
say that c, is homotopic to c 2 (c 1 c2) provided there is a continuous map
h: I x I —• M with the properties h(t,0) = c h(t,l) = c h(0,u) = Pand
h(1,u) = Q (for all t, u e I).
If P is now any point of M, we consider all closed curves on M which pass
through P. This is the same as all curves on M with initial and terminal
point P. We say that two such curves c 1 , c2 are equivalent whenever they are
homotopic. The set of equivalence classes of closed curves through P forms a
group in the obvious manner. This group is called the fundamental group of
M based at P. It is easy to see that the fundamental group based at P and
the fundamental group based at Q are canonically isomorphic as groups.
The fundamental group of M, n,(M), is therefore defined to be the fundamental
group of M based at P, for any P e M.
"Remark. It is easy to see that the fundamental group is a topological invariant.

1.2.3. Homology Groups. In a triangulation of a manifold we call the tri-
angles two-simplices, the edges one-simplices, and the vertices zero-simplices.
The orientation on the manifold induces an orientation on the triangles and
edges. Further, the vertices {P,,P2 ,P3 , . . .} can be used to label the edges and
triangles. Thus <P 1 ,P2> is the oriented edge from the vertex P, to P2 ,
and <P1 ,P2 ,P3> is the oriented triangle bounded by the oriented edges
<PI,P2>, <P2,P3>, <P3,P1>. We identify the triangle <P,,P2 ,P3> with
— <P3 ,P2 ,P,> and the edge <P,,P,> with — (P 2 ,P i ).. An n-chain (n = 0,1,2)
is a finite linear combination of n-simplices with integer coefficients. We
define an operator (5 from n-chains to n — 1 chains as follows: For n = 0,
we define (5<P> =0. For n = 1, we define b<P1,P2> = <P2 > — <P1 >. For
n = 2, we define (5 <P1,P2,P3> = <P2,P3> — <PI,P3> + <P1,13 2>. The preced-
ing defines (5 on an n-simplex and we extend the definition to n-chains by
linearity.
It is clear that the set of n-chains forms a group under addition and that
(5 is a group homomorphism of the group of n-chains to the group of (n — 1)-
chains. We denote the group of n-chains by C„ = 101 for n> 2). Let
Z„ denote the kernel of 6:C„ C„_1 . Furthermore, let B„ denote the image
of C,,.,. 1 in C. under 6. Since 6 2 = 0, it is clear that B„ is a subgroup of Z„,
and in fact since all groups in sight are abelian, a normal subgroup. It there-
fore follows that C,,/Z„ is isomorphic to B„_,. The group we are interested
in is, however, H(M) = H. = Z./B. and we call this group the nth simplicial
homology group (with integer coefficients). (By definition H„ = MI for n > 2.)
Let us now denote by [z] the equivalence class in H„ of z e Z. We shall
say that [:], j = 1, , /3„, are a basis for H„ provided each element of H.
can be written as an integral linear combination of the [z ] and provided the
integral equation > 1 ai[zi] = 0 implies a; = O. In this case we shall call
the number /3„ the nth-Betti number of the triangulated manifold.
It is very easy to describe the groups H o and H2, and thus the numbers
/30 and /32 . In fact it is apparent that /30 = 1, and that H o is isomorphic to the
integers. As far as H2 is concerned, a little thought shows that there are
exactly two possibiliti;§. If M is compact, then H2 is isomorphic to the
integeis and ,62 = 1. If M is not Compact, then H2 is trivial and /32 = O.
The only non-trivial case to consider is H 1 and ,6 1 . We have seen in the
previous paragraph that H o and H2 are independent of the triangulation.
The same is true for H, although this is not at all apparent. One way to see
this is to recall the fact that H, is isomorphic to the abelianized fundamental
group. We shall not prove this result here. Granting the result, however, and
using the normal forms for compact surfaces to be described in 1.2.5, it will
be easy to compute H 1 (M) and hence fi, for compact surfaces M.
1.2.4. Covering Manifolds. The manifold M* is said to be a (ramified) cover-

ing manifold of the manifold M provided there is a continuous surjective
map (called a (ramified) covering map) f:M* M with the following prop-
erty: for each P* e M* there exist a local coordinate z* on M* vanishing at
P*, a local coordinate z on M vanishing at f(P), and an integer n > 0 such
that f is given by z = z" in terms of these local coordinates. Here the integer
n depends only on the point P* e M*. If n> 1, P* is called a branch point of
order n — 1 or a ramification point of order n. (Compare these definitions with
those in 1.1.6.) If n = 1, for all points P* e M* the cover is called smooth or
unramified.
EXAMPLE. Proposition 1.1.6 shows that every non-constant holomorphic

mapping between compact Riemann surfaces is a finite-sheeted (ramified)
covering map.
Continuing the general discussion, we call M* an unlimited covering mani-

fold of M provided that for every curve c on M and every point P* with
f(P*) = c(0), there exists a curve c* on M* with initial point P* and f(c*) = c.
The curve c* will be called a lift of the curve c.
There is a close connection between zr 1 (M) and the smooth unlimited
covering manifolds of M. If M* is a smooth unlimited covering manifold of
M, then zt,(M*) is isomorphic to a subgroup of n,(M). Coversely, every
subgroup of x 1 (M) determines a smooth unlimited covering manifold 14*
with 7r 1(M*) isomorphic to the given subgroup. (Conjugate subgroups deter-
mine homeomorphic covers.)
16 I Ricmann Surfaces
This is also a good place to recall the monodromy theorem which states:
Let M* be a smooth unlimited covering manifold of M and cl , e 2 two curves on
M which are homotopic. Let cf, cl he lifts of c 1 , c 2 with the saine initial point.
Then el' is homotopic to el'. In particular, the curves cr and el' must have the
same end points.
If M* is a covering manifold of M with covering map f, then a homeo-
morphism h of M* onto itself with the property that foh=f is called a
covering transformation of M*. The set of covering transformations forms
a group, which is called transitive provided that whenever f(Pf) = f(PT) there
is a covering transformation h which maps Pt onto P. For the smooth unlim-
ited case, the group of covering transformations is transitive if and only if
n i(M*) is isomorphic to a normal subgroup of t 1(M) and in this case the
group of covering transformations is isomorphic to n i (M)ht i (M*).
Let us now assume that M is a Riemann surface. Then the definition of
covering manifold shows that M 5 has a unique Riemann surface structure
on it which makes f a holomorphic map. Furthermore, the group of covering
transformations consists now of conformal self maps of M. In the converse
direction things are not quite so simple. If M is a Riemann surface and G is a
group of conformal self maps of M, it is not necessarily the case that the orbit.
space M/G is even a manifold. However, if the group G operates discon-
tinuously on M, then M1G is a manifold and can be made into a Riemann
surface such that the natural map f :M M 1G is an analytic map of Riemann
surfaces. More details about these ideas will be found in IV.5 and IV.9.
1.2.5. Normal Forms of Compact Orientable Surfaces. Any triangulation of

a compact manifold is necessarily finite. Using such a triangulation we can
proceed to simplify the topological model of the manifold. We can map
successively each triangle in the triangulation onto a Euclidean triangle and
by auxilliary topological mappings obtain at each stage k, a regular (k + 2)-
gon, k 2. This (k + 2)-gon has a certain orientation on its boundary which
is induced by the orientation on the triangles of the triangulation. When we
are finished with this process we have an (n + 2)-gon (n being the number of
triangles in the triangulation). Since each side of this polygon is identified
with precisely one other side, the polygon has an even number of sides. This
polygon with the appropriate identifications gives us a topological model
of the manifold M.
In order to obtain the normal form we proceed as follows: We start with
an edge of the triangulation which corresponds to two sides of the polygon.
The edge can be denoted by <P,Q>, where both P and Q correspond to two
vertices of the polygon. In traversing the boundary of the polygon we cross
the edge <P,Q> once and the edge (Q,P> once. We will label one of these
edges by c and the other by In this way we can associate a letter with
each side of the polygon, and call the word obtained by writing the letters in
the order of traversing the boundary the symbol of the polygon. The re-
mainder of the game is devoted to simplifying the symbol of the polygon.
If the sides a and a -1 follow one another in the polygon, and there is at
least one other side then you can remove both sides from the symbol and the
new symbol still is the symbol of a polygon which is a topological model
for M.
The polygon's sides have been labeled and so have the vertices of the
polygon. We now wish to transform the polygon into a polygon with all
vertices identified. This is done by cutting up the polygon and pasting in a
fairly straight forward fashion. To illustrate, suppose we have a vertex Q not
identified with a vertex P, as in Figure I.1. Make a cut joining R to P and
paste back along b to obtain Figure 1.2. We note that the number of Q
vertices has been decvased by one. Continuing, we end up after a finite
numbér of steps with a triangulation with-all the vertices identified.
Figure 1.2
The final simplification we need involves the notion of linked edges. We

say that a pair of edges a and b are linked if they appear in the symbol of
the polygon in the order a • • • • • • a' • • b" • • • . It is easy to see that
each edge of the polygon is necessarily linked with some other edge (unless
we are in the situation that there are only two sides in the polygon). We
can then transform the polygon, by a cutting and pasting argument simi-
lar to the one used above so that the linked pair is brought together as
aba-1 1) -1 . We finally obtain the normal form of the surface. The normal
form of a compact orientable surface is a polygon whose symbol is aa' or
b i- • • 4,41; 1 6 1 . In the former case we say that the genus of M
is zero and in the latter case we say that the genus is g. It is clear that g is a
complete topological invariant for compact orientable surfaces.
From the normal form we can, of course, reconstruct the original surface
by a "pasting" process. Figures 1.3 and 1.4 explain the procedure.
In particular, a surface of genus g is topologically a sphere with g handles.
A surface of genus 0 is topologically (also analytically—but this will not be
b, .b, 1511 ( )
■ )
a,
-
Figure 1.3. Surface of genus 1.

Figure 1.4. Surface of genus 2.
seen until 111.4 or IV.4) a sphere. A surface of genus 1 is topologically a torus.

There are many complex tori. (In fact, as will be seen in IV.6, a one-complex-
parameter family of tori.)
Using the common vertex of the normal form as a base point for the
fundamental group, one shows that it i (M) is generated by the 2g closed
loops al, , ar b i, . subject to the single relation IP1,. aibia; 1 1); = 1.
Hence I-1 1(M) is the free group on the generators [ai], [b1], j = 1, . . . , g. In
particular for a compact surface of genus g, H 1 (M) 24_ Z29 and /3 1 = 2g.
Remark. The "pasting" process is, of course, not uniquely determined by the
symbol. For example, in the case of genus 1, after joining side a' a l , we
may twist the resulting cylinder by 2ir radians before identifying b -1 with 6 1 .
The "twisted" surface is, of course, homeomorphic to the "untwisted" one.
The homeomorphism is known as a Dehn twist.
1.2.6. Euler-Poincaré. The Euler-Poincaré characteristic z of compact
surfaces of genus g is given by x = ao - a 1 + a 2 , where ak is the number of k
simplices in the triangulation. A triangulation of the normal form gives
= 2 - 2g. The Euler-Poincaré characteristic is also given by fit, - fi1 + /3 2,
where fik is the kth Betti number. Thus the computations of the Betti numbers
in 1.2.4 and 1.2.6 yield an alternate verification of the value of x.
1.2.7. As an application of the topological invariance of the Euler- Poincaré
characteristic, we establish a beautiful formula relating various topological
indices connected with a holomorphic mapping between compact surfaces.
Consider a non-constant holomorphic mapping between compact

Riemann surfaces given by (1.5.1). Assume that M is a compact Riemann
surface of genus g, N is a compact surface of genus y. Assume that f is of
degree n (that is, f -1 (Q) has cardinality n for almost all Q e N). We define the
total branching number (recall definition preceding Proposition 1.1.6) of
f by
B= E b
PEM
Theorem (Riemann-Hurwitz Relation). We have

g = n(y - 1) + 1 + B/2.
PROOF. Let S = {f(x); x e M and b f (x)> 01. Since S is a finite set, we can
triangulate N so that every point of S is a vertex of the triangulation. Assume
that this triangulation has F faces, E edges, and V vertices. Lift this triangula-
tion to M via the mapping f. The induced triangulation of M has nF faces,
flE edges, and n V — B vertices. We now compute the Euler—Poincaré charac-
teristic of each surface in two ways:
F— E + V = 2 — 2y
nF — nE + nV — B = 2 — 2g.
From the above we obtain
1 — g n(1 — 13/2.
1.2.8. We record now (using the same notation as above) several immediate
consequences.
Corollary 1. The total branching number B is always even.
Corollary 2. Assume that f is unramified. Then

a. g.--0n=landy=O.
b. g = 1 y = 1 (n arbitrary).
c. g > 1 g = y for n = 1.
g > y> 1 for n> 1 (and n divides g — 1).
Corollary 3
a. If g = 0, then y = O.
b. If 1 g = y, then either n = 1 and (thus) B = 0 or g = 1 and (thus) B = O.
1.3. Differential Forms

We assume that the reader is familiar with the theory of integration on a
differentiable manifold. We briefly review the basic facts (to fix notation),
and make use of the complex structure on the manifolds under consideration
to simplify and augment many differential-geometric concepts. The necessity
of introducing differential forms stems from the desire to have an object
which we can integrate on the surface. The introduction of 1-forms allows us
to consider line integrals on the surface, while the introduction of 2-forms
allows us to consider surface integrals. Various operators on differential
forms are introduced, and in terms of these operators we define and charac-
terize different classes of differentials.
Remark. We shall use interchangeably the terms "form", "differential", and

"differential form".
1.3.1. Let M be a Riemann surface. A 0-form on M is a function on M. A

1-form co on M is an (ordered) assignment of two continuous functions f and
g to each local coordinate z (=x + iy) on M such that
f dx + g dy (3.1.1)
is invariant under coordinate changes; that is, if 2' is another local coordinate
on M and the domain of Y intersects non-trivially the domain of z, and if co
assigns the functions j, "d. to Z, then (using matrix notation)
ax ay
.R2)] [ [
(3.1.2)
[ g(z(1) )
on the intersection of the domains of z and Y. The 2 x 2 matrix appearing in

(3.1.2) is, of course, the Jacobian matrix of the mapping 1—■ z.
A 2-form Q on M is an assignment of a continuous function f to each local
coordinate z such that
f dx dy (3.1.3)
is invariant under coordinate changes; that is, in terms of the local coordinate
Z we have
a(x,y)
= .gz(2)) em57) , (3.1.4)
where 0(x,y)/a(50 is the determinant of the Jacobian. Since we consider

only holomorphic coordinate changes (3.1.4) has the simpler form
dz 2
= f(z( 2)) • (3.1.4a)
1.3.2. Many times it is more convenient to use complex notation for

(differential) forms. Using the complex analytic coordinate z, a 1-form may
be written as
u(z) dz + v(z) dY, (3.2.1)
where
dz = dx + i dy,
(3.2.2)
di = dx i dy,
and hence comparing with (3.1.1) we see that
f=u+
g = i(u — y).
Similarly, a 2-form can be written as
g(z) dz df.
It follows from (3.2.2) that

d:A d = — 2i dx dy. (3.2.3)
1.3.3. Remark. To derive (3.2.3), we have made use of the "exterior" multi-
plication of forms. This multiplication satisfies the conditions: dx A dx =
0 = dy A dy, dx A dy = —dy A dx. The product of a k-form and an /-form
is a k + 1 form provided k + I < 2 and is the zero form (still k + 1) for
k + 1 > 2.
In view of the last remark, we let Ak denote the vector space of k-forms,
we see that Ak is a miklule over A° and that Ak = tol for k > 3. Further
A = Me/VeA2
is a graded anti-commutative algebra under the obvious multiplication of
forms.
1.3.4. A 0-form can be "integrated" over 0-chains; that is, over a finite
set of points. Thus, the "integral" of the function f over the 0-cycle
ENP„ P„e M, ni Z
is
En,f(P2).
A 1-form co can be integrated over 1-chains (finite unions of paths). Thus,
if the piece-wise differentiable path c is contained in a single coordinate disc
z = x + iy, c: I M (I = unit interval [0,1]), and do is given by (3.1.1), then
ri dx dy
w = Jo ff(x(t),y(t)) Tt + g(x(t),y(t))--d7} dt.
By the transition formula for o), (3.1.2), the above integral is independent
of choice of z, and by compactness the definition can be extended to arbitrary
piece-wise differentiable paths.
Similarly, a 2-form Q can be integrated over 2-chains, D. Again, restricting
to a single coordinate disc (and Q given by (3.1.3)),
L = ff„, f(x,y) dx A dy.
The integral is well defined and extends in an obvious way to arbitrary

2-chains.
It is also sometimes necessary to integrate a 2-form Q over a more general
domain D. If D has compact closure, there is no difficulty involved in extend-
ing the definition of the integral. For still more general domains D, one must
use partitions of unity.
Remark. We will see in IV.5 that evaluation of integrals over domains on an

arbitrary surface M can always be reduced to considering integrals over
plane domains.
1.3.5. For C'-forms (that is, forms whose coefficients are C' functions), we
introduce the differential operator d. Define
df = fx dx + fy dy
for C' functions f. For the C' 1-form co given by (3.1.1) we have (by definition)
dco = d(f dx) + d(g dy) = df A dx + dg A dy

= (fx dx + f, dy) A dx + (g x dx + g, dy)A dy
= (gx — fy) dx A dy.
For a 2-form Q we, of course, have (again by definition)
(IQ = 0.
The most important fact concerning this operator is contained in Stokes'
theorem. lf u) is a k-form (k = 0,1,2) and D is a (1 + k)-chain, then
= fD do).
(Of course, the only non-trivial case is k = 1.)

Note also that
d2 = 0,
whenever c1 2 is defined.
1.3.6. Up to now we have made use only of the underlying C structure of

the Riemann surface M—except, of course, for notational simplifications
provided by the complex structure. Using complex analytic coordinates we
introduce two differential operators a and by setting for a C' function f,
af = dz and = df;
and setting for a C 2 1-form co = u dz + y di,

ea, = Cu A dz + ey A clf= y, dz A cif,
= -"eu A dz + v A cif = uf d2- A dz = — a! dz A
where
fi = i(fx +
For 2-forms, the operators a and .0 are defined as the zero operator.
Recall. The equation fi = 0 is equivalent to the Cauchy-Riemann equations
for Re f, Im f ; that is, fi = 0 if and only if f is holomorphic.
It is easy to check that the operators on forms we have defined satisfy
d =a
It is also easy to see that

a2 = a + o = = 0,
whenever these operators are defined.
1.3.7. In the previous paragraph the complex structure on M was still
not used in any essential way. We shall now make essential use of it to define
the operation of conjugation on smooth (C I or C2—as is necessary) differ-
ential forms.
We introduce the conjugation operator * as follows: For a 1-form co given
by (3.1.1), we define
*co = — g dx dy. (3.7.1)
This is the most important case and the only one we shall need in the sequel.
To define the operator * on functions and 2-forms, we choose a non-vanishing
2-form 2 (z) dx A dy on the surface. (Existence of such a canonical 2-form will
follow trivially from IV.8.) Iff is a function, we set
*f f(z)(4z) dz A dy).
For a 2-form ,Q, we set

*S2 = 012(z) dx A dy.
It is clear that for each k = 0, 1, 2,
*:Ak
and ** = ( — 1)k. Further, if co is given in complex notation by (3.2.4 then
*a) = — iu(z) dz + iv(z) dT. (3.7.2)
The operation * defined on 1-forms co has the following geometric inter-
pertation. Iff is a C' function and z(s) = x(s) + iy(s)is the equation of a curve
parametrized by arc-length, then the differential df has the geometric
interpretation of being (0110-c) ds, where Offe-t is the directional derivative of
f in the direction of the tangent to the curve z. In this context, *df has the
geometric interpertation of being ( Of/an) ds, where Of left is the directional
derivative of f in the direction of the normal to the curve z. (Note that
ds = Idzi in this discussion.)
Remark. The reader should check that the above definitions (for example
(3.7.1)) are all well defined in the sense that *co is indeed a 1-form (that is,
it transforms properly under change of local coordinates).
1.3.8. Our principal interest will be in 1-forms. Henceforth all differential
forms are assumed to be 1-forms unless otherwise specified. A form co is called
exact if a) = df for some C2 function f on M; a) is called co-exact if *a) is
exact (if and only if co = *df for some C2 function f). We say that co is closed
provided it is C' and dco = 0; we say co is co-closed provided *ai is closed.
Note that every exact (co-exact) differential is closed (co-closed). Whereas

on a simply connected domain, closed (co-closed) differentials are exact
(co-exact). Hence, closed I co-closed) differentials are locally exact (co-exact).
If f is a C2 function on M, we define the Laplacian of f, Af in local coor-
dinates by
Af = (fx„ + o f ) dx A dy.
The function f is called harmonic provided tlf = 0. A 1-form co is harmonic
provided it is locally given by df with f a harmonic function.
Remarks
1. It is easy to compute that for every C2 function f,
— 2i f = 4f= d*df (3.8.1)
2. It must, of course, be verified that the Laplacian operator A is well defined.
(Here, again, the fact that we are dealing with Riemann surfaces, and not
just a differentiable surface, is crucial.)
3. The concept of harmonic function is, of course, a local one. Thus we know
that locally every real-valued harmonic function is the real part of a
holomorphic function. Further, real valued harmonic functions satisfy
the maximum and minimum principle (that is, a non-constant real-valued
harmonic function does not achieve a maximum nor a minimum at any
interior point).
Proposition. A differential a) is harmonic (land only (fit is closed and co-closed.

PROOF. A harmonic differential is closed (since d 2 = 0). It is co-closed by
(3.8.1). Conversely, if co is closed, then locally co -- df with f a 0 function.
Since co is co-closed, d(*df) = 0. Thus, f is harmonic. 0
At this point observe that we have a pairing between the homology group
H„ and the group of closed n-forms of class C'. This pairing is interesting
for n = 1, and we describe it only in this case. If c is a 1-cycle and co is a closed
1-form of class C2, define <c,co> = $, co.The homology group H, is defined by
Z,/B 1 , where Z 1 is the kernel of 6 and 13 1 is the image of the 2-chains in the
one chains. The operator d on functions of class C2 and differentials of class
C2 gives rise also to subgroups of the group of closed 1-forms. In particular
the exact differentials are precisely the image of C2 functions (0-forms) in
the group of 1-forms, and the closed forms themselves are the kernel of d
operating on C2 1-forms. Hence the quotient of closed 1-forms by exact
1-forms is a group and we have for compact surfaces a nonsingular pairing
between H I and this quotient group. We shall soon see that this quotient
group is isomorphic to the space of harmonic differentials. (See 11.3.6.)
L3.9. A 1-form to is called holomorphic provided that locally co = df with

f holomorphic.
J.3. Differential Forms 25
Proposition. a. If u is a harmonic function on M, then (3u is a holomorphic

differential.
b. A differential co = u dz + y di is holontorphic if and only if y = 0 and u is
a holomorphic function (of the local coordinate).
PROOF. If u is harmonic, then (31.4 = O. Since au = uz dz, we see that uz is

holomorphic (u„ = 0) and thus it suffices to prove only part (b), which is,
of course, trivial (since we can integrate power series term by term). CI
1.3.10. Assume a) = udz + v cif is a C' differential. Then (using d = a +0)

we see-that
da) = Oh — vz )df A dz,
and
d*co = — + vz)clf A dz.
Thus, we see that a) is harmonic if and only if u and T7 are holomorphic.
Hence, we see that if co is harmonic, there are unique holomorphic differentials
co l and a)2 such that
w = (Di + (D2-
1.3.11. Theorem. A differential form co is holomorphic if and only if co = a + i*a
for some harmonic differential a.
PROOF. Assume that a is harmonic. Then

a = ca l + (7)2
with co -(j = 1,2) holomorphic. Thus
* or = + 02.
Thus,
a + i*a = 2a) i
is holomorphic. Conversely, if a) is holomorphic, then a) and cr) are harmonic
and so is
—
a
= 2 •
Further
—10) — itr3
2
Thus
CO = + i *CZ.
Corollary. A differential o) is holomorphic ff and only if it is closed and

*co = —ico.
PROOF. The forward implication has already been verified (every holomorphic
differential is harmonic). For the reverse, note that if co is given by (3.2.1)
and *o.) = ico, then (3.7.2) implies that co = u dz. Since do) = 0, u is
holomorphic.
1.4. Integration Formulae

In this section we gather several useful consequences of Stokes' theorem.
1.4.1. Theorem (Integration by Parts). Let D be a relatively compact region

on a Riemann surface M with piecewise differentiable boundary. Let f be a
C' function and co a C' 1-form on a neighborhood of the closure of D. Then
(4.1.1)
PROOF. Apply Stokes' theorem to the 1-form fco and observe that d(jio)=
f do) + df A co.
Corollary 1. If co is a closed (in particular, holomorphic) 1-form, then (under

the hypothesis of the theorem)
IÔD CI)
PROOF. Take f to be the constant function with value 1.
Corollary 2. Let f be C' function and w a C' 1-form on the Riemann surface
M. If either f or co has compact support, then
ffm f do)— Sim o) df = 0. (4.1.2)
PROOF. If M is not compact, then take D to be compact and have nice bound-
ary so that either f or co vanishes on bD and use (4.1.1). If M is compact
cover M by a finite number of disjoint triangles Ll, j = 1, . . . , n. Over each
triangle (4.1.1) is valid. We obtain (4.1.2) by noting that
•E fro = 0,
J=1
since each edge appears in exactly 2 triangles with opposite orientation. D

1.4.2. We fix a region D on M. By a measurable 1-form w on D, we mean
a 1-form (given in local coordinates by)
co = u dz + y dT,
where u and y are measurable functions of the local coordinates. As usual,
we agree to identify two forms if they coincide almost everywhere (sets of
Lebesgue measure zero are well defined on M!). We denote by L 2(D) the
complex Hilbert space of 1-forms co with
IfreV = If, co A *53 < C°. (4.2.1)

Note that in local coordinates
(V A = tqdz A df
= 2(lur + ivr)dx dy.
We also define the inner product of oh, co 2 e L2(D) by
on ie`
(coi,c0Do = SJ' wl D A *63 2- (4.2.2)
Using obvious notational conventions, we see that
a)1 A * C52 = (Uid: Vidn A — it'2d:.9 = 4/10742 + V)d.: A dr,

and thus
(WIP2)D = JID WI A * 02 = fi(uit-72 + v1-u2)dz A di

= (741142 ± 172 iv2)dz A di = lip CO 2 A *CT)
= (02,04),
as is required for a Hilbert space inner product. Further,
= ffp *WI A — f2
= SL, 02 A *6 -5 1 = (02,01)D = (cobc02)v•

Remark. Whenever there can be no confusion, the domain D will be dropped
from the symbols for the norm (4.2.1) and inner products (4.2.2) in L2(D).
1.4.3. Proposition. Let D be a relatively compact region on M with piecewise

differentiable boundary. Let (p be a C' function and a a C' differential on a
neighborhood of the closure of D. Then
(d(p,*a) =
5f1,
— LD (4.3.1)
PROOF. By Stokes' theorem
fdiD = ffD d((°)= P L d(P A

= ff — (d(p,*a). D
dFi
1.4.4. Proposition. If cp and tit are C2 functions on a neighborhood of the

closure of D, then
(440) = — ffp (I) Tr/ + 45' *3-1 (4.4.1)
PROOF. By Stokes' theorem
SD =
= ld,p A * dip + d*3
(dp,dip) + SSD q4. 0
Corollary. We have
(4.4.2)
ffp (9 — LIT) --= dD (q)*dtP *
PROOF. Rewrite (4.4.1) with replacing tP. Rewrite the resulting expression
by interchanging 9 and tp. Subtract one from the other, and use the fact
that (c19,d) = (dt1/4).
1.4.5. Proposition. We have
(d9,*dili) = 9 4.
PROOF. The notation is of Proposition 1.4.4. Apply Proposition 1.4.3 with
a = dtP (recall that d2 = 0).
1.4.6. We apply now the previous results (D is as defined in Proposition

1.4.3) to analytic differentials.
Proposition. If 9 is a Cl function and co is an analytic differential on a neigh-

borhood of the closure of D, then
Sao ff
= JD d(pAd-).
PROOF. Use (4.3.1) with a = co and observe that OE) is closed.
Corollary. If f and g are holomorphic functions on a neighborhood of the closure

D, then
LD = — g df.
PROOF. By the proposition
J0 f a = D df
Also,
df = fiD df.
1.4.7. Proposition. If f is a holomorphic function and co is a holomorphic dif-

ferential on a neighborhood of the closure of D, then
D df A (70- -= 2 LD (Re f)C5 = 2i Lam f
PROOF. Observe that

Sap (Re f — ilm f)cii = Li@ = 0
by Cauchy's theorem (or because d(fco) = 0 since fco is a holomorphic form).
Thus
2 LD Re f = LD (Re f + Im f)(T) = o df .
Thus, also
4 _2 Sap Re(if)œ) fiD df
CHAPTER II
Existence Theorems
One way to study Riemann surfaces is through the meromorphic functions

on them. Our first task is to show that every Riemann surface carries non-
constant meromorphic functions. We do so by constructing certain harmonic
differentials (with singularities). From the existence of harmonic differen-
tials, it is trivial to construct meromorphic differentials. A ratio of two
linearly independent meromorphic differentials produces a non-constant
meromorphic function.
Our basic approach is through the Hilbert space OM) introduced in
1.4.2. It is the key to the existence theorem for harmonic differentials with
and without singularities. This method should be contrasted with the
equally powerful method to be developed in Chapter IV.
11.1. Hilbert Space Theory—A Quick Review

We need only the first fundamental theorem about Hilbert space: the
existence of projections onto arbitrary closed subspaces.
11.1.1. Let H be a (complex) Hilbert space with inner product (- ,• ) and

norm 11.11. If F is any subspace of H, then the orthogonal complement of F in
H,
Fi = {h e H;(f ,h)= 0 all f e F}
is a closed subspace of H (hence a Hilbert space). About the only non-trivial
result on Hilbert spaces that we will need is
11.1.2. Theorem. Let F be a closed subspace of a Hilbert space H. Then every

h E H can be written uniquely as
h=f+g
with f E F, g E F1. Furthermore, f is the unique element of F which minimizes
ilh — 911, cp E F.
11.1.3. Writing f = Ph, we see that we also have the following equivalent
form of the previous
,•- ...-
Theorem. Let F be a closed subs pace of a Hilbert space II. There exists a
unique linear mapping
P:H —+ F
satisfying:
a- VII = 1,
b. P2 = P (P is a projection), and
c. ker P = F1.
The mapping P is called the orthogonal projection onto F. The proofs of

the above theorems may be found in any of the standard text books on
Hilbert spaces.
11.2. Weyl's Lemma

We have introduced, in 1.4.2, the Hilbert space L 2(M) of square integrable
(measurable) 1-forms on the Riemann surface M. In this section we lay the
ground-work for characterizing the harmonic differentials in L2(M). The
characterization is in terms of integrals. We show that a "weak solution" to
Laplace's equation is already a harmonic function. The precise meaning of
the above claim is the content of
112.1. Theorem (Weyl's Lemma). Let 9 be a measurable square integrable

function on the unit disk D. The function 9 is harmonic if and only if
ffp 9 An = 0 (2.1.1)
for every C function n on D with compact support.
Remark. In the above theorem, the sentence "9 is harmonic" should, of

course, be replaced by "9 is equal almost everywhere (a.e.) to a harmonic
function". We will in similar contexts make similar identifications in the
future.
32 H Existence Theorems
PROOF OF THEOREM. Assume that cp is harmonic. Let D,. = {Z e C;

and assume that n is supported in D,. Use 1(4.4.2) and conclude that
— n 49) = L,,r (gs, dn —

(because I/ and *A vanish on (5D,). Thus
ff0,9 All ff dcp = 0 (2.1.3)
(because d(p = 0). But
L = A n'
and thus the necessity of (2.1.1) is established.
(2.1.4)
To prove the converse, we assume first that p is C. Choosing 0 < r < 1

as before, we obtain (2.1.2) as a consequence of 1(4.4.2), and hence (2.1.3)
because of (2.1.1). As a consequence of (2.1.4) we may assume r = 1. Equation
(2.1.3) shows that z = 0 in D. To verify this claim it clearly suffices to
consider only real-valued functions cp and n . Let ti(z) = 4 a291a2" Oz. If
114 zo ) > 0 for some Zo E D, we choose a neighborhood U of zo such that
Cl U (= the closure of U) c D and such that (I/ > 0 in U. Select a C° function
I with (z 0) > 0 and n supported in U. It is clear that for such q, ILA Acp > O.
Thus 49 = 0 and cp is harmonic in D.
The heart of the matter is to drop the smoothness assumption on cp. Fix
0 < e < f. Construct a real-valued C (= smooth) function p on the positive
real axis [0,x) such that
05p_<_ 1,
p(r)= O if r > E,
and
p(r)= 1 if 0 r < 6/2.
(See Figure III)
Set for r > 0,
1
co(r)= p(r) log r.
2ir
(See Figure 11.2)
(r)
p(r)
Define on C x C
02
4 co(lz — 1) if z C,
7(z.;;) =j fez
0—
0 if z = C.
Since logiz — CI is a harmonic function on CVO, y(z,C) = 0 for lz — CI <
(also for lz — > E)•
Let ti be a C function with support in D i _ 2,. Consider
d
0(z) =.'ff, ( 0(1C -- zi)ii(C) 2i , ZE C. (2.1.5)
It is clear that ik is a continuous function on C with support in D I Observe

that we may integrate over C instead of over D, and that by a change of
variable (after extending i to be zero outside its support)
oz) ssca)(1012(c z) E1C A2idr.
Thus
- - SS, 0(1(1);i p(c

i
z) dc—^24
= fjc co(Koîz p(c z)422":

a A
= —
Similarly,
aly a A dr
dC
OC —2i
Thus Ili is C. We claim that
a2q, 4A
v(zatco - 2.. (2.1.6)
4 araz = +
Note that
1dC A 4.
4/(z) = zi <02 p(C)logIC _ 2i
dc A dZ
ffic- zi e/2 CO(IC I)'40 —2i
= ce(z) +
34 II Existence Theorems
Note further that

02s rf r in dCAdr
(2.1.7)
4 irf ez = JJK —.1> et2 7(:"..)11 ‘.' ) _2i
fse 7(z,c)ii(c) d A2d. Z.
We have already shown that da exists (tp is C). Thus we may compute
formally. Now 01/0.7 can be computed formally without any difficulty (since
differentiating under the integral sign leads to a Lebesgue integrable function).
First
a a ,
, 1
IC — 2 z'
and thus
aci 1 rt . Ii(c) dc dr
(2.1.8)
1.11C — zI<e12 — Z — 2i
That
a2ct
4 = —/1 (2.1.9)
OzOz
will follow from
11.2.2. Lemma (Cauchy's Integral Formula). Let B be connected open subset

of C bounded by finitely many C' Jordan curves. If U E B), then for
ZE B,
27riu(z)— faeçz
u(C) (IC + SS (3— , 14RZ' ciC dC. (2.2.1)
B‘—z
PROOF. Let e > 0 be chosen so that the closed ball of radius e about z is
contained in B. Let B, be the complement in B of this ball. Start with Stokes'
theorem
= 5.1.B. :c (cu(C)z )4 cg,
and obtain
2w
ff.., _ ,
z d-c•A = f B r, — Z —
4 0
L47. ze ie) dO.
Letting e ■ 0, we obtain (2.2.1).

-
11.2.3. Proof of Weyl's Lemma (Conclusion). To verify formula (2.1.9), it

lc
suffices to assume that p has support in — zl < e/2, and thus that the
integral in (2.1.8) extends over C. To check this last claim, define
_ - -
v(0 = P(2 IC - z1),40, E C.
Note that
p(C) dC A dr rr v d; dr
ff zl<t12 — z -2i - ..1.31;-:1<e/2 — Z -2i
pg) vg)dC A cir
+If 14-21 <E12
—
— Z -2i
(2.3.1)
v() = p(C) for IC - zl < e/4,

and that
vg) = 0 for IC - 8/2.
The third integral in (2.3.1) represents a holomorphic function of z, and thus

the 15-derivative of the first and second integral in (2.3.1) must coincide. So
now we assume that p has support in K — zI /2. As before (when we <
computed 4/0!),
ace 1 IT p(C z) A dr
öz = 4xJJC C -2i
and thus
a2. rr /2(c
,- + z) dC A dr 1 cc 1,6+ z)dC A dr
= 4rt C -2i - 47c Jic -21
=— ff apiez dt- A dr
= -
1
- p(z)
4n c C - z -2i 4
by (2.2.1).
We now use condition (2.1.1) with ri = tfr (of the previous construction
via (2.1.5)). Thus we obtain
dz riT
0 = f fD 9 = -HD 9(z)p(z)
-2i
-I- If
D
9(z)
dz
aT,aZ —21
df
. ,
36 Il Existence Theorems
where (40 213/67.-- ôz) is given by (2.1.7). Hence for every C function p with
support in D, we have by Fubini's theorem
ff„,z, (p(*(:)dz_ 2icif= oz) A:aim (I;_ 21tiZ dz_ (Lf

= ff ffD(z) 49(z)Y(z,Od z Ad -2- 4 —A2i —dr2i . (2.3.2)
(In the above D(z) is just another symbol for D, and the (z) is supposed to
remind the reader that we are integrating with respect to z.) It thus follows
(because C`c functions of compact support are dense in the L. 2 functions) that
d:A d
= (o(), a.e. L'; E D. (2.3.3)
—2i
Clearly the left-hand side is C' (in ;), and thus the proof is complete.
Remark. We do not need to know that C" functions of compact support

are dense in L 2 (D). We show that we can do with slightly less. Let No
denote the left-hand side of (2.3.3). If (2.3.3) is not true then (for real (p)
one of the sets
D = { z E C; (p(z)> qi(z)}
D_ =
has positive measure. Hence we may assume that one of these sets has
interior. If we now choose it to be non-negative and to have support in this
set, then we obtain a contradiction to (2.3.2) as in the arguments that estab-
lished sufficiency for a C2 function cp. Thus it could have been assumed to
have support in an arbitrarily small set to begin with, simplifying slightly
the reasoning at the beginning of this paragraph.
EXERCISE
Prove the following alternate form of Weyl's lemma: Let (f) be a measurable square
integrable function on the unit disk D. The function cp is holomorphic if and only if
ffp (p(z) -ei dz (1-5 = 0 (2.3.4)
for every Cœ function n on D with compact support.

Hints.
(1) Let cp be holomorphic and smooth with compact support. Then
0= LD dz = SSD ((pn dz). (2.3.5)
This establishes necessity of (2.3.4). (The fact that tp is not defined on SD should
not cause any trouble.)
(2) For sufficiency, first assume q, is C. Use that for every t; with compact support
(2.3.5) holds, and thus
— JD qv , az A = (m i d.: A fi O.
From this equation deduce the Cauchy-Riemann equations.

(3) Now take arbitrary (p. Note that for arbitrary q with compact support,
r a 2i
e.z.ezdz A = A df.
Thus by the form of Weyl's lemma at our disposal, q, is C.

The above form of.Weyl's lemma can, of course, also be proven directly, and
our form recovered (with a few more technical complications) from this form.
11.2.4. Exercise
Let f e L2([0,1]). Show that f equals almost everywhere a constant if and only if
j: f(x)glx)dx = 0
for all C functions g on (0,1) with compact support.

This is the one-dimensional analogue of Weyl's lemma.
11.3. The Hilbert Space of Square Integrable Forms

We decompose the space of square integrable 1-forms into closed subspaces.
The basic tool is Weyl's lemma. The decomposition will prove to be most
useful for compact surfaces. In general, we establish a sufficient condition
for the existence of a non-zero square integrable harmonic 1-form. For
compact surfaces, the condition is also necessary.
11.3.1. Throughout this section, M will denote a Riemann surface and
OM), the Hilbert space of (measurable) square integrable 1-forms with inner
product (•,-) and norm (as defined in 1.4.2). Throughout this chapter
the word smooth will denote C.
Definition. We denote by E the L(M) closure of
{df ; f is a smooth function on M with compact support},
and by
E* = { a) E L2(M); * CO E E}.
Thus, for every co E E(E*), there exists a sequence of smooth functions
f„ on M with compact support such that
= lim df„ (= lim *df„).

38 11 Existence Theorems
Corresponding to these closed subspaces we have orthogonal decom-

positions of OM),
L 2(M) = E El
E* E", (3.1.1)
where, as usual,
= {co E L2(M); (co,df) = 0, for all smooth functions f on
M with compact support),
E" = (0) E OM); (co,*df) = 0, all f as above).
11.3.2. Proposition. Let s E L 2(M) be of class C'. Then a e E" (respectively,

E') if and only if a is closed (co-closed).
PROOF. Assume that a is closed. Let f be a smooth function on M with

support inside D (with Cl D compact). Then
(a,*df) = — SS° SAL = — ffp [d(w)— da Al]
= d( Œ-T) —L ai = 0.
Thus sE E". Conversely, we have starting from the second equality
da A f = 0, all smooth f on M with compact support.
This, of course, is sufficient to conclude (la = O. The argument for a E

is similar.
We let
H = n(E*)1,
and obtain the following orthogonal decomposition
L2(M) = E E* H. (3.2.1)
Note that from Proposition 11.3.2 we deduce that E and E* are orthog-
onal subspaces. It then follows that the direct sum E E* is closed and
thus also a Hilbert subspace of L2(M). By orthogonal decomposition
(Theorem MU), we therefore certainly have LAM) = (E e E*) (E e Ell,
and all we need to establish (3.2.1) is to verify the easy identity (E E*)i =
(E*)1. Comparing (3.2.1) with (3.1.1) we see that
= E* e H
= E H.
11.3.3. Let c be a simple closed curve on M. Cover c by a finite number
of coordinate disks and obtain a region S2 containing c. We call this region
0, a strip around c. By choosing Q sufficiently small, we may assume that
it is an annulus and that fl\e consists of two annuli ST, f2 +. We orient c
so that fr is to the left of c. We put a smaller strip, 00 , (with corresponding

one-sided strips 14, f7t, ) around c in Q. We construct a real-valued function
f on M with the following properties (see Figure 11.5):
f(P) = 1, Pc 14,
f(P)= 0, PE MV2 - ,
and
f is of class C on M\c.
We now define a Coe differential
0.
df on Q\c,
11c = 0 on (M \f2) u c.
Figure 11.5
It is clear that tw is a closed, smooth, real differential form with compact

support. It is, in general, not exact. We call it the differential form associated
with the closed curve c.
Proposition. Let cc E OM) be closed and of class C. Then
.1:cc = (OE, * li ) • (3.3.1)

PROOF. We compute
(c0(c) = Cf A qc — CC df = df a
= ff._ d(fa) — fin _ f da = Ho_ d(fix)

= f fct = f cc.
11.3.4. Proposition. Let a E L 2(M) be of class C . Then cc is exact (respectively,
co-exact) if and only if (a,#) = 0 for all co-closed (closed) smooth differentials
fi of compact support.
PROOF. Hoc is C' and exact, then cc = df with f of class C 2. If fl is co-closed,
smooth, with support in D (with Cl D compact), then
(a,#) = fiD df A = ffp [d( f*) — fdli]

= fJD = O.
To establish the converse, it suffices to show (because a is closed by Propo-

sition 11.3.2) that I, = 0 for all simple closed curves. But this follows
from the hypothesis and (3.3.1). The assertion for the co-exact differentials
follows from the part of the proposition already established.
11.3.5. The most important result about OM) is contained in the following
Theorem. The Hilbert space H consists of the harmonic differentials in OM).

PROOF. If a) e L 2 (M) is harmonic, then co is smooth, closed, and co-closed.
Thus by Proposition 11.3.2, a) E n (E*) 1 = H.
For the converse, let (.0 E H. Choose a coordinate disk D on M with local
coordinate z = x + iy. Choose a real-valued function )1 that is smooth and
eq
supported in D. Let ço = ,113x and ti/ = aq/ey. Then 9) and'', are C functions
on M with support in D and acp/ay = i3ix. Write a) as p dx + q dy (with p
and q measurable) on D. Since a) E n (E*)1,
0 = (co,dcp) = ffp (pcpx + q9y)dx A dy, (3.5.1)
0 = (co,*dtli) = D (— Inky + qtlfx)dx A dy. (3.5.2)

Thus
0 = (co, dcp — *dtp) = p(cp x + dy
(3.5.3)
PA n-
By Weyl's lemma, p is harmonic and hence C t . Applying this result to
*co (which also belongs to El n E*I) we see that q is C t . Hence co is of class
C t . Proposition 11.3.2 now yields that a) is closed and co-closed (that is,
harmonic).
Remark. The space L 2(M) can best be represented by the "three" dimen-
sional "orthogonal" diagram given in Figure 11.6.
E(exact)
E* (co-exact)
co-closed _
(harmonic)H
Figure 11.6
Corollary
a. The L 2(M) closure of the square integrable closed (respectively, co-closed)
differentials is E H (E* H).
b. The square integrable smooth differentials are dense in L 2 (M).
b'. The smooth differentials with compact support are dense in L 2(M).
The verification of (a) and (b) is at this stage trivial. For example, if co is closed,
then co e .E*I =EeH. Conversely, if co e E H, then co = co, + (1) 2 with
E E and co2 E H. Thus, co2 is closed (it is harmonic) and co, = lim„ dl,,
with f„ smooth of compact support. We have shown that co is the limit of
closed differentials. "'" —
We cannot at this point establish (13'). We need to know that
M = U D.,
where
D„ is open,
D„ c D„ +1 ,
and
Cl D,, is compact
(a fact that will follow from 1V.5). Having such an "exhaustion" of M, we
construct a sequence of smooth functions {f„} on M with
0 f„ 1,
f„ = 1 on D„,
(support of f,,) c D„ 1 .
It clearly suffices to show that every E H can be approximated in L2(M)
by smooth forms with compact support. Now f„a E L 2(M) is smooth and
has compact support. By the Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem,
Caution. Not every exact (co-exact) differential is in E(E*). For example:

consider the unit disk D. Let f be a function holomorphic in a neighborhood
of the closure of D. Then df E H. Clearly, df is exact as well as harmonic.
For compact surfaces E does, of course, contain all the exact differentials.
Thus, our picture is quite accurate in this case. (The above analysis shows
that a compact surface carries no non-constant harmonic functions. The
differential of such a function would have to be in both E and H, which would
imply the function is constant. This fact can, of course, also be established
as a consequence of the maximum and minimum principles for real valued
harmonic functions.)
11.3.6. As a digression, we consider the situation of a compact Riemann
surface M, and expand slightly our discussion of 1.3.8. We define, the first
de Rahm cohomology group of M, H'(M), as the smooth closed differentials

modulo the smooth exact differentials. If a is a closed smooth differential,
then its equivalence class in W ( W) is called the cohomology class of a. There
is a pairing
H i(M) x 11 1 (M) C
which maps the pair (c,a), where c is a closed piecewise differentiable path
on M and a is a smooth 1-form, onto T. a. It is quite clear that this integral
depends only on the homology class of c and the cohomology class of a.
It vanishes for a given cohomology class a over all curves c if and only if a
is the zero class (represented by an exact differential). Thus the above pairing
is non-singular. Further, every homomorphism of H i(M) into C is given by
integration over curves against some a E 11 1(M). (See also 111.2).
Note also that
11 1 (M)a,' H, (3.6.1)
and that the cohomology class of the 1-form ric constructed in 11.3.3 is
uniquely determined by equation (3.3.1) and depends only on the homology
class of c. The isomorphism of (3.6.1) is the surface version of the much more
general Hodge theorem.
11.3.7. Theorem. A sufficient condition for the existence of a non-zero harmonic

differential on a Rieinann surface M is the existence of a square integrable
closed differential which is not exact. If M is compact, the condition is also
necessary. Explicitly, for every closed 0) E OM), there exists a co 2 e H such
that fc w =J co 2 for all closed curves c on M.
PROOF. Let CO E L2(M) be closed and not exact. Then w e = E (4) H.

Thus, w = w, + w 2 with co, E E and 0)2 E H. Note that w, must be 0.
Since co is not exact, there is a closed curve c with j, w O. Since Lw, = 0,
we must have I, w2 = co 0 O. Hence w 2 O.
If M is compact, then there are no exact harmonic differentials so that any
0 w e If is closed and not exact.
11.3.8. In view of Theorem 11.3.7 we see that in order to construct harmonic

differentials, we must construct closed differentials that are not exact.
Let c be a simple closed curve on the Riemann surface M that does
not separate (that is, M\c is connected). We construct now a closed curve
Figure 11.7
HA. Harmonic Differentials 43
c* (a dual curve to c) by starting on the right( +) side of c and ending up on

the other ( = left ( — )) side of c. (See Figure 11.7).
The curve c* will intersect c in exactly one point P. Using the construction
and notation of 11.3.3, we see that
L. nc = Q—P
lim f(Q) — lim f(Q) = 1
-
(here, of course, limQ_,,- means you approach P through C2'). This remark
together with Theorem 11.3.7 establishes the following
Theorem. If the Riemanrsurface M carries a-closed curve that does not sep-
arate, then there exists a closed non-exact differential in L 2(M) and therefore
a non-zero harmonic differential.
11.4. Harmonic Differentials

We have seen in the previous sections that on a compact surface there do
not exist exact (non-zero) harmonic differentials. To construct "exact har-
monic differentials" we must hence allow singularities. In this section we
construct harmonic functions and differentials with a prescribed isolated
singularity.
11.4.1. Let D be a parametric disc with local coordinate z = x + iy on a
Riemann surface M. It involves no loss of generality to assume that z maps D
onto the open unit disc. We assume that z = 0 corresponds to the point
Po e M. We define a function h on M by choosing a real number a, 0 < a < 1,
an integer n 1, and setting
{z - " if P E D and z(P)i a,

h (P) = a
0 otherwise.
(In the future we will identify the point P c D with its image z(P) e C and
hence write the above equation for h
+ for Izi a,
h(z) = a
0 for izi > a.
In this convention the points in M\D are denoted by Uzi 11.)
We define another function 0 on M by setting
0(z) = h(z) for a/2,
and requiring 0 to be smooth in {Izi a}.
We form the differential dû E OM) (this terminology involves some abuse

of notation since 0 is C only on M \{1::1 = a}). It is smooth whenever 0 is.
Note that because of the discontinuity of 0, dû does not have to belong to
E*I. Write
dO = + (4.1.1)
with a E E and ai E El = E* H.
Let U be a parametric disk about the point Q0 e M. Let = + i be a
local coordinate vanishing at Qo . We choose a real-valued smooth function
p on M with support in U and set = = Op/aq(as in 11.3.5). Write
a = pck + qdri in U. Since a e El', obtain as in (3.5.2),
0 = (a.*dtp) = ffti ( — pi/a + q11/4)d dq.
Also since CO E we obtain as in (3.5.1),
(d0,d9) = (a,d(p) = f fu (p(pg + q9)4 A chi.
The difference of the last two expressions yields (as in (3.5.3))
(d0,d9) = f fu p d p. (4.1.2)
Similarly, by interchanging the roles of 9 and tP and adding (rather than

subtracting) the two resulting expressions, we obtain
= ffu qdp. (4.1.3)
We know that a E E*I. Thus a is annihilated by all co-exact differentials
with compact support. Thus if a is C' on a given open subset of M, it must
be a closed form on that subset by Proposition 11.3.2. As an illustration we
assume that Q0 does not belong to {izi = Cl D., and we take U also to
belong to the complement of Cl D.. In this case (since dû vanishes on (1z1 > al)
(d0,dtP) = O = (d0,d9),
and we conclude from (4.1.2) and (4.1.3) and Weyl's lemma that p and q
are harmonic (thus C') in U. In particular, a is a smooth closed differential
on M \CI Da . (The above was not necessary because of the stronger statement
we are about to prove. We included it to help the reader.)
Our first step is to show that a is harmonic on M \CI D012 . So we assume
that U c M \CI D012. We compute (using (4.1.2))
ffu p dp = (d0,d(p)m
= (d0,4) D012 (d0,4) 0.\D„,2 + (d0,4)m\00 .
We have
(d0,dcp)0.,2 = 0, since (19 = 0 on D 0 121
(dO,d (P)M‘D. = 0, since dû = 0 on M\Da.
It remains to evaluate the middle integral. We will show that is it zero. If

U c M\Da, the integral vanishes because 4 = 0 on Da. It hence involves
no loss of generality to assume that U c D and that z = Ç.
We recall the formula 1(4.4.1)
= A *A
= .0\D012 9 LID + 510).\D./ 2) qed0).

Again, the double integral (on the right-hand side) vanishes because 0 is
harmonic on D\C1 D.,,nimilarly; the line integral vanishes because 9 = 0
on lizi = a/21, while by a simple calculation
00 00
= idzi= —Idzi
ert Or
(where mien is the normal derivative of 0 and 00/0r is the radial derivative
of 0) vanishes on {1z1 = a}. Thus we see that a is closed on M \CI D012 .
We compute next for p with compact support inside M\D012 :
(2,dp)= (d0,dp) — (co,dp)= (d0,dp)
= (d0,dpi,D.`4).12 = 0,
by the argument just used. Thus t is co-closed on M \C1 Dai2 by Proposition
11.3.2; that is, a is harmonic on .11\C1 D012.
Finally, what happens close to the singularity of h? Assume that the
support of p is now contained inside Da. We have
(d0,d(p) = ffD. (Oxpxx + Oypxy) dx A dy,
and
0 = (d0,*dtb)= — f fD.. (0„p„ — Oypyx )dx A dy.
The first equality on the last line follows from the fact that dû is closed on
Da and hence E E* (with respect to Da). As a consequence we obtain from
the above two equations:
(d0,d9) = ffp. Olo + p„)dx dy = ffD. Ox xs,
It follows therefore from (4.1.2) that
0= (p — O x)
Similarly, we can obtain
0=
SL. (q — 0 y) dp.
Thus, by Weyl's lemma, p — O x and q — 0, are harmonic in Da. In particular,
p and q are smooth on Da.
We have shown that z E E = (E* (1) H )i is smooth. Since E* e H contains

the co-closed differentials with compact support, z is exact by Proposition
11.3.4. Hence there is a smooth function f on M with df = a. Since I is
harmonic on .11C1 D. 2, SO iSf.
By (4.1.1), d(0 — f)= w e Since 0 — f is smooth on D., d(0 — f) is a
co-closed differential on D.. Since d(0 — f) is clearly closed on D., we con-
clude that d(0 — f) is a harmonic differential on D. or that 0 — f is harmonic
in D.. We now define a function u on M
u=f — 0 + h.
For 0 < IzI < a, f — 0 and h are harmonic. For izi > a/2, f is harmonic and
h — 0 = O. Thus u is harmonic on M \ {Po } .
We summarize our conclusions in the following
Theorem. Let M be a Riemann surface with z a local coordinate vanishing at

Po E M. There exists on M a fiinction u with the following properties:
u is harmonic on M\ (,P01, (4.1.4)
u — z - " is harmonic on every sufficiently small neighborhood N of Po , (4.1.5)
ffm,N du A < oo, and (4.1.6)
(du,c/f) = 0 = (du,*df) for all smooth functions f on M that have
compact support and vanish on a neighborhood of Po. (4.1.7)
PROOF. Only (4.1.7) needs verification, and this follows because du is in H
with respect to the surface M',Cl N. El
11.4.2. Note that condition (4.1.5) is invariant under a limited class of
coordinate changes. (Determine this class!) It can, of course, also be replaced
by
u — Re z - " (resp., u — Im z") is (4.2.1)
harmonic in a neighborhood N of Po.
In this case we may require u to be real valued.
Observe also that if M is compact, then u is unique up to an additive
constant.
11.4.3. We note that our arguments to prove Theorem 11.4.1 did not depend
on the choice of the particular form of the function h with singularity as
long as
h is harmonic in {a/2 < z < a},
and
*dh = 0 on {izi = a } .
Thus, another candidate for h is the function
z — z 1 z a2 1.7,
—
h(z) = log 1z1 a, 0 < lz 11,1z21 < a/2.

z — z 2 z — a 2/ 2
Theorem. Let M be a Riemann surface and P 1 and P2 two points on M. Let

(j = 1.2) be a local coordinate vanishing at Pi . There exists on M a real-
valued function u with the following properties:
u is harmonic on MqP 1 ,P2 }, (4.3.1)

u — loglz i l is harmonic in a neighborhood of P 1
and u + loglz2 1 is harmonic in a neighborhood of P2, (4.3.2)
ffm\N du A *du <cc, for every open set N containing P 1 and P2,
and (4.3.3)
(du,df)= 0 = (du,*df) for all smooth functions f on M that have
compact support and vanish on a neighborhood of P 1 and P2. (4.3.4)
Note that condition (4.3.2) is invariant under coordinate changes.
PROOF OF THEOREM. The arguments preceding the statement of the theorem,
establish it for P, and P2 sufficiently close. If P 1 and P2 are arbitrary, we can
join P 1 to P2 by a chain P, = Q0, , Q„ = P2 so that Q. is close to
j = 1, , n. For each pair of points there is a function u; with appro-
priate singularity at 1 and Z. Let
u = u, + • • • + u„,
and note that u is regular at —1,
0 •• P - 1, and has appropriate (logarithmic)
singularities at Q 0 and Q.. 0
Remark. For compact M, the function u is unique up to an additive constant.
11.4.4. We can also let

z1 z — a2 /142
h(z) = arg — izi 5 a, 0 < lz,l, 1z2 1 < a/2.
Z — z2 z — a2/1.- 1 7
This case is slightly different from the previous one. The function h is not
well defined on M. It is well defined on Mqslit joining z 1 to z 2 1. Of course,
the differential du obtained by this procedure is well defined. We leave it
to the reader to formulate the analogue of Theorem 11.4.3 in this case.
11.4.5. The decomposition (3.2.1) is closely related to the Dirichlet Principle,
which we proceed to explain. Let D be a domain on a compact Riemann
surface M o whose boundary 3/3 consists of finitely many simple closed
analytic arcs. Thus, topologically D is a compact Riemann surface of genus
g 0 from which n > 0 discs have been removed. Consider now two copies
D and D' of D. We shall construct a compact Riemann surface M = Cl D u D'
known as the double of D. We use the usual local coordinates on D. A function
z is a local coordinate at P' E D' if and only if is a local coordinate at the
corresponding point P E D. We now identify each point P E 3D with the
corresponding point P'E SD'. To construct local coordinates at points of
3D, we map a neighborhood U of P E 3E) by a conformal mapping z into the
closed upper half plane such that U SD goes into a segment of the real axis.
By the reflection principle z is a local coordinate at P E M. Note that M is a
compact Riemann surface of genus 2g ± n — 1, and that there exists on M
an anti-conformal involution j such that j(D) = D' and j(P) = P for all
P E (5D. From now on we may forget about Mo and think of D as a domain
on its double M. (The above discussion is not strictly necessary for what
follows. It was introduced for its own sake.) We consider now the following
problem:
Fix a C2 function cp o defined on a neighborhood of Cl D. Among all functions
cp, C2 on a neighborhood of Cl D, find (if it exists) one u that has the same
boundary values (on SD) as cpo and minimizes 11411 0 over this class.
Assume that u is a harmonic function with the same boundary values as
(p o . We c. , ;npute for arbitrary (p with the same boundary values;
11d(o11 2 = (d(cp — u) + du, d(cp — u) + du)
= — 01 2 + 11(142 + 2 Re(d(q) — u),du).
Now use Proposition 1.4.4 to conclude that (d(cp — u),du) = 0 (since
— u = 0 on (5D and du = 0 on D). Thus
11411 2 = 11d((p — u)11 2 + I1d u 112 Ildu112.
Thus our problem has a unique solution—if we can find a harmonic
function with the same boundary values as (po . We shall in 1V.3 solve this
problem by Perron's method. Here we outline how the decomposition of
L2(D) given by (3.2.1) can be used to solve our problem. Finding a function
for which a given non-negative function on L 2(D) achieves a minimum is
known as the Dirichlet Principle.
Consider the function 9 0 . Since dcpo is exact (and thus closed), dcp o e
E (1) H. Now let co be the orthogonal projection of dcp onto H. We have
already seen that co is exact and harmonic. Thus co = du, for some harmonic
function u on D. Now d(u — cp 0) e E. Thus
(d(u — (p0),c() = 0, all a E H.
Let up,p2 be the function produced by Theorem 11.4.3. By letting a run
over the set of differentials
{dup,p2; P 1 E D', P2 E D'1,
one can show that u — q,,, is C 2 on a neighborhood of Cl D and that u —q, 0 =
0 on SD.
11.5. Meromorphic Functions and Differentials

Using the results of the previous section, we construct first meromorphic
differentials on an arbitrary Riemann surface M and then (non-constant)
meromorphic functions.
11.5.1. By a meromorphic differential on a Riemann surface we mean an

assignment of a meromorphic function f to each local coordinate z such that
f(z) dz
is invariantly defined.
Theorem
a. Let P E M and let z be a local coordinate on M vanishing at P. For every
integer n > 1, there exists a meromorphic differential on M which is holo-
morphic on MVP} and with singularity 1/z"+ at P.
b. Give* two distinct pobtts P, and,P 2 on M and local coordinates z; vanishing
at pi, j = 1, 2, there exists a meromorphic differential a), holomorphic on
MVP,,P,}, with singularity 1/: at P 1 and singularity —1/z 2 at P2.
PROOF. Let 1 = du where u is the function whose existence is asserted by

Theorem 11.4.1 for part (a) and by Theorem 11.4.3 for part (b). In the former
case set
—1
w = —( + i*a),
2n
and in the latter
11.5.2. Let q be an integer. By a (meromorphic) g-differential a) on M we

mean an assignment of-a meromorphic function f to each local coordinate
z on M so that
f(z) (5.2.1)
is invariantly defined. For q = 1, these are just the meromorphic differentials
previously considered, and they are called abelian differentials.
If w is a q-differential on M, and z is a local coordinate vanishing at
P E M, and w is given by (5.2.1) in terms of z, then we define the order of ta
at P by
ordp w = ord o f.
(If we write f(z)= zng(:) with g holomorphic and non-zero at z = 0, then
ord o f = n.) It is an immediate consequence of the fact that local parameters
are homeomorphisms that the order of a q-differential at a point is well
defined.
Note that {P e M; ordp w 0 } is a discrete set on M; thus a finite set,
if M is compact.
If w is an abelian differential, then we define the residue of w at P by
resp co = a_ 1 ,
where w is given by (5.2.1) in terms of the local coordinate z that vanishes at

P, and the Laurent series of f is
f(z) = E
n= N
The residue is well-defined since

1
resp co =
2711
where c is a simple closed curve in M that bounds a disk D containing P such
that c has winding number 1 about P and co is holomorphic in CID \
11.5.3. Theorem. Let P1,. , Pk be k> 1 distinct points on a Riemann surface

M. Let c l, , ck be complex numbers with El= ci = 0. Then there exists a
meromorphic abelian differential co on M, holomorphic on MVP 1 , ,P} with
ordpj to = — 1, resp2 to =- ci.
PROOF. Let Po E M, Po Pi, j = 1, . • , k. Choose a local coordinate
vanishing at Pi, j = 0, , k. For j = 1, . . . , n, let co; be an abelian differ-
ential with singularities 1/z i at Pi and — 1/z0 at Po and no other singularities.
Set
= E ci
1=1
Corollary. Every Riemann surface M carries non-constant meromorphic

functions.
PROOF. Let P1 , P2, P, be three distinct points on M. Let co, be a differential

holomorphic on MVP 1 ,P2 } with
ordp, Co 1 = —1 = ordp2 coi
resp, co l = +1, resp2 co l = — 1.
Let oh be a differential holomorphic on MVP2,P3 } with
ordp2 w2 = —1 = ordp, w2,
reSp2 CO2 = 1, reSp3 CO2 = —1.
Set f = co1 /co2 . Note that f has a pole at P 1 and a zero at P3.
11.5.4. Proposition. Let M be a compact Riemann surface and co an abelian

differential on M. Then
E resp co = O. (5.4.1)
PeM
PROOF. Triangulate M so that each singularity of co is in the interior of one

triangle. Let A 1 , 4 2, , Ak be an enumeration of the 2-simplices in the
triangulation. Then
1
E resp co = E f64i CO, (5.4.2)
Pet,' 2rti .1=
I
where 64 ; is the (positively oriented) boundary of 4, . Since each 1-simplex

appears twice, with opposite signs, in the sum (5.4.2), we conclude that
(5.4.1) holds.
EXERCISE
Using only formal manipulations of power series show that the residue of a meromorphic
abelian differential is well defined.
Remark. The above proposition shows that the sufficient condition in

Theorem 11.5.3 is also necessary if the surface M is compact.
EXERCISE
Give an alternate proof of Proposition 1.1.6 in the special case that N=Cv too).
First reduce to showing that it suffices to establish that f has as many poles as zeros.
Then relate ordp f to resp(dflf).
11.5.5. Remark. The existence of meromorphic functions shows at once

that every compact Riemann surface M is triangulable. Let
f C u (c}
be a non-constant meromorphic function. Triangulate C u {oo} with a
triangulation d i , 4 2, , zi k such that the image under f of every ramified
point (points P e M with bf (P) > 0) is a vertex of the triangulation and
such that f restricted to the interior of each component off -1 (A ) is injective.
It is clear that this triangulation of C u {co} lifts to a triangulation of M.
The existence of meromorphic functions has many other important
consequences. We will discuss these in IV.3 and IV.5. Also, in IV.3 we will
establish the existence of meromorphic functions without relying on integra-
tion (for which triangulations are needed). Thus we will be able to derive the
above topological facts from the complex structure on the Riemann surface.
CHAPTER m
Compact Riemann Surfaces
This is one of the two most important chapters of this book. In it, we prove.
on the existence theorems of the previous chapter) the three most (based
important theorems concerning compact Riemann surfaces: the Riemann-
Roch theorem, Abel's theorem, and the Jacobi inversion theorem. Many
applications of these theorems are obtained; and the simplest compact
Riemann surfaces, the hyperelliptic ones, are discussed in great detail.
III.!. Intersection Theory on Compact Surfaces

We have shown (in 1.2) that a single non-negative integer (called the genus)
yields a complete topological classification of compact Riemann surfaces.
Every surface of genus Ois topologically the sphere, while isurface of positive
genus, g, can be obtained topologically by identifying in pairs appropriate
sides of a 4g-sided polygon. The reader should at this point review Figures 1.3
and 1.4 in 1.2.5. Thus, with each surface of genus g > Owe associate a 4g-sided
polygon with symbol a,biai- b i-1 agbga.; 1 1); 1 (as in 1.2.5). The sides of
• • •
the polygon correspond to curves (homology classes) on the Riemann surface.

These curves intersect as shown in the figures referred to above. Our aim is to
make this vague statement precise. This involves the introduction of a
cononical homology basis (basis for H 1 ) on M.
111.1.1. Let c be a simple closed curve on an arbitrary Riemann surface M.
We have seen (11.3.3) that we may associate with c a (real) smooth closed
differential ric with compact support such that
.1: = (oc,* tic) = — ffm cx A ti c , ( 1.1.1)
111.1. Intersection Theory on Compact Surfaces 53
for all closed differentials 1. Since every cycle c on M is a finite sum of cycles
corresponding to simple closed curves, we conclude that to each such c,
we can associate a real closed differential tic with compact support such that
(1.1.1) holds.
Let a and b be two cycles on the Riemann surface M. We define the
intersection number of a and b by
a' b= S$M A tlb= ('1., —* %). (1.1.2)
Proposition. The intersection number is well defined and satisfies the following
properties (here a, b, c are cycles on M):
. -
a • b depends only on the homology classes of a and b, (1.1.3)
a • = —b a, (1.1.4)
(a+b).c=a•c+b-c, (1.1.5)
and
a •b (1.1.6)
Furthermore, a • b "counts" the number of times a intersects b.
PROOF. To show that (1.1.2) is well defined, choose and ti;, also satisfying
(1.1.1). We must verify
A
Note that while ti„ and are only closed, their difference pi', — = df,
where f is a C function with compact support. Thus it suffices to show
ff. df = 0, all f as above.

But ffm df A = —(df,*ri b)= 0, because df E E and *rib e E1 (by Proposition
11.3.2).
The verification of (1.1.3), (1.1.4), and (1.1.5) is straightforward. To check
(1.1.6), it suffices to assume that a and b are simple closed curves. Therefore
we have (as in 11.3.3),
a•b= Jim A lib =— ffM 'lb '" lu
=(nb,*n.)= fa llb•
But Sa th contributes + 1 for each "intersection" of a with b. (This can be
verified as in 11.3.7 using Figure III.1.)
111.1.2. We now consider a compact Riemann surface of genus g 0, and
represent this surface by its symbol
aa' (genus 0),
fi
i=t
(t • bia; (genus g 1).
54 Ill Compact Riemann Surfaces
The sides of the polygon corresponding to the symbol give a basis for the
homology, H, = 11 1( M ), of M. Assume now that g 1. It is easy to check
that this basis has the following intersection properties
0 j k
• bk = CI ik = =
a; • ak = 0 = bi bk .
We can represent all this information in an intersection matrix J. This J is a
2g x 2g matrix of integers. If we label
= ai, j = 1, , g and = bJ_ g, j = g + 1, , 2g, (1.2.1)
then the ( j,k)-entry of J is the intersection number X; • Nk. Thus J is of the
form
0 11
[- ï OT
where 0 is the g x g zero matrix and I is the g x g identity matrix.
Any basis {N I, ... ,N 29) of H 1 with intersection matrix J will be called a
canonical homology basis for M. Given a canonical homology basis we can
use (1.2.1) to define the "a" and "b" curves. Note that we do not claim that
these curves come from a polygon in normal form.
111.2 Harmonic and Analytic Differentials

on Compact Surfaces
We compute the dimensions of the spaces of holomorphic and harmonic
differentials on a compact Riemann surface. Certain period matrices are
introduced and we determine some of their basic properties. The key tool
is Theorem 11.3.5.
111.2.1. Theorem. On a compact Riemann surface M of genus g, the vector

space H of harmonic differentials has dimension 2g.
PROOF. The theorem is easy to prove if g = O. For in this case, let a be a

harmonic differential on M. Fix Po E M and define
u(P) = a, Pe M.
The function u is well defined (since M is simply connected). By the maximum
principle for harmonic functions, u is constant. Thus a = O. (The maximum
principle implies, of course, that there are no non-constant harmonic func-
tions on any compact Riemann Surface.)
Assume g> O. Let IN,, ,N29) be a canonical homology basis on M.
Construct a map
&H—C -2 or
depending on whether we are interested in complex-valued harmonic differ-
entials or real-valued harmonic differentials, by sending a E H into the
2g-tuple --
U
N, œ ' • »f.„, '
If dim H > 2g, then cf) has a non-trivial kernel; that is, there exists an a E H,
all of whose periods are zero. Such an a must be the differential of a harmonic
function. Since there are no non-constant harmonic functions on a compact
surface, dim H 2g. The above argument also establishes the injectivity of
0. It remains to verify surjectivity. As we saw in the previous chapter,
(Theorem 11.3.7) it suffices to find a closed differential with period 1 over
a cycle j and period 0 over cycles Nk, k j.
Let
= ?hp j=1,...,g,
Œj = j = g + 1, . . . , 2g.
Then we see (by(1.1.1)) that for k = 1, . . . , g,
L a; = _j'Ç nj Aqak
tak • bi = bkj , j = 1, , g,
= ff„ =
—(ak • ni- g) = 0, = g + 1, , 2g,
and
Sbk Œj _ ffm œf A qbk = f$M bk A Œi
bk • b; = 0, j = 1, . , g,
f j =g+1,...,2g.
We summarize the above information in
sak = 101, k = j, k = j — g,
, otherwise, fbk cc i = {01 ise.
, otherw
56 111 Compact Riemann Surfaces
In other words,
ftti, cci = bg„, j, k = 1, . .. , 2g. (2.1.1) 0
Thus we have proven the following.
Corollary. Given a canonical homology basis {X i , ... X 4} for HAM) there

is a unique dual basis {a t , ,c(29 } of H; that is, a basis satisfying (2.1.1).
Furthermore, each aj is real.
Thus given any set of 2g complex numbers Co . ,C29,

2g
CC = E cpj
J-1
is the unique harmonic differential whose N,, period (that is fN,, a) is ck , for
k = 1, , 2g.
111.2.2. We have seen that the 2g x 2g matrix with (k, j)-entry a, is the
identity. We note that
ak A j = 1, , g,
Li = ffm Mk A nKi =
iL CCk A /j- g, = g + 1, . . . , 2g.
From this it is evident that the matrix whose (k, j)-entry is JIM; cc.; is of the
form [I fl = J. We conclude that
— *c()) = Xj•
We will investigate a companion matrix F whose (k,j)-entry is (a,,a;) =
ilk( ak A *at We note immediately that F is a real matrix. Further from 1.4,
0940 = (*ccp *Œk) = ffm * CCj A **Mk = ffm Mk A * Mj = (CCOC(j).

Thus, I' is symmetric. Before continuing our investigation of the matrix F,
we establish the following
111.23. Proposition. If 0 and are two closed differentials on M (compact of

genus g), then
ffm 0A 6- =,i[faf of
61
6—$
-
61
ofai 6]. (2.3.1)
PROOF. The right-hand side of (2.3.1) is obviously unchanged if we replace

0 by 0 + df with f a C2-function. The left-hand side is also unchanged since
1(0 + df) A = (0 + d f , — = (0, — = SSm 0 A a,

by Proposition 11.3.2. Replacing thus 0 and g by harmonic differentials

with the same periods, we may assume
2g 2g
-= E =E Tipp pi, j e C, (2.3.2)
j= 1 1=1
where { ai} is the basis dual to the canonical homology basis {a 1 ,

61, = t.t , ,N29). Thus,
2g 2g
SI( 0 A 0 E /LA Jim a; A =E pi/74Ni
k,1
j= k. j= 1
••
■ g`•
2g
=Eg pii-40-i(Ni •E • Ni-d- (2.3.3)
j=1 .1=g+
Now it follows immediately from (2.3.2) that
pi = ft4j 0 and = (2.3.4)
We now substitute (2.3.4) into (2.3.3) and obtain, using the fact that for
j = 1, , g, (N; • Ng+ = 1, and for j = g + 1, , 2g, (N; N i _ g) = — 1,
2g
ff„ ()AU=
j=1
fx
J
0 fx + —
g J J=0+1
=t f of ai bi
a—fbi ofa i •
Corollary. If 0 is a harmonic 1-form on M, then
11011 2= i=
[Jrdi Ofbi * 0 — bi
of * 0]
•
(2.3.5)
PROOF. Since 0 is harmonic, *3 is also closed. Thus, we compute
11002 = ff„ 0 A *0
by (2.3.1) and obtain (2.3.5).
Remark. We may view the Riemann surface M as a polygon .1( whose

symbol is 1T 1 1 6; 1 . Since .11 is simply connected 0 = dfon N. Thus,
1 OA df AO = ffa d(frh =
= [fa + fb j g + + fb;i fti
= ,
Let Zo E be arbitrary, then for z E
f(z)= f :00.
58 III Compact Riemann Surfaces
Letting z and z' denote two equivalent points on the sides ai and al of &It
we see that
fa, fa+ s fa= false: o — da

= fa, — [f„fd — fb, fa, •
The remaining terms can be treated similarly to obtain an alternate proof

of Formula (2.3.1).
III.2.4. We return to the matrix r and note that its (k, j)-entry yki is given by
Yki = ff„ A 1=1
ai bt - f I f *2. k af ]
k 1, . , g,
= fb,, *cci
{ —5 *ce — f *2
- i= AZ1,- g
k = g + 1, , 2g.
We show next that the real and symmetric matrix r is positive definite
(r > 0). Let
2g 2g
= E ift etik with k E C, E Rok i2 >0.
k=1 lo= 1
Recall that the differentials ak are real and that 11011 0 O. Thus, by (2.3.5),
g [ J
, 2g 2g 20 2g
0 E
J-1
E
k= 1
kCX/c S b,
'1= 1
Zi*cti E
k=1
scock fai 1=1E Zi*at]
Ski f.j *
2g g
= E
k.1=1
E
.1= 1
.11 fbj * at — Celt C41]
20
7"
= k,1=
E1 kl•
It is now convenient to write

[ A Bi
=
C Di
with A, B, C, D, g x g matrices. Note that we have established (since T =
and r>0) these are real with
B = 'C, A = 'A, D = 'D, (2.4.1)
and
A> 0, D > 0. (2.4.2)
111.2.5. Let us consider * as an operator on the space of real valued

harmonic differentials. It is clearly C-linear and *2 = —I. We represent *
by a 2g x 2g real (since * preserves the space of real harmonic forms) matrix
with respect to the basis x i, , 22g:
= (AO, k,i =1,• • • , 2g,
Thus
2g
* Crk = E k = 1, , 2g.
j .i
If we represent by d the column vector of the basis elements 2 19 • • • 9 ct2g9

then we can consider V ols defined by the equation
= Ws/.
Since *2 = —I, g2 = —I. We wish to compute the matrix /. We note that
( 2g
4/1k = ( 100 = ( *219 *2k) = E
1= 1
2g 2g
= E )-0(2.,,*ceo=j=E Ali fist Mk A Œ.

j= 1 1
In 111.2.2 we saw that, the matrix with (k, j)-entry ff 2k A x; is given by J =
[_°, 10 ]. It therefore follows that the above equation can be written as
= (2.5.1)
If we now write
A.2 1
=
13 24S
[11
we find as a consequence of (2.5.1) that
r = r —23
-1 i
We therefore conclude, because of (2.4.1) and (2.4.2), that

= 12 = t1 2, 2 3 = '1 3, (2.5.2)
and
12 > 0, —23 > 0. (2.5.3)
Since / 2 1- /2 9 = 0, we see that / satisfies the additional equations:
+ 1213 + 1 g = 0, 42 2 = 12`1,, 131 1 = `À.,1 3 . (2.5.4)
111 2.6. Up to now we have essentially used only the space of real-valued
harmonic forms. (A basis over l for the space of real-valued harmonic
forms is also a basis over C for the space of complex-valued harmonic forms.)
We construct the holomorphic differentials
co; = 2; + i*ai, j = 1, . , 2g,
60 m Compact Riemann Surfaces
and a matrix whose (k,j)-entry is

Raik,c0;) = 4(20)) + (2k.i *tx;) + 1(i *Œost) +
= (4,2) — i( 70*2) = (11,1 + 02j) = (Yk,q•
We see from the above that this is the matrix
F + if,
and since (recall 1.3.11)
(ark /a/j) = i Jim 2k A 1=1

Fli cck
L
— faj e5i]
k = 1, , g,
— fak . 9 (.15 k = g + 1, , 2g,

this matrix can be viewed as a period matrix.
Observe also that
Rcok,(0.1) = i(co") = (ce")
i fbj Wk, j =
f Wk, = g + 1 , . . . , 2 9- (2.6.1)
Before continuing our investigation of the matrix r + if, we establish

111.2.7. Proposition. On a compact Riemann surface of genus g, the rector
space ye = dr1(M) of holomorphic differentials has dimension g. Furthermore,
{co l , ,a),} forms a basis for dr.
PROOF. We show that we have a direct sum decomposition of the space H
of complex-valued harmonic forms
(2.7.1)
where represents the anti-holomorphic (= complex conjugates of holo-
morphic) differentials. It is obvious that Yf n 17 = {01. It remains to
verify that the decomposition (2.7.1) is possible. If a E H, then a + i*a e Ye,
— i * 2 E (since + i e de ), and a -1(a + i*a) + f(a — i*I).
Since wi--+ C5 is an 51-linear isomorphism of onto Y.?, it follows from
(2.7.1) that
dime ye = dimR ye = 1
2 4
To show that {ah, 09 } form a basis for .rf it suffices to show that this is
a linearly independent set. Let
= (c i , ,c,), with Ci C, A = Re C, B = Im C,
= (oh,
'911 = (œ1, • • • ad, '91 2 = 019+1, • • • 912g).
Assume (recall that A and ;12 have been defined in 111.2.5)
0 = 'CO = ('A + i'13)(1 1 + i*91 1 ) = A + irB)[91 + + ;.2 91 2)]

— `B(A 1 i11 3 + A2 91 2 ) + i[ 'B211 + `A(A i % J. + ).2/1 2)].
Thus, we obtain two equations:
CA. —`13A 1)9.1 3 = '&2912 , ('B + tAA1) 9.1 1=
Since the differentials in 21, are linearly independent from the differentials
in 9{2, we conclude that
'BA; = 0 =
Since %2 is non-singular,
'13 =0 ='A.
111.2.8. We return now to the matrix r + if. In particular, we restrict

our attention to the first g rows of this matrix; that is, the g by 2g matrix
().2 , — A 1 + i/).
We have shown by (2.6.1) that the (j,k)-entry of ).2 is — fbk COi; and the
(j,k)-entry of —A, + ills i fak coj.
We conclude that if we consider ico i , , icog as a basis for the vector
space 0, of holomorphic differentials on M, then the period matrix (whose
(j,k)-entry is f„,, icc),) with respect to this basis is
(—A, + il, —A i).

Similarly, the holomorphic differentials cog+1, (02, are linearly indepen-
dent (over C), and the last g rows of the matrix r + Li is the g x 2g matrix
( — il, —A 3).
Thus, the period matrix of hog+ . . . , io129 (whose (j,k)-entry is fxj,

is of the form
( —A3, 'A 1
We now make another change of basis. Let
3' = VI, • • • , C9) = - ;.3) - (0(.09 + 1, • • • jr- ) 29).

With respect to the basis S of .r, we obtain the period matrix
(1,( — A3) - 1 `,1 t + 4 — A3) -1 ) = (2.8.1)
Proposition. There exists a unique basis 1C 1 , for the space of holo-

morphic abelian differentials (= space .ir) with the property J ., Cit =
Furthermore, for this basis, the matrix II = (nik) with nik = Ck is symmetric
with positive definite imaginary part.
PROOF. We must only verify that // is symmetric and 1m 17 > 0. To show

that H is symmetric it suffices (because ';.3 = %.3) to show that ( ).1 ) -1 `;.,
is symmetric. But (recall (2.5.4))
'[( -2 3) - = Ai( —9, 3) - 1 =
2 3) -1 = ( -11 3) -1
Note that since Im 17 = ( ).3)', positive definiteness is not an issue. Cl
Remark. Note that ( 1 3) = I if and only if for k, j = g + 1, . . . , 2g,

1 1, k=j
-2 (oh "
co.) = w= k j'
if and only if (coo. 1 /12, • • • ,(02 is an orthonormal basis for A' viewed
as a Hilbert subspace of OM). Can this happen? Yes, if and only if Im TI = I
(see (2.8.1)).
111.3. Bilinear Relations

We start with a compact Riemann surface M of positive genus g > 0, and
a canonical homology basis tch, ,ag,b i , ,bal on M. Let IC I ,
be the dual basis for holomorphic differentials (that is, f„, ;.; = e•fi ). Represent
the Riemann surface M by a 4g-sided polygon di with identification. Our
starting point is Formula (2.3.1) for the "inner product" of closed differentials.
Let 0 and g be closed differentials. Since 4 is simply connected, 0 = df on
4 with f a smooth function on di (note that at equivalent points on 54,
f need not take on the same value). As we have seen in the remark in 111.2.3,
formula (2.3.1), may be viewed as a consequence of two identities:
and
ffh, A U= (3.0.1)
e f, — fb, e L rd.
g
fa= E (3.0.2)
We shall see in this section that normalizing a set of meromorphic differ-

entials (with or without singularities) forces certain identities between
their periods. These are the "bilinear relations" of Riemann. They will turn
out to be useful in the study of meromorphic functions on M.
1113.1. Let us assume that 0 and g are holomorphic differentials, then
0=
[Se,
e e (3.1.1)
Equation (3.1.1) follows from (3.0.2) by Cauchy's theorem, or from (2.3.1)

since 0 A = 0 for holomorphic 0 and O. We now let 0 = Ci and g = Ck, and
obtain
(3.1.2)
Of course, (3.1.2) is just another way of saying that the matrix fl introduced
in 111.2.8 is symmetric.
1113.2. Next we let 0 = C; and a =L. We note that (df = Ci on Ji) by
Stokes' theorem (Formula (3.0.1))
55„, = IL
/zit Cj A Zk •
We conclude that
k bk
= —2i(Im nik)
(as usual it is the ( j,k)-entry of the matrix II). In particular,
1m 7r1; > 0.
Applying the same argument to
O= E Ckck, Ck E C,
k= 1
we conclude that
Im 11 > 0.
These facts have already been established in 111.2.
111.33. Proposition. Let 0 be a holomorphic differential. Assume either

a. all the "a" periods of 0 are zero (that is, fa, 0 = 0,j = 1, . . . , g), or
b. all the periods of 0 are real.
Then U = 0.
PROOF. We compute
p.m
110112 = o A '10 = i o A 6
=i L, 0 _ 01, 01.
In either case (a) or (b) we conclude that 11011 2 = 0, and hence 0 = 0. El
Remark. The above observation (plus the fact that dim Ye = g, where
Ye = dri(M)) can be used to give an alternate proof of the theorem that
there is a basis for Ye dual to a specific canonical homology basis. (The
reader is invited to do so!)
1113.4. We shall now adopt the following terminology: Recall that
meromorphic one-forms are called abelian differentials. The abelian differ-
entials which are holomorphic will be called of the first kind; while the
111 Compact Riemann Surfaces
meromorphic abelian differentials with zero residues will be called of the

second kind. Finally, a general abelian differential (which may have residues)
will be called of the third kind. Before proceeding let us record the following
consequence of the previous proposition.
Corollary. We can prescribe uniquely either

a. the "a" periods, or
b. the real parts of all the periods
for an abelian differential of the first kind.
PROOF. Consider the maps dr and .re 51 20 defined by 91—•
(1,,, 9, • • • ja, (p) and 9 f .(iin fa, 9, • • . Jin fa, 9,Im lb, 9, • • ,Im lb. 9), re-
—
spectively. The map Ye Cg is a linear transformation of .e viewed as a

g-dimensional vector space over C, and the map if •-■ R 20 is a linear trans-
formation of Yt' viewed as a 2g-dimensional vector space over R. The
proposition tells us that these maps have trivial kernels and thus are iso-
morphisms (since the domains and targets have the same dimensions). 0
Remark. Parts (a) of the proposition and its corollary have previously been
established (Proposition 111.2.8).
111.3.5.Let us consider abelian differentials of the third kind on M.
Choose two points P and Q on M. It involves no loss of generality to assume
that the canonical homology basis has representatives that do not contain
the points P and Q. Let us consider a differential r regular, (= holomorphic)
on M\{P,Q}, with
ordp t = — 1 = orda r,
(3.5.1)
r esp t = 1, res T = — 1.
Let c be a closed curve on M. It is, of course, no longer true that fc r depends
only on the homology class of the curve c. However (assuming P, Q are
not on the curves in question) if c and c' are homologous, then there is an
integer n such that
f t —f i= 27rin.
e
(3.5.2)
The easiest way to see (3.5.2) is as follows: Let 0 be an arbitrary abelian

differential of the third kind on M. Let P,, , P, (k > 1) be the singularities
of O. Assume that the canonical homology basis for M does not contain
any of the points Pi. Let ci, j = 1, . k, be a small circle about Pi. We
may assume that the curves
a1, , ag , 61 , , bg, el, , Ck
are mutually disjoint. It is easy to see that on M' = M\{P i , . ,P, } , c, is
homotopic to
k—1
11
j=I
a.b.a7 1 b7
J
1 nc
1= 1
and that the curves

a1, , ag, 6 1 ,b9 r C1, . . Ck_
form a basis for H 1(M'). The differential O is closed on AL Hence, if c is a curve

on M which is homologous to zero, then on M' it is homologous to a linear
combination of c 1,...,ck _ i . Thus there are integers ni with c homologous
to Elizi nick Hence
fO= E ni 0 = 2ni E n; resp, 0. (3.5.3)

J=
Clearly (3.5.2) is a special case of (3.5.3).

In 'Particular, for r ar before, fit., T is defiffed only modulo 27ri7L (hereafter,
mod 2ni).
111.3.6. To get around the above ambiguity, we consider M as represented
by the polygon with identifications. We choose two points P and Q in
the interior of ,,if. Let T be a differential of the third kind satisfying (3.5.1).
By subtracting an abelian differential of the first kind, we normalize t so that
T j= 1,...,g, (3.6.1)
Or
fx, T is purely imaginary, j = 1, . . . , 2g. (3.6.2)

We denote the (unique) differential r with the first normalization by
TN and the one with the second normalization by con .
Warning. In (3.6.1) we think of ai as a definite curve—not its homology
class. If we want to think of it as a homology class, (3.6.1) must be replaced
by
r = 0 (mod ai), j = 1, . . . , g, (3.6.1a)
and "Cm is no longer unique.
Applying (3.0.2) with 0 = Ç and = TpQ, we obtain
L ai fTPQ = fb , T PQ'
The line integral around the boundary of .ift can be evaluated by the residue
theorem, since
f(z) =
with the path of integration staying inside It. Thus we obtain
f,„„ frpQ = 2ni(f(P) — AO),

or
2ni LP C.; = pQ, (3.6.3)
as long as we integrate C.; from Q to P along a path lying in .11.
HI Compact Riemann Surfaces
Similarly,
2ni sQ = fbj — ,E_ n.0 copQ,
where nil is the UM-entry of the period matrix H.
111.3.7. We treat now the case where
0= = Tits
(P, Q, R, S are all interior points of di). Here we cannot assert that 0 = df
on ilft. To get around this little obstruction, we cut it by joining a point 0 on
bdi to P by one curve and to Q by another curve. We obtain this way a simply
connected region 4 ' (see Figure 111.2).
In 4', 0 = df where
f(z) = 5:0 0. )
Now a simple calculation yields

= 2ni[resR ftj + ress fê]
= 27ri(f(R) — f(S))
= 2rri Et 0.
The formula analogous to (30.2) is
= LE, 0 L, fb, 0 fa, 01 + .1:

where c is a curve from 0 to Q back to 0 ("on the other side") to P and back to
O. Now the value of f on the + side of c differs from the value of f on the
— side by 2rti (by the residue theorem).
Thus
fei = 2ni[f: — fP
a
We summarize our result in
. f: Tpa = TRs
b,
Figure 111.2. Illustration for genus 2.
111.4. Divisors and the Riemann—Roch Theorem 67
(where as before each path of integration is restricted to lie in .It" =

{lines joining R and S to O}). For the differential copQ, a similar formula can
be derived; namely
Re
s
cop = Re f coRs .
1 11 .3.8. Let P E M ancrae a local coordinate z vanishing at P. We

have seen that there exists on M {P} a holomorphic differential whose
singularity at P is of the form
x dz
= —
-A '
n > 2.
,
a
Assume that is normalized so that it has zero periods over the cycles
a ,, a. Let
==E 40i)dz at P. (3.8.1)
1=0
Then, as before,
fb, 6 = n - 1 cz("j1 (3.8.2)

We will denote the differential a considered above by the symbol
(n)
Tp
and note it depends on the choice of local coordinate vanishing at P. (For

our applications, this ambiguity will not be significant.)
111.3.9. A few other possibilities remain. We will not have any use for
other bilinear relations. The reader who is looking for further amusement
may derive more such relations.
111.4. Divisors and the Riemann—Roch Theorem

We come now to one of the most important theorems on compact Riemann
surfaces—the Riemann-Roch theorem, which allows us to compute the
dimensions of certain vector spaces of meromorphic functions on a compact
Riemann surface. The beauty and importance of this theorem will become
apparent when we start deriving its many consequences in subsequent sec-
tions. As immediate corollaries, we obtain the fact that every surface of genus
zero is conformally equivalent to the Riemann sphere and give a new (an-
alytic) proof of the Riemann-Hurwitz relation.
Although many definitions will make sense on arbitrary Riemann surfaces,
most of the results will apply only to the compact case. We fix for the duration
of this section a compact Riemann surface M of genus g > O. We let ye (M )
denote the field of meromorphic functions on M.
111.4.1. A divisor on M is a formal symbol
21 = PP - • IT, (4.1.1)
with P E M, x i e Z. We can write the divisor 21 as
21 = Pz(P) , ( 4.1 .1a)
PEA!
with a(P) E Z, a(P) 0 for only finitely many P E M.

We let Div (M) denote the group of divisors on M; it is the free commutative
group (written multiplicatively) on the points in M. Thus, if 91 is given by
(4.1.1a) and
= pP(P),
PEM
then
9.1$ = n pa,p)+1„p),
p.m
and
21 -1 = n p—a(P) .
PeM
The unit element of the group Div(M) will be denoted by 1.

For 91 E DiN .1,1) given by (4.1.1a), we define
deg 91 E x(P).
PE U
It is quite clear that deg establishes a homomorphism

deg: Div(M) Z
from the multiplicative group of divisors onto the additive group of integers.
If f E .ir(M)\ {0}, then f determines a divisor (f )E Div(M) by
(f) = n PmdPf' (4.1.2)
PE M
It is clear that we have established a homomorphism
( ):X*(M)* Div(M)
from the multiplicative group of the field X(M) into the subgroup of divisors
of degree zero (see Proposition 1.1.6). A divisor in the image of ( ) is
called principal. The group of divisors modulo principal divisors is known
as the divisor class group. It is quite clear that the homomorphism, deg,
factors through to the divisor class group. The (normal) subgroup of principal
divisors introduces an equivalence relation on Div(M). Two divisors 91, 23
are called equivalent (21 $) provided that 21/23 is principal. If f E ir(110C,
then
fi(cc)=
PM
fl pmax{—ordp f,0)
111.4. Divisors and the Riemann-.Roch Theorem 69
defines the divisor of poles of (or polar divisor of) f. Similarly,

f _, (0)= pmaxtordp f .01
PcM
defines the divisor of zeros of (or zero divisor of) f. Both divisors have the
same degree as the function f, and since
j:1(0)
(f)= ,
f 1 (x)
they are equivalent. More generally, for c E C,
f 1 (c),= ( f — c): 1 (0).
Thus the divisor class of f '(c) is independent of ce Cu ool. (It will be
clear from the context when f `(c) stands for a divisor or just for the under-
lying point set.)
One more remark about equivalent divisors: Let fi and f2 be mero-
morphic non-constant functions on M. Assume that fl = A o f2 for some
Miibius transformation A. Then f t (x)= f ' (A '(c)). Thus f '(oc)
If 0 0 co is a meromorphic q-differential, then we define the divisor of

co in anology to (4.1.2) by
= fl pordp
PEM
A divisor of a meromorphic q-differential is called a g-canonical divisor,

or simply a canonical divisor if g = 1. We note that if co l and co2 are two
non-(identically) zero meromorphic q-differentials, then co i/w2 e Y(M)*
and hence the divisor class of (oh) is the same as the divisor class of (w2).
We will call it the g-canonical class (canonical class, if g = 1). Since abelian
differentials exist, the q-canonical class is just the qth power of the canonical
class.
111.4.2. The divisor 91 of (4.1.1a) is integral (in symbols, 91 >_ 1) provided
a(P) > 0 for all P. If, in addition, 91 1, then 91 is said to be strictly integral
(in symbols, 91> 1). This notion introduces a partial ordering on divisors;
thus 91 >_ 93 (or 21> 93) if and only if 9193' 1 (or 9193' > 1).
A function oofeir(m) (resp., a meromorphic q-differential O co) is
said to be a multiple of a divisor 91 provided (f)91'' > 1 (resp., (co)91 - > 1).
In order not to make exceptions of the zero function and differential, we
will introduce the convention that (0)91' > 1, for all divisors 21 E Div(M).
Thus, f is a multiple of the divisor 91 of (4.1.1a) provided f = 0 or
ordpf a(P), all P E M.
Hence such an f must be holomorphic at all points P e M with a(P) = 0;
f must have a zero of order a(P) at all points P with (P)> 0; and f
may have poles of order —a(P) at all points P with a(P) < O.
III Compact Riemann Surfaces
111.4.3. For a divisor 11 on M, we set

L(21) = {f E X(M); (f)
It is obvious that LI91) is a vector space. Its dimension will be denoted by
491), and we will call it the dimension of the divisor 91.
Proposition. Let 91, B E Div(M). Then

93 21 L(S) c L(21).
PROOF. Write
= 913
with 3 integral. If f E L(23), then (f)93 -1 1. But
(f )91 - 1 = ( f)93 - 3 1.
Thus, f E L(91).
111.4.4. Proposition. We have L(1) = C, and thus r(1) = 1.

PROOF. li f e L(1), then (f) 1; that is,
ordi, f > 0 all P E M.
Since f has no poles it is constant by Proposition 1.1.6.
III.4.5. Proposition. If 91 e Div(M) with deg 91 > 0, then r(91) = 0.

PROOF. If 0 f e L(91), then deg(f) deg 91 > 0, contradicting Proposition
1.1.6.
111.4.6. For 91 E Div(M), we set
Q(91) = {co; co is an abelian differential with (co) 91 } ,
and
491) = dim Q(91).
We call i(91), the index of specialty of the divisor 91.
Theorem. For 91E DiV(M), r(91) and 1(21)depend only on the divisor class of 91.
Furthermore, if 0 to is any abelian differential, then i(21) = r(21(to) 1 ) •
PROOF. Let 91 1 be equivalent to 912 (that is, 211 912-1 is a principal divisor
or 91,912-1 = (f) for some 0 f e AIM)). Then the mapping
L(912) a hf e L(91 1 )
establishes a C-linear isomorphism, proving that
r(91 1 ) = / ( 912). (4.6.1)
Next, the mapping
12(91) —
co e L(9.1(o.))-1)
111.4. Divisors and the Riemann-Roch Theorem 71
also establishes a C-linear isomorphism proving that

491) = r(91(w) - 1 ). (4.6.2)
Finally, if 91 1 is equivalent to 91 2 , then (4.6.1) and (4.6.2) yield (upon
choosing a non-zero abelian differential co)
= r( 21 1(co) 1 ) = r(212(co) 1 ) = 012).
111.4.7. It is quite easy to verify the following
Proposition. We have g(1) = ye (M ), the space of holomorphic abelian

differentials (see Proposition 111.2.7) and !him 7(1) = g.
111.4.8. We will first prove our main result in a special case.
Theorem (Riemann-Roch). Let M be a compact Riemann surface of genus g

and 21 an integral divisor on M. Then
r(91 - = deg 91 — g + 1 + i(91). (4.8.1)
PROOF. Formula (4.8.1) holds for 91 = 1 by Proposition 111.4.4 and Prop-
osition 111.4.7. Thus, it suffices to assume that 91 is strictly integral.
91 = P",' • • P:r, Pi e M, nj G > 0,
deg 91 = E n1 > O.
.1=
Note that C L(91 -1 ). Furthermore, if f E L(91 - 1 ), then f is regular on
MVP2 , ,P„,} and f has at worst a pole of order ni at P. Choosing a local
coordinate zi vanishing at Pi, we see that for such an f, the Laurent series
expansion at P is of the form
Consider the divisor

21 r = pne +1 pn.,,,+ 1 .
Let {a 1, 1, ,b,} be a canonical homology basis on M. We think

of the elements of this basis as fixed curves in their homology classes and
assume they avoid the divisor 91. Let 00( 21' - 1 ) be the space of abelian
differentials of the second kind that are multiples of the divisor 9.1' -1 and
-
have zero "a" periods. We can easily compute the dimension of 00(91' -
Recall the abelian differentials 411 introduced in 111.3.8. For P = Pi and
2 < n < ni + 1, 1(; ) E 00(91' 1 ) • Thus
dim 00(91— 1 ) E n; = deg 9.1.

j= 1
111 Compact Riemann Surfaces
Conversely, if w e 00(21-1 ), then
w =E dikz.,)dz i with d _ 1 =
in terms of the local coordinates 71. Thus we define a mapping

s: r20(91 ,- 1 ) cdeg 41
by setting
(CO (d1,-2, • • • 41, — n, 1422— 2, • • • 42, — n2 — 11 • • • ,d„,, - 2> • • • ,d,„, — n„,— 1)•
If co E Kernel S, then w is an abelian differential of the first kind with zero
"a" periods, and hence co = 0 by Proposition 111.3.3. Hence ,§ is injective,
dim 120(91— 1 ) = deg 21, and every c0 E Q0(91") can be written uniquely as
—2
w=E E dikr(p. (4.8.2)
j= 1 k=nj1
We consider the differential operator

d: L(21 -1 ) -+ 12 0(21").
Since Kernel d = C, it is necessary in order to compute r(21 - I ) to charac-
terize the image of d. Now we dL(21 -1 ) if and only if a) has zero "b" periods.
We conclude that
dim Image d deg 91 — g (4.8.3)
(since each "b" curve imposes precisely one linear condition). Using the
"classical" linear algebra equation
r(91 - 1 ) = dim Image d + 1, (4.8.4)
we obtain from (4.8.3), the Riemann inequality,
r(9.1 -1 ) deg 21 — g + 1.
To obtain the Riemann-Roch equality we must evaluate dim Image d. We
use bilinear relation (3.8.2), to observe that the differential w of (4.8,2) has
zero bi period if and only if
m —2
276. E E 2(P. = 0,
) (4.8.5)
j= 1 k= —ni—i k + 1 dika
where {C I, ... ,C,} is a basis for the holomorphic differentials of the first
kind dual to our canonical homology basis and the power series expansion
of CI in terms of z; is given (in analogy to (3.8.1)) by
= E ce1)(p.01)dz, at Pr
s=0
111.4. Divisors and the Riemann—Roch Theorem 73
We recognize from (4.8.5) that the image of d is the kernel of a certain operator
from Cdeg to C. Consider the operator
T:(2(1) deg 9I
defined by T(co) = (to

a 1.09 • • • 9ei.n i - 1 ,6'2,02 • • • ,em,O, • • • ,em.n - 1), where co E
-
Q(1) has Taylor series expansion
E dz.; at
k= 0
Represent the linear operator T with respect to the basis {Ç 1 , ,C9} of Q(1)
and the standard basis Cde" as the matrix
,
ceon(P i) 42)(P1) • %(A 13 1)
ag 1 (P2) ar(P2)
Œg )(P.) ceg)(P.)
1(P.) cc,1-1(P.) ' • • 49,!, i(Pm )

Thus we recognize that
Image d = Kernel 'T.
We thus conclude that
dim Image d = dim Kernel 'T = deg 91 — dim Image 'T
= deg 91 — dim Image T
= deg 91 — (dim Q(1) — dim Kernel T).
Since Kernel T = Q(9I), and dim Q(1) = g, we have shown that
dim Image d = deg 91 — g + i(91),
and (4.8.4) yields (4.8.1).
111.4.9. We collect some immediate consequences of our theorem.
Corollary 1. If the genus of M is zero, then M is conformally equivalent to the

complex sphere C u
PROOF. Consider the point divisor, P e M. Then
r(P- 1 ) = 2.
Thus, there is a non-constant meromorphic function z in L(P -1 ). Such a
function provides an isomorphism between M and C u tool by Proposition
1.1.6.
/.4 III Compact Riemann Surfaces
Corollary 2. The degree of the canonical class Z is 2g - 2.

PROOF. If g = 0, then compute the degree of the divisor dz (which is regular
except for a double pole at x)). Thus we may assume g > O. Since the space
of holomorphic abelian differentials has positive dimension, we may choose
one such; say C. Since (C) is integral
r((C)') = deg() - g + 1 + i((C)).
By Theorem 111.4.6 we have r((C)') = i(1) and i((C)) = r(1). Thus we have
g = deg() - g + 1 + 1, and hence the corollary follows.
Corollary 3. The Rientann-Roch theorem holds for the divisor 91 provided
that
a. 91 is equivalent to an integral divisor, or
b. Z/21 is equivalent to an integral divisor for some canonical divisor Z.
PROOF. Statement (a) follows from the trivial observation that all integers
appearing in the Riemann-Roch theorem depend only on the divisor class
of 21 (by Theorem 111.4.6). Thus, to verify (b), we need verify Riemann-Roch
for 91 provided we know it for Z/91. Now
491) .--- r(91/Z) = deg Z/21 - g + 1 + i(Z/9.1)
= deg Z - deg 91 g + 1 + r(2l -
= 2g - 2 - deg 91 - g + 1 + / ( 21 -1 ).
Hence, we have proven the Riemann-Roch theorem for 91.
111.4.10. To conclude the proof of the Riemann-Roch theorem (for arbitrary
divisors), it suffices to study divisors 21 such that neither 91 nor Z/21 is equi-
valent to an integral divisor, for all canonical divisors Z.
Proposition. If 1 ( 21') > 0 for 21e Div(M), then 91 is equivalent to an

integral divisor.
PROOF. Let f E L(21 -1 ). Then (f)% is integral and equivalent to
Corollary. If 421) > 0 for 91 E Div(M), then Z/21 is equivalent to an integral

divisor.
PROOF. Use 421) = r(21/Z).
If 21 E Div(M), and neither 21 nor Z/21 is equivalent to an integral

divisor, then i(21) =-- 0 = r(91 - 1 ). Thus, the Riemann-Roch theorem asserts
in this case (to be proven, of course)
deg If g - 1. (4.1 1.1)
Thus verification of (4.1 1.1) for divisors 91 as above will establish the following
theorem.
1114. Divisors and the Riemann—Roch Theorem 75
Theorem. The Riemann-Roch theorem holds for every divisor on a compact

surface M.
PROOF. We write the above divisor 21 as
21 =21 1/91 2 ,
with 91, (j = 1,2) integral and the pair relatively prime (no points in common).
We now have
deg 91 = deg 21, - deg 212,
and by the Riemann inequality
1 ) _)L- deg 91, - g 1 = deg 212 + deg 21 -g + 1.
Assume that
deg 21
We then have
r(91,- 1 ) deg 212 + 1.
Thus, we can find a function f E L(211— 1 ) that vanishes at each point in 912 .
(Vanishing at points of 212 imposes deg 91 2 linear conditions on the vector
space L( 21 1 ) • If r(21T ') is big enough, linear algebra provides the desired
function.) Thus f E L(212/111) = L(21 - '), which contradicts the assumption
that r(91 -1 ) = O. Hence
deg 21 g - 1.
Since 0 = 421) = r(21/2), it follows that
deg(Z/21) g - 1,
or
deg 21 g - 1,
concluding the proof of the Riemann-Roch theorem. El
111.4.12. As an immediate application of Corollary 2 to Theorem 111.4.8 we

give another proof of the Riemann-Hurwitz formula (Theorem 1.2.7). Our
first proof was topological. This one will be complex analytic. Let f be an
analytic map of a compact Riemann surface M of genus g onto a surface N
of genus y. Let n = deg f. Let co be a meromorphic g-differential on N. We
lift co to a meromorphic g-differential Q on M as follows: Let z be a local
coordinate on M and a local coordinate on N. Assume that in terms of
these local coordinates we have
= f(z).
If w is
h(0 dCq
in terms of C, then we set Q to be
h(f(z))f dzq (4.12.1)
in terms of z. Note that if z is replaced by z 1 , with z = w(z,), then in terms

of z 1 the map f is given by
(f 0:1),
and thus we assign to z i
htf(w(z lw(z Orwlzir dz
which shows that Q is indeed a meromorphic g-differential. Without loss of
generality, we may assume that for P E M, z vanishes at P, C vanishes at
_ zh,-(p)+1 .
From this and (4.12.1) we see that

ordp Q = (b1(P) + 1) ordftp) CO qb f (P). (4.12.2)
Formula (4.12.2) will be very useful in the sequel. For the present we merely
use it for q = 1. We rewrite it as (for q = 1)
ordp Q = (bf (P) + 1) ord w + bf (P). (4.12.3)
Let us choose an abelian differential co that is holomorphic and non-zero
at the images of the branch points of f. (With the aid of Riemann-Roch
(and allowing lots of poles) the reader should have no trouble producing
such an co. If 7> 0, 0,) can be chosen to be holomorphic.) We wish to add
(4.12.3) over all P e M. Observe that Corollary 2 of Theorem 111.4.8 gives
E ordp (2 = 2g — 2,
PeU
and recall that by definition

E b f (P) = B.
Pe M
We need only analyze

E (b 1(P) + 1) ordf(p)
PeM
ord f(p) CO
PeM
E n ordQ co = n(27 — 2).

QeN
This last equality is a consequence of the fact that each Q E M with

ord(2 w o 0 is the image of precisely n points on M.
111.5. Applications of the Riemann—Roch Theorem

What can we say about the meromorphic functions on the compact Riemann
surface M with poles only at one point? What is the lowest degree of such a
function? In this section we shall show that on a compact Riemann surface
of genus g 2, there are finitely many points P e M (called Weierstrass
111.5. Applications of the Riemann-Roch Theorem 77
points) such that there exists on M a meromorphic function f regular on

M\IPI with deg f g.
We shall see when we study hyperelliptic surfaces (in 111.7) and when we
study automorphisms of compact surfaces (in Chapter V) that these
Weierstrass points carry a lot of information about the Riemann surface.
Throughout this section, M is a compact Riemann surface of genus g
(usually positive), and Z E Div(M) will denote a canonical divisor.
111.5.1. We recall (to begin) that the Riemann-Roch theorem can be written
for D E Div(M) as
r(D - 1 ) = deg D - g + 1 + r(D/Z). (5.1.1)
Furthentore, -
r(D) = 0 provided deg D > 0, (5.1.2)
and
i(D) = 0 provided deg D > 2g - 2. (5.1.2a)
If deg D = 0, then
r(D) 1, (5.1.3)
and
r(D) = 1 <4. D is principal. (5.1.4)
Finally, for any q e Z
L(Z - q) ,Yfq(M), the vector space of
holomorphic g-differentials. (5.1.5)
To verify (5.1.5) note that we can choose an abelian differential co such
that (co) = Z, and now observe that f e L(Z) if and only if fco qis a holo-
morphic g-differential. The mapping
L(Z - q) n f..f w e ,Yo(M)
establishes a C-linear isomorphism between the spaces.
111.5.2. Proposition. Let q e Z. The dimension of the space of holomorphic

q-differentials on M is given by the following table:
Genus Weight Dimension
g=0 q 0 1 - 2q
q>0 0
g=1 all q 1
g> 1 q<0 0
q=0 1
q =1
q>1 (2q - 1)(g - 1)
PROOF. Let D = Zq in (5.1.1), then

r(Z) = (2g - 1)(g - 1) + r(Z4- 1 ). (5.2.1)
From (5.1.5), the dimension to be computed is r(Z - q).
Assume that g > 1. If q < O, then

deg Z = — q(2g — 2) > 0,
and thus r(Z) = 0 by (5.1.2). We already know that r(1) = 1, and that
r(Z -1 )= g. For q > 1, r(Z")= 0 (by what was said before), and (5.2.1)
gives a formula for r(Z
Next for g = 1, (5.2.1) reads —
r(Z - q)= r(Z4-- i ). (5.2.2)
If() w is a holomorphic q-differential, it must also be free of zeros (deg(w) =
0). Thus w ' isa ( — g)-differential. Hence,
r(Z) = r(Z) (5.2.3)
We conclude from ( 5.2.2) and ( 5.2.3), that r(Z) = r(Zq - From r(1) = 1,
we conclude that r(Z) = 1, by induction on q.
Finally, for g = 0, deg Z = —2. Thus r(Z")= 0 for n —1, and (5.2.1)
yields the required results.
EXERCISE
Establish the above proposition for g = 0 and 1 without the use of the Riemann-Roch
theorem. (For g = O. write any co e i(M) as w = f de with f e Thus f is a
rational function. Describe the singularities of f.)
111.5.3. Theorem (The Weierstrass "gap" Theorem). Let M have positive

genus g, and let P e M be arbitrary. There are precisely g integers
1 = ni < n 2 < • - • < < 2g (5.3.1)
such that there does not exist a function f e f(M) holomorphic on MVP}
with a pole of order ni at P.
Remarks
1. The numbers appearing in the list (5.3.1) are called the "gaps" at P. Their
complement in the positive integers are called the "non-gaps". The
"non-gaps" clearly form an additive semi-group. There are precisely g
"non-gaps" in {2, ... ,2g} with 2g always a "non-gap." These are the
first g "non-gaps" in the semi-group of "non-gaps."
2. The Weierstrass "gap" theorem trivially holds for g = O. Since on the
sphere there is always a function with one (simple) pole, there are no
"gaps".
3. The Weierstrass "gap" theorem is a special case of a more general theorem
to be stated and proven in the next section.
111.5.4. We stay with the compact Riemann surface M of positive genus
g. Let
P,, P2, P3 , • • •
be a sequence of points on M. Define a sequence of divisors on M by

D o = 1, Di+ = j = 0, 1, ....
We now pose a sequence of questions.
Question "j" (j = 1, 2, ...):
Does there exist a meromorphic function f on M with
(f) DT 1 and (f ) 1311_21 ?
We can also phrase the question in another way. Does there exist a (non-
constanp function f c Lipi 1 )\L(131_11 )?
-
Theorem (The Noether "gap" Theorem). There are precisely g integers nk
satisfying (5.3.1) such that the answer to Question "j" is no if and only if j is
one of the integers appearing in the list (5.3.1).
Remark. Taking
P = P1 = P2 = • • • = P = • •
we see that the Weierstrass "gap" theorem is a special case of the Noether
"gap" theorem. We shall say that j is a "gap" provided the answer to Question
"j" is no. When there is need, we will distinguish the "Weierstrass gaps"
from the "Noether gaps".
PROOF OF THEOREM. The answer to Question "1" is always no, since g> O.
Thus n i = 1, as asserted. The answer to Question "j" is yes if and only if
r(D7 1 )— r(191_1,)= 1 (the answer is no if and only if r(Di 1 )— r(D»,)= 0).
From the Riemann-Roch theorem
r(D1 1 )— r(D;1.1 1 )= 1 + i(DJ)— (5.4.1)
Thus for every k > 1:
r(14-1 )— r(Di)-1 ).= E (r(D1 1)— r(D7- 1 1))
i=t
=k+ (i(D;)— i(D ; _ 1 ))= k + i(D,)—

=
Or
r(D; — 1 = k + i(Dk)— g,
and this number is the number of "non-gaps" <k. Thus for k> 2g — 2
(thus deg Dk > 2g — 2 and i(Dk) = 0)
k — (number of "gaps" s k)= k — g.
Thus there are precisely g "gaps" and all of them are _s 2g — 1.
111.5.5. We now begin a more careful study of the Weierstrass "gaps".
Let P E M be arbitrary, and let
1 < < a2 < • • • < = 2g
be the first g "non-gaps".
Proposition. For each integer j, 0 <j < g, we have

a; + ; 2g.
PROOF. Suppose that xi + < 2g. Thus for each k j we would also
have ak + < 2g. Since the sum of "non-gaps" is a "non-gap", we would
have at least j "non-gaps" strictly between ag _ i and ag. Thus at least (g — j) +
j + 1 = g + 1 "non-gaps" 52g, contradicting the fact that there are only
g such "non-gaps".
111.5.6. Proposition. If a, = 2, then ; = 2j and ; + a9 _ 1 = 2g for 0 <j < g.

PROOF. If a l = 2, then 2, 4, . , 2g are g "non-gaps" 5 2g, and hence these
are all the "non-gaps" 5 2g.
111.5.7. Proposition. If a i > 2, then for some j with 0 <j < g, we have
a; + Œg _; > 2g.
PROOF. We assume that ai + = 2g for all j with 0 < j < g. For q E
let [q] be the greatest integer 5. q. Then x i , 2;, . . . , [2g/;]; are "non-gaps"
<2g. If; > 2, then the above accounts for at most ig < g "non-gaps",
and there must be another one 5.2g. Let a be the first "non-gap" not
appearing in our previous enumeration. For some integer r, 1 r
[2g/a i ] < g, we must have
ra, < a < (r + 1)a i .
Thus we have "non-gaps"
11, 2 2 = 2a1, 1 = cc,
and by our assumption
= 2g — ra i , _ 0. 4 = 2g — a
(note that if r + 1 = g, then a = 2g and the last equality reads ao = 0—which
can be added consistently to our data). These are all the "non-gaps" which
are _ " and 52g. It follows that
a l + ag _ (, + = a, + 2g — a = 2g — (a — a i) > 2g — ra i =
It therefore follows that there is a "non-gap" < 2g, greater than ag _ , and not
in the list a9-19 • • • 9 a9-(9.+1)• This is an obvious contradiction.
Corollary. We have
g—1
E ce; g (g — 1 ),
I
with equality if and only if a, = 2.
PROOF. From Proposition 111.5.5, 2 ai _>.: 2g(g — 1). Furthermore if
a l = 2, then we have equality in the above by Proposition 111.5.6. If x i > 2,
we must have strict inequality by Proposition 111.5.7.
111.5.8. We have seen in 111.5.4, that j 1 is a "gap" at P e M if and only if

r(P- — r(P - -1+1) = 0,
if and only if
i(P11 ) — = 1;
that is, if and only if there exists on M an abelian differential of the first kind
with a zero of order j — 1 at P. Thus the possible orders of abelian differential
of the first kind at P are precisely
0 = n i — 1 < n, — 1 < • • • < rt, — 1 2g — 2,
where tEe nis are the "gâps" at P-(appearing in the list (5.3.1)). The above
situation is a special case of a general phenomenon, which we shall proceed
to study.
Before proceeding to study the general situation, let us observe that we
have established the following basic Fact. Given a point P on a compact
Riemann surface M of genus g> 0, then there exists an abelian differential
Co of the first kind (ro E l (M)) that does not vanish at P (that is, ordp co = 0).
Let A be a finite-dimensional space of holomorphic functions on a
domain D c C. Assume that dim A = n > 1. Let z E D. By a basis of A
adapted to z, we mean a basis {(p i, ,cp.} with
ordz tP i < ordz 2 <•• • < ordz tp„. (5.8.1)
To construct such a basis, let
Iii = min {ordz
eA
and choose T i E A with ord z q = p i . Then

A i = {tp e A; ordz > p i }
is an (n — 1)-dimensional subspace of A, and we can set
P2 = min l ord (pl.
we Ai
By induction, we can now construct the basis satisfying (5.8.1). The basis
adapted to z is (of course) not unique. We can make it unique as follows:
Let p; = ordz cp; . Consider the Taylor series expansion of (pi at z (in terms
of C)
= k=0
E akX z)k.
We may and hereafter do require that
1, k = j,
a- 10 k
where j, k = 1, . , n.
Remark. On a Riemann surface "the unique" basis adapted to a point will,

of course, depend on the choice of local coordinate.
It is obvious that yi j — 1. We define the weight of z with respect to A by
TG7) = Oki — j + (5.8.2)
Proposition. Let {( p 1 , ,cp„} be any basis for A. Consider the holomorphic

function (the Wronskian)
[ (Pi(z) •• ' q(z) -
Vi(z) •• • (P,(z)
(1)(z)= det (5.8.3)
Then
ordz P = r(:).
PROOF. It is easy to see that a change of basis will lead to a non-zero constant
multiple of O. Hence we may assume, whenever necessary, that the basis
used is adapted to the point z. Let us abbreviate equation (5.8.3) by
0(z) = det[(p i(z),
In order to prove the proposition we derive some easy properties of the

function 0. First: for every holomorphic function f,
det[fip,, , f(p„] = f" det[T„ ,cp„]. (5.8.4)
This follows from well-known properties of determinants. Explicitly,
det[fip,, ,f(p„]
.fiP.
101 +f'41 f(P;. + f*,
= det fqi; + 2f + f"cp1 Jig + + f"('.
JOT — 11 + ... f In 1)(p f9 (nn— 1) ± + fog — 1),„
[(Pi (p.
= f det
f(p't- + f'(p 1 f(p,,+ f 4.
f(Pr ." + • ' • + f (" -1)(Pi Mr-1) + • • • + f(n-1) (Pn_

—
(19 n
= f det
[.fi7. 1 .10'n
fil; T - " + • • • + f ("- "(pi f(p. ri ) + - - • + f (" - i )(p„__

where the last equality arises from multiplying the first row of the determinant
by —f' and adding the result to the second row. In a similar fashion we can
111.5. Applications of the Rieinann—Roch Theorem 83
remove from each column the appropriate multiple of (pi leaving us with the
previous expression equal to
•"
f(p'.
det ftp7 +2f'tp'i ••' fig + 21"0.
.fiPT -11 + ' • + — ilf (" -2),P'i • ' • f(P(- 1) -4- • ' • + — t " --2) (1):.
• •• (o.
- • • (p'.
= ff det f(PV + 2f'(p'1 1.- '• + 2f(p'.
fip (r -i) + • • + ( n — 1) P-2)(p', •• f9„ -i) + • • + (n — 1)f" 21
We now repeat the same procedure to remove from each column the appro-
priate multiple of cp'j . This clearly terminates with the preceding equal to
det[cp„
We now turn our attention to the proof of the proposition which shall be
by induction on n. Clearly the result is true for n = 1. Let us now assume that
the proposition is true for n = k. Explicity we are thus assuming that
ordz det[T i , ,(pk] = E (pi -i+ 1),
where pj = ord., pj. Consider now det[(Pi, ,(Pk+1]. It is clear from the
preceding remarks that
det[Ti, • • • ,49k4-1] = det[ 1 ,02/T1, • • •
Now the right-hand side is simply cp1+ 1 det[(T 2 /(p 1 )', ,frpk+ i ftp i r]. The
induction hypothesis now gives that
ordz {cpki + 1 det[(T2/TIY .•.,(4'k+ l(pi )'i}
,
k+1
= (k + 1)/./ 1 + E — 1) — 2)/
j=2
k+1
= 11 1 + E
1=2
j +
provided that for each j, p. — (j — 1) — p, O. Since the {(pi} are a basis

adapted to z, this inequality is always satisfied, and we have
k+1
ordz det[q i , • • • ,g9x+ 1] = E
i=1
This concludes the proof of the proposition.
Remark. Let {cp„ ,T,,} be any set of n holomorphic functions of D. We

can define 0 = detkp „ ,(pJ. Our argument here shows that 410 is iden-
tically zero if and only if the functions (p i , ,cp„ are linearly dependent.
Corollary 1. Let A be a finite-dimensional space of holomorphic functions on

a domain D c C. The set of z e D with positive weight with respect to A is
discrete.
Corollary 2. Under the hypothesis of Corollary 1, for an open dense set in D,

the basis {(p i, ,q)„} of A adapted to z has the property
ordz (p; = j — 1.
PROOF. By the hypothesis ord. cp) = pi. It follows from Corollary 1 that
T(z)= (jm; — j + 1) = o for an open dense set. Since (as we have pre-
viously remarked) pi j — 1 we have p = j — 1 for each j, on this open
dense set.
111.5.9. The considerations of the last paragraph apply (of course) to the
space YE(AI) of holomorphic q-differentials (q 1) on a compact Riemann
surface of genus g 1. A point P E M will be called a q-Weierstrass point
provided its weight with respect to yeq(m) is positive. A 1-Weierstrass point
is called simply a Weierstrass point or a classical Weierstrass point. It is clear
from the ideas in the previous paragraph that we have the following
Proposition. A point P on a Riemann surface M of genus g 2 is a q-Weier-

strass point if and only if there exists a (not identically zero) holomorphic q-
differential on M with a zero of order dim .V(M) at P. For q = 1, this
condition is equivalent to either (and both)
a. i(P9)> 0, or
b. r(P 9) 2 (that is, at least one of the integers 2, ... , g is not a "gap").
111.5.10. There are clearly no q-Weierstrass points (for any q 1) on a

surface of genus 1. We assume thus that g > 2.
Proposition. For g 2, q 1, let -OP) be the weight of P E M with respect

to ifq(M). Let IV, be the Wronskian of a basis for ifg(M). Set d = d, =
dim Yeq(M). Then W„ is a (non-trival) holomorphic m = medifferential where
m = (d/2)(2q — 1 + d). Hence
E t(p)= (g — 1)d(2q — 1 + d).
PeA1
PROOF. We must merely verify that the determinant 0 defined by (5.8.3)

transforms as an m-differential under changes of coordinates. Explicitly,
let {C„ ,C,,} be a basis for .10(M). Let z and 2' be local coordinates with
111.5. Applications of the Riemann—Roch Theorem 85
7 = f(z) on the overlap of their respective domains. Assume that

= cpi(z)dzq =
(that is,
=
in terms of the local coordinates z and F. We must show that
(det 2, • • • , (Pdi)de' = (det Pi, • • • :0,11)dr. (5.10.1)
But it is easy to verify that
det [4p„ ,T,4 ] = det [41 ° • ACP-a ° f)(f ')g]
= (fr(det[01, • • • ,e7,d] f),
which is equivalent to (5.10.1).
Corollary. For g 2 there are q- Weierstrass points for every q 1.
PROOF. Any mg-differential always has zeros.
111.5.11. We now finish the study of classical Weierstrass points (the case
q = 1).
Theorem. For g > 2, the weight of a point with respect to the holomorphic
abelian differentials is g(g — 1)/2. This bound is attained only for a point P
where the "non-gap" sequence begins with 2.
PROOF. We have seen that (Proposition 111.5.10)

r(P) = (g — 1)g(g + 1). (5.1 1.1)
PeU
The above, of course, gives a trivial estimate on -OP). We need a better one.
Let 2 < cc i < Œ2 < • • • <; = 2g be the first g "non-gaps" at P. Then let 1 = n i
<n2 <<ng < 2g be the g-"gaps" at P. (That is, the sequence of nis is
the complement in {1, ... ,2g} of the sequence of xi's.) Then (recall 111.5.8)
zo g
r(P) = (ni — j) = j— ot; - E;
j=1 j=i j=1 j=1
2g - I g- I 3g
=E j —
j=1
(g — 1) — g(g — 1)
j=g+1
= g(g — 1)/2,
by the Corollary to Proposition 111.5.7, with equality holding if and only

da l = 2.
Corollary. Let W be the number of Weierstrass points on a cornpact surface of

genus g 2, then 2g + 2 g3 — g.
86 Ill Compact Ricmaun Surfaces
PROOF. The first inequality follows from (5.1 1.1) and the fact that the max-
imum weight of a Weierstrass point is g(g 1)/2 > O. "hie second from the
—
fact that the minimum weight of a Weierstrass point is 1 (so called simple
Weierstrass points). 0
Remark. The first equality is attained if and only if at every Weierstrass
point the "gap" sequence is 1, 3, ... , 2g — 1. These are the hyperelliptic sur-
faces to be studied in 111.7. The second equality is attained if and only if the
"gap" sequence at each Weierstrass point is 1, 2, . . , g 1, g + 1. Existence
—
of such surfaces will be demonstrated in V11.3.9.
111.6. Abel's Theorem and the Jacobi

Inversion Problem
In this section we determine necessary and sufficient conditions for a divisor
of degree zero to be principal (Abel's theorem), and begin the study of the
space of positive (integral) divisors on a compact Riemann surface. To each
compact surface of positive genus g, we attach a complex torus (of complex
dimension g) into which the surface is imbedded. This torus inherits many of
the properties of the Riemann surface, and is a tool in the study of the surface
and the divisors on it.
The Riemann—Roch theorem showed that every surface of genus 0 is
conformally equivalent to the sphere C {cc} (Corollary 1 in 111.4.9). Abel's
theorem (Corollary 1 in 111.6.4) shows that every surface of genus 1 is a torus
(C modulo a lattice). These are uniformization theorems for compact surfaces
of genus g 5 1. For uniformization theorems for surfaces of genus g > 2,
we will have to rely on different methods (involving more analysis and
topology). These methods, which will be applicable to all surfaces, will be
treated in IV.4 and IV.5.
Throughout this section M represents a compact Riemann surface of
genus g > O.
111.6.1. We start with
{a, ,b9) = {a,b},
a canonical homology basis on M, and
ir
= {41,
the dual basis for Ie l (M); that is,
S
Qk Ci jk , j, k = 1, 2, . , g.
We have seen in 111.2, that the matrix H with entries
= fbk Ci, j, k = 1, . , g,
111.6. Abel's Theorem and the Jacobi inversion Problem 87
is symmetric with positive definite imaginary part. Let us denote by L = L(M)

the lattice (over Z) generated by the 2g-columns of the g x 2g matrix (1,11).
Denote these columns (they are clearly linearly independent over Ft) by
e4 ", , eg), , 7t(g). A point of L can be written uniquely as
E new+ E nirtu), with m, n e Z,

i=
Or
Im + [In with m = '(m 1 , ,m9) E Zg and n = ,ndE lg.
We shall call J(M) = «Y/L(M) the Jacobian variety of M. It is a compact,
commutative, g-dimensional complex Lie group. We define a map
(f):M --• J(M)
by choosing a point Po E M and setting
(P(P)= fpPoic =t(ipPoci, fpPoc.)
Proposition. The map y) is a well defined holomorphic mapping of M into J(M).

It has maximal rank.
PROOF. Let c and c2 be two paths joining P o to P, then c,c2- is homologous

to (a,b)[] for some m, n e z9. Thus
sc, •c — L = 1m + lin e L(M).

If z is a local coordinate vanishing at P and q', , (I), are the components
of cp (in Cg), then writing Ci = ?viz, we have
(pi(z)= ipPo C.; i (z) dz,

and we see that
&pi =
az i(z).
Thus q) would not have maximal rank if there were a point at which all the
abelian differentials of the first kind vanished. Since this does not occur
(recall 111.5.8), the rank of cp is constant and equals one.
111.6.2. Let, for every integer n > 1, Mn denote the set of integral divisors
of degree n. We extend the map cp:
cp:M„ --■ J(M)
by setting for
D=131 •••P „, (p(D)= E T(P).
Note that (since q(D) = cp(P 0D))
90ln+ t) 49 (Mn) D • • D i)
We can also obtain a map that does not depend on the base point Po.
Let Div(°)(M) denote the divisors of degree zero of M; define
9:Div(M) J(M)
by setting
49 (D) = E
1=1
(p(P)— E q(Q)
i=1
for
D Pi • • Pr/Qi • • Q..
It is clear that if r = s, cp(D)is independent of the base point; that is, the map
cp:Div1°) (M) J(M)
is independent of the base point.
111.63. Theorem (Abel). Let D e Div(M). A necessary and sufficient con-

dition for D to be the divisor of a meromorphic function is that
p(D) = 0 mod (L(M)) and deg D = 0. (6.3.1)
PROOF. Assume that f is a meromorphic function. Let D = (f ). We have seen
(Proposition 1.1.6) that deg D = 0. Since for D = 1, Abel's theorem trivially
holds, we assume that f C. Write
D = Pi' • • • FT/VI' • • • Or, k > 1, r > 1, (6.3.2)
with
Pi # all j, I;
PPi and Qi 0 Q1 , j 0 1;
•
(6.3.3)
J=1
œi = E 13P. 1 ).
E
J=1
Without loss of generality, we may assume that none of the points Pi, Q.
lie on the curves representing the canonical homology basis. Recall the
normalized abelian differentials tiv of the third kind introduced in 111.3.
Observe that df/f is an abelian differential of the third kind with simple
poles and
df
resp — = ordp f, for all P E m.
Thus
df
f CE E
.1=
Aitzpo)
(where P o is not any of the P. or Q. nor on the curves ai, bi) is an abelian
differential of the first kind. Hence, we can choose constants ci, j = 1, . . . , g,
such that
df
J
L
j= 1 j=
E QiP0
1= 1
E q.
It follows that
df
Jaj
7 .=
and by the bilinear relations for the normalized differentials rpQ ,
df Pi
= 2nii( E E fli fQ")
J=1 p. E
j=1
Since df/f = d logf, we see that

df . df
= brim!
, f =
27rin 1 ,
where mi, ni are integers. It follows that the /th component of co(D) is
CP.; o c o, .• 1 df 1
j= 1
2i JPo
j= 1
JP0 ‘I = Jbl 7 j= 1 Cinil
= ni
J= 1
and thus q(D) = 0 mod(L(M)). We have used Po as the base point for cp.
Recall that since D is of degree 0, (MD) is independent of Po .
To prove the converse, we let D be given by (6.3.2) subject to (6.3.3).
Choose a point Q0 not equal to Po , nor any of the Pi nor any of the Q.; nor
lying on any of the curves aj, bp Set
k
P
r
P
g rP r \
f(P) = exp( E ai f
Qo '
tp p o — E fl•f
1 Qo
TQ
1 p°
± E c;k 0 6j)
.i= 1 j= 1
= exp fP T,
Qo
where the constants are to be determined. It is clear that f is a

meromorphic function with (f) = D, provided f is single-valued. We
compute
fa; = i=E1 f p,po E fif TQjpo =

j= 1
and
9
5,1 r = E ai L -rp,p. — E si L, tQfp. + E C,ICi7

lc •r g
Pi
= 2ni E ai fp. i", : — 2ni E 13; fpc, CI +
Q .;
E cinfi.
1=1 1=1 1=1
For f to be single-valued, we must have that J utf ,- ,b, - are of the form 2nin,
n E Z. Now (6.3.1) yields,
2
spp: 20
p( ,
= nt + E
t= 1=1
with n1, m; E Z, I = 1, . . . , g, j = 1, . . . , g. This means we can choose paths
yi and 7; joining Po to P; and Q; respectively, such that integrating over
these paths, leads to the above equation. It is clear that if we choose c; =
—2nim i, f will be single-valued. 0
EXERCISE
We outline an alternate proof of the necessity part of Abel's theorem. Let f be a non-
constant meromorphic function on M. For each aeCuf on), let f '(2) be viewed as
the integral divisor of degree deg f, consisting of the preimage of a. Then a cp(f ' (a))
is a holomorphic mapping of C In) into J(M). Since C uIx) is simply connected,
it lifts to a holomorphic mapping of C u { co} into C°. Since C u {co } is compact this
mapping is constant and thus (p( f '(0))=
111.6.4. For g = 1, J(114) is of course a compact Riemann surface. We have

the following
Corollary 1. If M is of genus 1, then

9:M J(M)
is an isomorphism (conformal homeomorphism).
PROOF. Clearly cp is surjective (since it is not constant). Let P, Q E M, P 0 Q.
If (p(P) = 9(Q), then P/Q is principal by Abel's theorem. Thus there is a
meromorphic function on M with a single simple pole. This contradiction
shows that cp is injective. 0
Corollary 2. If M has genus >1, then tp is an injective holomorphic mapping

of M onto a proper sub-manifold (p(M) of J(M).
111.6.5. Let D be an integral divisor of degree g on M; that is,

D = P1 • Pg (P E M, j = 1, . . . ,g). (6.5.1)
Then by the Riemann-Roch theorem
r(D - 1 ) = 1 + i(D) 1.
We call the divisor D special provided r(D -1 )> 1.
Theorem. Let D E Div(M) with D > 1 and deg D = g. There is an integral

divisor D' of degree g close to D such that D' is not special. Further D' may
be chosen to consist of g distinct points.
Remark. Write D as in (6.5.1), and choose a neighborhood L Ji of P. The
condition that D' be close to D is that D' = • • Pg with P, E U.
PROOF OF THEOREM. Note that for divisors of degree g,
r(D -1 )= 1 i(D)= O.
Assume that D is given by (6.5.1) and define
V.-
D. = P,• • •-Pi (j= 1, ,g).
Thus Dg = D. Set D o = 1. We prove by induction that for j 1, we can
find a divisor D ;. of the form 1 13; (D', = 1) with P'.; arbitrarily close to
P and i(D'i)= g — j, j = 1, . , g. The Riemann-Roch theorem (or linear
algebra) implies that i(D) g — j (for any integral divisor D'; of degree j).
Note that for arbitrary P, (as we have seen before),
ff/3 1 ) = r(P-1- 1 ) — 1 + g — 1 = r(Pi-1 ) + g — 2 = g — 1
(since C = L(PT `), because a surface of positive genus does not admit a
meromorphic function with a single pole). Thus, it suffices to take =
Assume that for some 1 j < g, we have constructed a D of the required
type. Let Ig) i , ,(pg _ i} be a basis for the abelian differentials of the first
kind vanishing at Pi, , P. Look at cp,. If cp,(Pi+ ,) 0 0, then i(D'iPi .„ ,)
g — (j + 1), and we are done. If tp 1 (13». 1 ) = 0, then arbitrarily close to PJ.,. 1
there is a point P +1 with cp,(Pi+ ,) 0 and once again i(D'irp-t)
g — (j + 1). El
111.6.6. We consider now the map
cp:Mg J(M).
We will show that this map is always surjective (generalizing the first corollary
in 111.6.4). To this end let D, = P, • • • Pg with Pi E M, Pi Pk for j k be
such that i(D o) = O. Let U.; be a coordinate disk around Pi with local co-
ordinate ti vanishing at P1. Let K = cp(P, • • Pi). In terms of the local
coordinates ti we write Ck = riki(t)dti and thus in terms of the local coor-
dinates ti at Pi the mapping cp in a neighborhood of the origin (0, ,0)
is simply
(z 1 , K+ ,z g), , cpg(z 1 ,... ,z g)),
where
,z g) = E 1 zj
li.(t.)dt..
J=
Thus
(0, • • • ,0)= nik(0) =
Ozk
(the last equality is merely a convenient abbreviation). Thus the Jacobian

of the map 9 at P, • • • Pg is
[ — Ci( 1 g)
. . •
' •
WI) • • • C 9 (P)
The condition ((P i , ,Pg) = 0, however, gives us immediately that the rank
of the Jacobian is g. Therefore, the map
9: U, x • • • x Ug Cg
is a homeomorphism in a neighborhood of (0, ,0) by the inverse function
theorem; and thus covers a neighborhood U of K (in Cg or in J(M)). Let
,cy) a Cg. Then for a sufficiently large integer N, K + e/N e U,
and thus there exists a Q 1 , such that
9(Q 1 • • • Q.) = K + c/N
Or
N(9(Q1 ' • • Qd — K) = c.
Thus to show that c E Image cp, it suffices to show that there exists an integral
divisor D of degree g such that
(P(D)= N(4)(Q1, ,Q9) — K).
Consider the divisor (P i • • PON/W I • • Mil. The Riemann-Roch theo-
rem gives
( (P1 )= 1 + i(( Q' • •• • 1211)N1:1 )> 1.
• • Pg)
r
VQ1' • • Q1Pgol (P1 • • P
Hence, there is an f E L((P, • • P1/(Q,• • W P) ); that is, there is an
integral divisor D of degree g such that
D(P, • • • I'd'
(f) =
(Q1 . • 42,)."11 .
By Abel's theorem
9(D) + N91P1 ' • • Pd= N(49 (Qi • • Qd.
We have solved the Jacobi inversion problem:
Theorem (Jacobi Inversion). Every point in J(M) is the image of an integral

divisor of degree g.
Corollary. As a group J(M) is isomorphic to the group of divisors of degree

zero modulo its subgroup of principal divisors.
Remark. We have shown (Corollary 1 of 111.6.4) that every surface of genus

one can be realized as C modulo a lattice. This is the uniformization theorem
111.7. Flyperelliptic Riemann Surfaces 93
for tori. We shall rcturn to this topic (including uniformization theorems

for surfaces of genus > 1) in the next chapter.
111.6.7. Exercise
We have seen that every torus M is conformally equivalent to C/G where G is the
group generated by two elements zi— ■ z + 1 and z + T, Tm T > O. Further, the
origin of C/G may be made to correspond to any point in M.
(a) Every meromorphic function f on M can be viewed as a doubly periodic function
f (this identification should cause no confusion) on C; that is, a meromorphic
function J on C with le`
f(z + 1) = f(z) f(: + s), all e C.
The IVeierstrass p-function is defined by
1 1 1
p(z) = E — a — ms) 2 (n + ms)
2 ), - e C.
()*(O O)
(n.no)e Z.2
Note that p is an even function. Let P, Q e M. Let f e L(1/PaC. Show that there
exists x e Aut M (the group of conformal automorphisms 01M), 13 e Aut(C u {col),
such that
f=fiodoom
(For a discussion of Aut M, see V.4.)
(b) Show that every meromorphic differential on M is of the form f(z)dz where f is
a doubly periodic function. If we choose the loop corresponding to z z + 1 as
the "a-curve" and z 1--. z + r as the "b-curve", then we have a canonical homology
basis on M. The basis for .e(M) dual to this canonical homology basis is then
fdzI.
(c) From what we said above, p(z)dz is an abelian differential of the third kind with
zero residue and singularity 1/z 2 at the origin. Hence there exists a meromorphic
function on C such that C' = — p. This function cannot be doubly periodic
(why?). However, satisfies for all z E C
;(z + 1) = ;(z) + 1 ,
;(z + r) ;(z) + r12 ,
where and g 2 satisfy Legendre's equation
th r — 77 2 = 2ra. (6.7.1)
Derive (6.7.1) from (3.8.2).
111.7. Hyperelliptic Riemann Surfaces

In this section we study hyperelliptic Riemann surfaces—the simplest
surfaces. These are the two-sheeted (branched) coverings of the sphere. We
shall see that there exist hyperelliptic surfaces of each genus g, and that these
surfaces are the ones for which the number of Weierstrass points is precisely
2g + 2. These surfaces thus show that the lower bound obtained in the
Corollary to Theorem 111.5.11 is sharp.
111.7.1. A compact Riemann surface M is called hyperelliptic provided
there exists an integral divisor D on M with
deg D = 2, r(D 1 ) 2.
Equivalently, M is hyperelliptic if and only if M admits a non-constant
meromorphic function with precisely 2 poles. If M has such a function, then
each ramification point has branch number 1, and hence the genus g of M
and the number B of branch points (= ramification points) off are related by
(using Riemann -Hurwitz)
B = 2g + 2.
Remarks
1. We can hence describe a hyperelliptic surface of genus g as a two-sheeted
covering of the sphere branched at 2g + 2 points.
2. Some authors restrict the term hyperelliptic to surfaces of genus 2 that
satisfy the above condition.
111.7.2. Proposition. Every surface of genus 2 is hyperelliptic.

PROOF. Let D be an integral divisor of degree 2. Riemann-Roch yields
r(D - 1 ) = 2 — g + 1 + i(D). (7.2.1)
Thus r(D - 1 ) 2 for g 1, and the only issue is g = 2.
First proof for g = 2: Let P be a Weierstrass point on a surface of genus 2.
Then there is a non-constant f e L(P - 2)• (This function cannot have degree 1.)
Second proof for g = 2: Choose co 0 0, an abelian differential of the first kind
on M. Then, since deg(w) = 2,
(0 ) = PQ.
Since i(PQ) = 1, (7.2.1) yields r(P-1 Q -1 )= 2.
Remark. Surfaces of genus 1 are also called elliptic (tori). Surfaces of genus
zero admit, of course, functions of degree 1. Thus, hyperelliptic surfaces are
those which admit functions of lowest possible degree.
111.7.3. Let M be a hyperelliptic Riemann surface of genus > 2. Choose a
function : of degree 2 on M. Let f be another such function. We claim that f is
a Miibius transformation of z. Let the polar divisor of z be P ,Q, and the polar
divisor of f be P2 Q2. It suffices to show that P1 Q 1 P2Q 2 . For then there is
an h e YOM), such that multiplication by h establishes an isomorphism
between L(PT 1 Q t- ') and L(P 2-1 Q2-1 ). Since {1,4 and {1,f} are bases for
Hyperelliptic Riemann Surfaces 95
these spaces, there are constants 2, 13, 7, such that

1 Œh + 13/iz
f = 711 + Shz
or
y + Sz
f = a + 13z .
To establish the above equivalence, we observe first that the branch points
of f are precisely the Weierstrass points of M. To see this let P a M be a
branch point of f. Then f is locally two-to-one at P. Thus if f(P) = co, f has
a pole of order 2 at P (avl no other poles) .and
- then P is a Weierstrass point.
If f(P) co, then
f — f(P)
has a pole of order 2 at P, proving that P is a Weierstrass point on M. It now
follows by Proposition 111,5.6 that the "gap" sequence at any of the 2g + 2
branch points of f is
1, 3, ... ,
and thus the weight of any of these points is
(2k — 1) — k = g2
k= 2 2
Thus these 2g + 2 points contribute g(g2 — 11 to the sum of the weights of the
Weierstrass points. Since the sum of the weights of all the Weierstrass points
is precisely g(g2 — 1) there are no other Weierstrass points.
Let us choose any Weierstrass point P on M. We claim that the polar
divisor of f is equivalent to P2. If f(P) = co, there is nothing to prove.
Otherwise, look at the function 1/(f — f(P) = F. Its polar divisor is P2 which
is equivalent to the polar divisor of f since F is a Mdbius transformation of
f ( f l(co) f (N.
We have therefore established most of the following
Theorem. Let M be a hyperelliptic Riemann surface of genus g 2. Then the

function z of degree 2 on M is unique up to fractional linear transformations.
Furthermore, the branch points of z are precisely the Weierstrass points of M.
The hyperelliptic surfaces of genus g 2 are the only ones with precisely 2g + 2
Weierstrass points.
PROOF. Only the last statement needs verification. It is clear that if a surface
has precisely 2g + 2 Weierstrass points, then the weight of each such point
must be --g(g — 1) by 111.5.10 and 111.5.11, and thus, as we saw there, the
"non-gap" sequence must begin with 2.
Remark. We show next that on a hyperelliptic surface each of the Weierstrass

points is also a g-Weierstrass point for every q > 1. It follows from the fact
that the "gap" sequence is 1, 3, ... , 2g — 1 for each Weierstrass point P,

that there is an abelian differential cp of the first kind with divisor P29- 2.
Thus cpq is a holomorphic g differential with divisor Pq(2g - 2) . Since g(2g — 2) >
(2g — 1)(g — 1) —1, P must also be a g-Weierstrass point.
111.7.4. We now wish to construct another function on a hyperelliptic
surface of genus g 1. Let z be a function of degree 2. Let P 1 , , P2 9 +2 be
the branch points of z. Without loss of generality we assume that
z(P;) co, j = 1, , 2g + 2.
Consider "the function"
= n (z - z(p)).
20-1-
(7.4.1)
Remark. We have introduced above a multivalued function which we will

show to be single-valued. Multivalued functions are treated in 111.9. In IVA 1,
we will show how the function w can be obtained without the use of multi-
valued functions.
Proposition. The above defines w as a meromorphic function on M whose

divisor is
Pt • ' P2,4-2 (7.4.2)
Q1 +10+ 1
where Q 1 Q 2 is the polar divisor of z.
PROOF. Since all the branch points of z have ramification number 2, w
locally defines a meromorphic function on M which is two-valued. We must
show we can choose a single valued branch. It is convenient at this point
to introduce a "concrete" representation of the surface M as a two-sheeted
covering of the sphere Cu{co}. If P e M, z(P) se and P is not a branch
point of z, then z — z(P) is a local coordinate vanishing at P. If z(P) = oo
(recall we have assumed that P is not a branch point), then 1/z is a local
coordinate vanishing at P. If P is a branch point, then either branch of
— z(P) is a local coordinate vanishing at P. With slight and obvious
modification, the above procedure could have been carried out with any
meromorphic function on any (compact or not) surface (recall Remark 3
in 1.1.6). We define now e • = z(Pi). Then these ei are distinct; and z 1 (a)
consists of precisely two points on M for all a E Cu fooNe l , • • • ,e2g+21,
whereas z' '(es) consists only of the point P. We picture now two copies
of the sphere. We label these two copies sheet I and sheet II. On each sheet
for each k = 1, . . . , g + 1, we draw a smooth curve called a "cut" joining
e2&_1 to e2k• We may assume that the els have been ordered so that these
cuts do not intersect. Each "cut" is considered to have two banks; an N-bank
and an S-bank. We construct a Riemann surface kr by joining every S-Bank
on sheet I to an N-bank of the corresponding "cut" on sheet II, and then
111.7. Hyperelliptic Riemann Surfaces 97
Figure 111.3. Cross "cuts" for a hyperelliptic surface of genus 2.
joining the corresponding S-bank on sheet II to the N-bank of the corre-

sponding "cut" on sheet I. It is quite clear that It'd'. is a compact Riemann
surfacéand z is a meronorphic function briM. . Thus .f).4 is indeed a concrete
model for M. We remark that a simple closed curve around a point ei, that
does not go around any ek with k j, may be pictured as beginning in one
sheet say at R„ continuing around until the point, R2, on the second sheet
with z(R i ) = :(R2) and returning back to R t . We now construct a canonical
homology basis for M using this two sheeted representation. Draw simple
smooth closed curves ak , k = 1, . . . , g, winding once around the "cut" from
e2k_ l to e 2k in one sheet of M oriented as indicated in Figure 111.3. This
curve ak exists because we cross between sheets only through the "cuts".
Next choose curves bk , k = 1, . , g, starting from a point on the "cut"
from e2k _ 1 to e2k going on the first sheet to a point on "cut" from e2g , , to
e20. 2 and returning on the second sheet (indicated in Figure 111.3 by dotted
lines) to the original point. The orientation of the b-curves is again illustrated
in Figure 111.3. Let us stop to analyze what is happening on the surface
itself.
The reader should convince himself (or herself) that the picture on the
surface (Figure 111.4) is actually the lift of the picture in the extended plane
via the two-sheeted covering z. (Note that all we are using is that a curve
in the plane passing through ei can be lifted in two ways as a curve in M
passing through Pi.) We have actually constructed a canonical homology
basis, since by inspection the intersection matrix is of the form
ab
a 0
b —1 0
Figure 111.4. The hyperelliptic model in genus 2.

98 tit Compact Riemann Surfaces
We return—after this lengthy digression—to investigate the behavior of

our function w. We need only look at what happens in the plane if we continue
analytically a branch of J The analytic continuation of this function
.
element around a closed path changes sign if and only if the path has odd
winding number about ei (if it has even winding number, we return to the
original function element). Thus w changes sign if we continue it along a
simple closed path in Cu{co} that encloses an odd number of the ep If a
curve in C {ao}\{e 1 ....,e29 .,. 2 } begins at z and returns to this point,
enclosing an odd number of ei, then this curve must cross one of the "cuts"
and thus its lift to M is a curve joining the points P and Q, P Q, on M with
z(P) = z(Q). Thus w can be continued analytically along all paths in M.
Furthermore, continuation along any closed path in M (which must encircle
an even number of els when viewed in the plane) leads back to the original
value of w. Thus w is single-valued on M, and for any P, Q on M with P Q,
we have
z(P) w(P) = — w(Q).
The fact that (w) is given by (7.4.2) is an immediate consequence of (7.4.1).
111.7.5. The above proposition has some immediate consequences.
Corollary 1. The g differentials

zi dz
j=0,...,g--1, (7.5.1)
form a basis for the abelian differentials of the first kind on M.

PROOF. Without loss of generality z(Pi) 0 0, and
Q3 124
(z) = QiQz .
It is clear of course that the differentials in (7.5.1) are linearly independent,
and all we must show is that they are holomorphic. Since
(dz) = Pi • • P2g+2
Q?■21
we see that
dz\ rid ni
V V g2 V3V4.
w )
This divisor is integral as long as ) < g — 1 and therefore these differentials

are holomorphic.
Corollary 2. On a hyperelliptic surface of genus g 2 the products of the

holomorphic abelian differentials (taken 2 at a time) form a (2g — 1)-dimensional
subspace of the (3g — 3)-dimensional space of all holomorphic quadratic

differentials.
PROOF. Using the basis constructed in Corollary 1, the span of the products
has a basis consisting of
zi(dz) 2
w2 j = 0, , 2g — 2. (7.5.2)
Remarks
1. Note that 2g — 1 = 3g —3 if and only if g = 2.
2. Torobtain a basis fet the holomorphic quadratic differentials for a hyper-
elliptic surface of genus g> 2 we must add to the list in (7.5.2), the
differentials
:Ad: 12
j = 0, , g — 3.
w
EXERCISE
Obtain a basis for the holomorphic g-differentials on a hyperelliptic surface. What is

the dimension of the span of the homogeneous polynomials (of degree q in g variables)
of the abelian differentials of the first kind?
111.7.6. Recall the injective holomorphic mapping

cp:M J(M)
of a Riemann surface M into its Jacobian variety introduced in 111.6.1. Let
n be a positive integer. Since J(M) is a (commutative) group, we say that a
point e e J(14) is of order n, provided ne = O.
Proposition. Let M be a hyperelliptic Riemann surface of genus 2. Choose

a Weierstrass point as a base point for the map q4). Then p(P) is of order 2
whenever P is a Weierstrass point.
PROOF. Let Po be the base point (a Weierstrass point) and P another Weier-
strass point. Since 9(1'0= 0, we may assume P Po . We have seen that
there is a meromorphic function f on M whose polar divisor is P2 . Since
Po is a branch point of f, (f — f(P 0)) = POI'. Thus P1 — P2 and by
Abel's theorem,
2 40(P) = 49 (P2) = 49 (N) = a
EXERCISE
Let M be an arbitrary compact Riemann surface of genus g I. Let cp:M --+ J(M) be
the embedding of M into its Jacobian variety with base point Po . Assume that OP)
has order n, for some P E M, P Po . Show that there exists an f e or(M) with (1' = )
Pyrio . In particular if g> 1 and 2 n < g, then both P and Po are Weierstrass points
on M.
100 HI Compact Riemann Surfaces
For g = 1, return to the Weierstrass 0-function considered in Exercise 111.6.7.

Show that the 4 branch points of 0 are precisely the 4 half periods of J(M).
111.7.7. If M is an arbitrary Riemann surface, we denote by Aut M the

group of conformal automorphisms of M. Let H a Aut M be a finite sub-
group. For P E M, set
H p the H;h(P) = 13}.
Then Hp is clearly a subgroup of H. We claim that Hp is cyclic. This is a
consequence of the following
Proposition. Let h 1 ,. , h„ be n holotnorphic functions defined in a neighbor-

hood of the origin. Assume that hi(0)= 0,j = 1, . . . , n, and that these fl-functions
form a group H under composition. Then II is a rotation group (that is, there
is a simply connected neighborhood D of the origin and a conformal mapping
f of the unit disk A onto D such that f(0) = 0, hi(D)= D and f o hi o f is
a rotation for j = 1, , n).
Remark. The existence of a simply connected D invariant under H implies

the rest of the proposition. In this case, choose f to be a Riemann map of zi
onto D with f(0) = 0. Then
hi = f1 o h of
is a conformal self-mapping of the unit disk that fixes 0, and hence of the form
hi(z) = 0 < O. < 2n.
Choosing the smallest positive O. and calling it (3, we see that h(z) e= 2xte
generates the group f ' Hf. Thus we also have
Corollary. The group H, is cyclic.

PROOF OF THE PROPOSITION. Let h be a typical element of H. Then h'(0)* 0,
since h is invertible. We claim that there is an E > 0 such that h maps every
disk { Izi r < a} onto a convex region. Such a region is convex if and only
if c = (h{izi = r}) is a convex curve if and only if the direction of the tangent
vector to c is a monotonically increasing function of arg z; that is, if and
only if the angle (in + arg z + arg h'(z)) is an increasing function of arg z on
Izi = r). A simple calculation shows that the hypothesis (h'(0) 0 0) guarantees
the monotonicity of the direction of the tangent line. The derivative of the
above angle with respect to arg z is (recall arg h'(z) = Re( — i log h'))
zh"
1 + Re
and this derivative is positive as long as izi is small.

Now choose a so small, so that letting A = {Z E C; IZI < el we have that
Iti(A E) is convex for j = 1, , n.
Let D = fl 1 11;(1,); D is convex and hence simply connected. Furthermore

hip = D for j = 1, . . . , n. By the remark preceding the proof, we are done.
Remark. The material of the next chapter (in particular IV.8 and IV.9) will
allow us to present at least two other proofs of the corollary to the above
proposition.
111.7.8. We continue to use the notation introduced at the beginning of

111.7.7. We give a Riemann surface structure to the orbit space MIH as
follows. First, we topollize MIH such that the natural projection
n:M
from a point onto its orbit is continuous. It is straightforward to check
that this makes Mi 11 into a Flausdorif space and n an open mapping. We
introduce next a complex structure on MIH. If Pe M, and Hp is trivial,
then any local coordinate at P serves as a local coordinate at n(P) on Al/H.
In general, choose a neighborhood U of P in M so that Hp fixes U and so
that in terms of some local coordinate vanishing at P, the action of the
generator of Hp on U is given by
z e 2iti/k
Then is a local coordinate on MITI vanishing at n(P).
Remark. The Riemann—Hurwitz relation allows us to compute the genus of

MI'H in terms of the genus of M and the branch points of n (= fixed points
of elements of H). We will use this fact in V.I.
111.7.9. Proposition. Let M be a compact Riemann surface of genus g. Then

M is hyperelliptic if and only if there exists a conformal involution J (J E Aut M
with J 2 = 1) on M that fixes 2g + 2 points.
PROOF. Assume M is hyperelliptic. Let z be a function of degree 2 on M.
For P E M set J(P) to be the unique point Q such that z(P)= z(Q) and
Q P if such a point exists and J(P)= P otherwise. It is clear that J is
conformal and that if is a local coordinate, = Jz — z(Pi) in a neighborhood
of a branch point Pi of z, then J()= It should be obvious to the reader
why J will also be called the sheet interchange or the hyperelliptic involution.
The fixed points of J are clearly the 2g + 2 branch points of z.
Conversely, let J be a conformal involution of M with 2g + 2 fixed
points. Consider the subgroup of order 2, <J>, generated by J, and the
two-sheeted covering
M — M/<J>
which is branched at the 2g + 2 fixed points of J. Riemann—Hurwitz implies
that MI<J> has genus 0, and thus M has a meromorphic function of degree 2.
Corollary 1.1f g > 2, then the fixed points of the hyperelliptic involution are
the Weierstrass points.
Corollary 2. If g 2, then the hyperelliptic involution is the unique involu-

tion with 2g + 2fixed points.
PROOF. Let .7 be another involution with 2g + 2 fixed points. Then, as we
have seen, the fixed points must be the Weierstrass points. Also if z is a
function of degree 2 on M, so is z o J. Thus by Theorem 111.7.3, there is
a Möbius transformation A such that z o J = A z. Let P 1 , , P2,+ 2 be
the Weierstrass points on M. Then z(P i) = z(J(PJ))= A(z(P;)). Thus .4 fixes
z(Pi), 2g + 2 distinct cAplex numbers (or 5o), and must be the identity.
Hence I is the sheet interchange.
Corollary 3. The hyperelliptic involution J on a (hyperelliptic) surface M of

genus g > 2 is in the center of Aut M.
PROOF. Let h e Ant M. Then h D J h -1 is an involution and fixes the 2g + 2
points h(P. ). Thus it is the hyperelliptic involution. Hence h . J o h 1 =
or h commutes with J.
111.7.10. Proposition. On a hyperelliptic surface of genus g any friction of

degree < g must be of even degree.
PROOF. Clearly the proposition has content only for g 3. Let f be a mero-
morphic function with polar divisor D with deg D < g. Riemann-Roch says
2 r(D) = deg D — g + 1 + i(D).
Thus i(D) > 1 and there is a holomorphic abelian differential co such that
fco is also a holomorphic abelian differential. Using the basis for abelian
differentials of the first kind introduced in Corollary 1 to Proposition 111.7.4,
we see that
dz
L a.;
1=1
1 dz
1= 1
with cs,, pi E C. Thus
f D=i Piz"
is a rational function of z (a function of degree 2), and must be of even degree.
111.7.11. Proposition. Let M be a hyperelliptic Riemann surface of genus 2: 2.

Let TEAut M. Assume T <J>, where J is the hyperelliptic involution. Then
T has at most four fixed points.
PROOF. Let z be a function with two poles on M. For T e Aut M, z o T is also

a function with two poles. Thus there is a Mobius transformation A =
[a, bd] 0 1 such that
az + b
zT A— z.
cz + d
We thus obtain an anti-homomorphism
Aut M SL(2,C)/ + L
The kernel of this anti-homomorphism is <J>. If P is a fixed point of T, then
li(P) -= z(T(P)) = Alz(P)),

and :(P) is a fixed point of A. Since A 0 1, A can have at most 2 fixed points
and T can have at most 4. 0
Corollary. If T fixes a Weierstrass point, then T has at most 2 other fixed

points.
PROOF. Without loss of generality, we may assume the Weierstrass point
is a pole of order 2 of z. Thus the A above fixes x, and must be affine (of
the form ro ID. Since such an A has at most one other fixed point, T can
have at most two other fixed points. El
III. 8. Special Divisors on Compact Surfaces

Throughout this section, M is a compact Riemann surface of positive genus
g. As before, Div(M) denotes the group of divisors on M and Z denotes
a canonical divisor (usually integral).
In this section we use the Clifford index (an integer invariant of a divisor
class) to characterize hyperelliptic surfaces and to show (among other things)
that every surface of genus 4 can be represented as either a two- or three-
sheeted cover of the sphere (this is an improvement over the Weierstrass
"gap" theorem).
The object is to represent a compact Riemann surface of genus g as a
branched m-sheeted covering of the sphere, with m as small as possible.
The methods of this section give sharp answers only for small g.
111.8.1. Let D E Div(M). We define the Clifford index of D by

c(D)= deg D — 2r(D') + 2.
The fact that we have introduced a useful concept is not at all clear.
Clifford's theorem (111.8.4) will convince the reader of the usefulness of this
definition.
We are interested in special divisors; that is, integral divisors D such that
there exists an integral divisor D* with
DD* = Z.
We call D* a complementary divisor of D.
Trivial (but Important) Remark, From the definition of c(D) it follows that
c(D) and deg D have the same parity (both are even or both are odd).
111.8.2. It is clear that the Clifford index depends only on the divisor class.
More is true.
Proposition. For D E Div(M), c(D) = c(Z/D).

PROOF. We compute
c(Z/D) = deg(Z/D) — 2r(D/Z) + 2

= 2g — 2 — deg D — 2i(D)+ 2
= 2g — 2 — deg D — 2(r(D') — deg D + g — 1) + 2
= deg D — 2r(D 1 ) + 2 = c(D).
Remark. Again, from Riemann—Roch,

c(D) = deg D — 2(deg D — g + 1 + i(D)) +2
= —deg D + 2g — 2i(D). (8.2.1)
Thus, the proposition can be restated as
2 1 (D) + deg D = 2i(Z/ D) + deg(Z/D).
Or
i(D)— i(Z/D) = (g — 1)— deg D.
In particular, if deg D = g — 1, then i(D)= i(Z/D).
111.8.3. Let D, and D2 be integral divisors. The greatest common divisor
(gcd) of D I and D2 is the unique integral divisor D satisfying the following
two properties:
a. D < D1 , D D2, and
b. whenever D is an integral divisor with D D I and D -5 D2, then D 5 D.
If the divisor Di is given by
= n Pi(P)
PM
(ati(P) 0 for all P E M and
œi(P)> 0 for only finitely many P e M), (8.3.1)
then
gcd(D 1 ,D2) = (DI,D2) =JJ Pnin(21(P)A2(P)).
Pe M
Similarly, the least common multiple (lcm) of D, and D2 is the unique

integral divisor D satisfying:
a. D > D1 and D D2, and
b. whenever fi is an integral divisor with D > D I and D2, then D > D.
If Di is given by (8.3.1), then
lcm(D1,D2) = fl pmaxt3t(P).22(P)).
Pe M
Furthermore,
lcm(D 1,D2) gcd(D 1 ,D2) = D 1 D2 .
Proposition. Let D I , D2 be integral divisors."Set D = (DI ,D2). Then
D
r (i) 1) + r(D- 1)_ r(D r(151-152) .
PROOF. Observe that
L(D5 c L(DDT 1 DI 1 ).
This inclusion follows from the fact that D I D2 /D is integral and is
for j = 1, 2. Thus
L(D,- ) y L(D 2--1) L(DDT 1 D2-1 ), (8.3.2)
where y denotes linear span. Next we show
L(D 1 ) n L(D2-1 )= L(D-1 ). (8.3.3)
To verify (8.3.3) assume Di is given by (8.3.1). If f e L(Di 1) n L(Di 1 ) has a
pole at P of order a 1, then
a 5 ai(P), j= 1, 2.
Thus also
a 5 ininfai(P),OE2(P)},
and f e L(D'). We have established
L(13 -," 1 ) n L(DV) c L(D').
The reverse inclusion follows from the fact that Di > D, j = 1, 2. This ver-
ifies (8.3.3).
Finally, using (8.3.2) and (8.3.3) and a little linear algebra,
r(DT 1 )+r(Dji )—r(D - 1 )= dim L(DT 1 )+ dim L(D 2--1 )—dim(L(DT I )nL(DV))
= dim(L(D ') y L(132- 1 )),.. dim L(DD I-1 D2-1 )
= r(DDT 1 D 2-- 1 ).
Corollary 1. Under the hypothesis of the proposition,

c(D i ) + c(D2) c(D) + c(D 1D2D -1 ). (8.3.4)
PROOF. The proof is by direct computation. El
Corollary 2. If D is a special divisor with complementary divisor D*, then

c(D) -_;.! c((D,D*)).
PROOF. By Corollary I and Proposition 111.8.2,
2c(D)= c(D)+ c(D*) c((D,D*)) + c ("*
= 2c((D,D*)).
111.8.4. Theorem (Clifford). Let D he a special diiisor on M. We have:

a. c(D) 0.
b. If deg D = 0 or deg D = 2g — 2, then c(D) = O.
c. If c(D) = 0, then deg D = 0 or deg D = 2g — 2 unless the Riemann surface
M is hyperelliptic.
PROOF. Since c(D) = c(D*) and deg D + deg D* = 2g — 2, where D* is a
complementary divisor of D, the theorem need be verified only for special
divisors of degree < g — 1.
If deg D = 0, then r(D")= 1 and c(D) = 0. Thus part (b) is verified. Next,
if deg D = 1, then also c(D) = 1. We proceed by induction. Suppose now
that 1 < deg D g — 1, and c(D) < 0. Thus
r(D') >1 deg D + 1 2.
Thus there is a non-constant function in L(D" 1 ). Let D* be a complementary
divisor. Replacing D by an equivalent divisor (it has the same Clifford index
as D), we may assume that (D,D*) 0 D. (This last assertion is of critical
importance. It will be used in ever more sophisticated disguises. We shall
hence verify it in detail. We must show that there is P e M which appears in
D* with lower multiplicity than in an integral divisor equivalent to D. Let
co be an abelian differential of the first kind such that (0 ) = DD*. Let
f e L(D - ')\C. Then for all c E C, ( f — c)D is integral and equivalent to D.
By properly choosing c (for example, f '(c) should contain a point not in D*),
(f — c)D will contain a point not in D*. Now (f — c)D and D* are still com-
plementary divisors since (f — c)DD* = ((f — c)w).) By Corollary 2 to our
previous proposition, c((D,D*)) < 0. But deg(D,D*) < deg D and (D,D*) is
a special divisor. By repeating the procedure we ultimately arrive at a divisor
of degree zero or 1, which is a contradiction. This establishes (a).
It remains to verify (c). We have seen that if 0 < deg D <2g — 2 with
c(D) = 0, then 1 < deg D < 2g — 3, and
r(D')= I deg D + 1. (8.4.1)
If deg D = 2, then r(D')= 2 and the surface is hyperelliptic. Now since
deg D is even, we may assume that deg D 4. Choose D from its equivalence
class so that
1 0 (D.D*) 0 D. (8.4.2)
This can be done since r(D - ) > 3. All we want is a function in L(131 -1 )
that vanishes at some point of D* and at one point not in D*. Let f be such a
function. Then (f)D is integral, equivalent to D, and satisfies (8.4.2). We
have produced a special divisor (13,D*) with 0 < deg(D,D*) < deg D and
c((D,D*)) = O. Thus 2 < deg(D,D*) 15. deg D — 2, and we can arrive at a
special divisor of degree 2, with Clifford index zero.
111.8.5 We now derive some consequences of Clifford's theorem. If
D e Div (.%I) is arbitrary with 0 < deg D :5_ 2g — 2, then c(D)> deg D unless
r(D - > 2. In the latter case (since there is a non-constant function f in
L(D')) we have D' =.(f)D is integral and equivalent to D. Since linearly
equivalent divisors have the same Clifford index, we have almost obtained
Corollary 1. Let D be a divisor on M with 0 < deg D < 2g — 2. Then c(D) > 0.
Equality occurs if and only if D is principal or canonical, unless M is a hyper-
elliptic Riemann surface.
PROOF. The remarks preceding the statement of the corollary show that unless
r(D - 1 ) > 2, c(D) deg D. If r(D -1 ) 2, we have D equivalent to an integral
divisor D' of the sanie degree. Proposition 111.8.2 allows us to assume with
no loss of generality that deg D g — 1. Now D' is a special divisor. The
fact that c(D') = c(D) > 0 follows from Clifford's theorem. If D is neither
principal nor canonical (and since as already stated we may restrict our atten-
tion to divisors of degree <g — 1, we are only interested in the case of D
not principal), we have c(D) = 0 gives r(D') = 1 + deg D. If deg D > 0
we have once again r(D - 1 ) > 2, and as before D is equivalent to a special
divisor and Clifford's theorem implies that M is hyperelliptic. If deg D = 0,
we have r(D -1 ) = 1 and D is principal.
Corollary 2. If D is a divisor on M with 0 < deg D < 2g — 2, then

deg D
i(D) 25. g
2
Equality implies that D is principal or canonical, unless M is hyperelliptic.
PROOF. In view of (8.2.1), this is a restatement of Corollary 1. l=1
Corollary 3. Let M be a compact Riemann surface of genus g> 4. Let D I

and D2 be two inequivalent integral divisors of degree 3 such that r(D; I ) =
2 --- r(D 2-1 ). Then M is hyperelliptic.
PROOF. Choose non-constant functions fi e L(DI '),j = 1, 2. We may assume
that each fi is of degree 3 as otherwise there is nothing to prove. Since D I
and D2 are inequivalent, f, t cf2 for any C E C. As a matter of fact, we have
that f1 A o f2 for any Möbius transformation A (of course, A o f2 =
(af2 + b)/(cf2 + d) where a, b, c, de C, ad — bc 0 0). For if fi = A of2, then
the divisor of poles of f, would be equivalent to the divisor of poles of 12
(since the polar divisor of f2 is equivalent to the polar divisor of A f 2 ).

This would contradict the fact that fi is of degree 3, and that the two divisors
Di are inequivalent. Thus, we have 4 linearly independent functions in
L(D D 2"), namely: 1, f f 2 , fi f2 . For if
co + c 1 f1 + c2 f2 + c3 f1 f2 = 0
with c C, then f1 is a Maius transformation of f2 . Thus r(1/D 1 D 2 )
4 = I deg D 1 D 2 + 1, and c(D 1 D 2) = 0. Since deg D ID2 = 6 <2g — 2, Clif-
ford's theorem implies that M is hyperelliptic. 0
Remark. Since M is hyperelliptic Proposition 111.7.10 implies that M has

no functions of degree three. Hence the functions f, and f, are really functions
of degree 2. and thus by Theorem 111.7.3. f, is indeed a Möbius transfor-
mation of f2 .
Furthermore, the above remark and the proof of Corollary 3 yield
Corollary 4. If a surface of genus g> 4 admits a function f of degree 3, then

any other function of degree 3 must be a fractional linear transfortnation of
f. Further, on this surface we cannot find a function of degree 2.
111.8.6. What happens in genus 4? We prove a special case of a more general

(see the Corollary to Theorem 111.8.13) result.
Proposition. Every surface M of genus 4 has a special divisor D of degree 3

with r(D')= 2.
PROOF. Let {C I , ... ,C4 } be a basis for the abelian differentials cf the first
kind on M. Then
are 10 holomorphic quadratic differentials on M. They are linearly dependent

since the dimension of the space of holomorphic quadratic differentials on
M is 9. Hence, there are constants aik (1 k 4, 1 j < k) such that
E aik C;k = 0.
We write this dependence relation in matrix form

- 1 1, 1, -
-11 ia12 7-13 7-14 g
I 1
7a12 a22 ia23 70 24
1,, 1, = O. (8.6.1)
2.13 1.23 a33 2 (2 34 C3
.1,-, .4, t,
-2..14 2..24 1.34 a44
Let -^2' be the column vector of differentials appearing in (8.6.1), E =

,C4). We rewrite (8.6.1) as
SAE = 0. (8.6.2)
Since A is symmetric, there exists a non-singular matrix B such that

TAB is a diagonal matrix with 1 on the first h <4) diagonal entries and
zeros on the rest of the diagonal. Thus, we rewrite (8.6.2) with respect to
1 3, a new basis for abclian differentials of the first kind, as
`(B -1 4BAB(.13 - 1 E) = 0. (8.6.3)

From now on we replace A by TAB and 3 by 13 -1 E.
We claim now that A has rank 3 or 4. It clearly has positive rank. It
cannot have rank I, since in this case (8.6.3) reads Cl = O. Similarly, it cannot
have rank 2, since in this case (8.6.3) reads
r-
.'T y2
Ci =0,
which implies that (c,) = (C 2) and hence that .," 1 and '7.2 are dependent. Thus,
the relation (8.6.3) is of the form
+ + = 0 or
Another change of basis (for example, W - t = CI + 4:2/ 2 -= - =
1,3 1 1 4, W4 = C3 - iç4, in the second case) leads to the simpler relations
= or CIC2 = C3C4. (8.6.4)

Write
P , • • P6.
(CI) =
Thus either Ç, or (say I: 3) must vanish at at least 3 of the zeros of(,. Thus
C 1 /C 3 is a non-constant function with at most three poles. This function gives
rise to a special divisor D of degree 3 with r(D -1 )> 2. Theorem 111.8.4
shows that r(D - < 2. Hence r(D - = 2.
111.8.7. Theorem. Let M be a compact Riemann surface of genus 4. Then one
and only one of the following holds:
a. M is hyperelliptic.
b. M has a function f of degree 3 such that (f)= with D, 91 integral and
132 — Z. Any other function of degree 3 on M is a fractional linear trans-
formation off.
c. M has exactly two functions of degree 3 that are not Meibius transformations
of each other.
PROOF. Proposition 111.7.10 implies that (a) cannot occur simultaneously
with (b) or (c). We have already shown that every compact surface of genus
4 admits a non-constant function of degree <3. Note that for any divisor
D of degree 3 on M (of genus 4), we have
r(D - i(D). (8.7.1)
Suppose we are in case (b). Let us assume there is an integral divisor
D 1 0 D with deg D t = 3 and r(Di- = 2. Let ft E L(DT %C. If D 1 is equiv-
alent to D, then ft is a Möbius transformation off . To see this, let h e
be such that (h)D i = D. Then L(D - 1 ) = 1,f } and L(Dt- = {h, fh} = {1,
Thus, there are constants a, 13,y, such that

1 = ah + fifh
yh + f h
or
7 + (5f
—
a + flf
Thus we assume that f, is not a Möbius transformation composed with f,
which implies that D, is not equivalent to D. We therefore have 1, f, f„
are 4 linearly independent functions in L(D'13 1-1 ). Then r(D - DT I ) > 4
and hence
i(DD,) = r(D'DT l )— 6 + 4 — 1 1.
Because deg DD, = 6, DD, must be canonical, and hence i(DD,)= 1. Since
also i(D2) = 1 by hypothesis, we conclude D, is equivalent to D. This con-
tradiction establishes the uniqueness of f up to Möbius transformations.
We consider case (c). We assume that for no function f of degree 3 is it
true that the square of the polar divisor D of f is canonical. Let (f) =
Choose D I, integral of degree 3, such that DD, Z. Note that D and D,
are inequivalent (otherwise 132 Z). Since r(D - t ) = 2, we conclude from
(8.7.1) that there is a divisor Dy of degree 3 such that Dy 0 D, and DD 2 — Z.
Choose holomorphic abelian differentials w i such that (wi) = DDi(j = 1,2)
and set f, = w2/w,. Thus, since the polar divisor D, of f, is not linearly
equivalent to D, we produced a function of degree 3 which is not a Möbius
transformation of f.
If 91 is the polar divisor of an arbitrary function h of degree 3, and h is
not a Möbius transformation of f, then 1, f, h, fh are 4 linearly independent
functions in L(1/D91). Thus r(1/D91) 4 and by Riemann—Roch we must
have equality, and also conclude that D91 is canonical. Hence D91 is the
divisor of the differential c i w, + c2w2 for some constants c l , c2 (not both
zero). Say c2 0 0. Then (od(c,w, + c2co2) is a meromorphic function with
divisor D,/91. Hence h is a Möbius transformation of f,. l=1
Remark. Cases (b) and (c) correspond to the relations of rank 3 and 4 of
(8.6.4) respectively. In case (c) we have (f) = 91/D, (f,) = 11,1D, = D2/D 1 .
Consider the identity
(DD,)(2191 1 ) = (91D,)(D91 1 ).
There are holomorphic differentials j = 1, , 4, satisfying
(Ci) = Bpi, (C4)= (MO= D 21 i,
9.1
( ( 2) = (KO = MIL = 219f ,,
D I 91
((s) (f 1/7:4) = 5 D91 1 = D ,21.
1112. Special Divisors on Compact Surfaces Ill
Thus, by multiplying these differentials by constants, we obtain,

C14:2 = C3C4.
The four differentials we have produced are linearly independent, since other-
wise the functions f and fi would be related by a Möbius transformation.
This follows from the fact that Ciga = fi- 4 2g4 = f, t 3/ 4 fi. V. Thus,
we have a relation of rank 4. In case (b), we start from the identity
(DD 1 )2 = D2D1,
where D 1 0 D is chosen to be equivalent to D. We know there are differentials
satisfing _
D,
(4:2)= D2, (47.1)= DD,, ( .3)= (l.f1)= DD, — = D1
D '
(where (fi ) = D I/D). Thus, we obtain the relation of rank 3 (after adjusting
constants)
= C2C3.
Again, the three differentials in question are independent, since D, 0 D.
Thus if al1 + a21 2 + a3C3 = 0, choosing a point P e D, P D,, gives
a 3 = O. Similarly, choosing a point P c D,, P 0 D, gives a2 = O.
111.8.8. Proposition. Let B be the polar divisor of a meromorphic function on

M. Let A be an arbitrary divisor on M. Then
2r(A 1 ) r(A'B -1 ) + r(BA'). (8.8.1)
PROOF. If B = 1, the result reduces to a trivial equality. So assume B is not
the unit divisor. Thus, there is a non-constant function f on M with polar
divisor B. We can now find integral divisors B' and B" such that
B B B",
and such that the above three divisors have no points in common (for
example, B' = f(0), B" = f'(1)).
We claim that
L(A 1) r L(B"A'(.13')')= L(B"A -1 ). (8.8.2)
It is clear that
L(B"A -1 ) c L(A -1 ), L(B"A -1 )c L(B"A -1 (131 -1 ),
and thus L(B"A -1 ) is contained in the intersection.
Conversely, suppose f L(A') n L(B"A -1 (B') -1 ). Thus (f)A = I, and
(f)A/3713" = 1 2 with 1 1 and 1 2 integral divisors. It follows therefore that
I = B"1/B'. Since B" and B' have no points in common, I, can be integral
only if / 2 is a multiple of B' . Thus 12 = B'1 3 and 1, = B"I3 , and in particular
(f)AIB" = 1 11B" = 13 or f E L(B"A'). This concludes the proof of (8.8.2).
112 111 Compact Riemann Sulfaces
We observe next that

L(A') L(A -1 (B1 -1 ), L(B"A -1 (131 -1 ) c I ).
It thus follows that
r(A') + r(B"A -1 (13) - — r(B"A -1) = dim(L(A. - 1 )v L(B"A -1 (E)"))
5_ r(A - 1 (13')- 1 ).
Since B B' B", (8.8.1) follows from the above.
Corollary 1. Under the hypothesis of the proposition,

2c(A) c(AB) + c(AB -1 ).
Corollary 2. Let M be a compact Riemann surface of genus g 4. Let A and

B be inequivalent integral divisors with
3 deg B deg A g — 1,
and
c(A) = 1 = c(B).
Then unless B = A* (a complementary divisor of A) M is hyperelliptic.
PROOF. From the definition of Clifford index,
2r(.4 = 1 + deg A 4.
Thus r(A 1 ) > 2 and r(B') 2. There are now two possibilities.
Case I: B is not the polar divisor of a function. Then there is at least one
P E B such that r(PB -1 )= r(B'). Let B = B'P and observe that
2 deg B' g — 2,
and
c(B') = deg B' — 2r((13') - + 2
= deg B — 1 — 2r(B - + 2 = c(B) — 1 = 0.
Hence the surface is hyperelliptic by Clifford's theorem.
Case II: B is the polar divisor of a function. In this case we apply Corollary 1
and Corollary 1 to Clifford's theorem (111.8.5), to obtain
2 = 2c(A) c(AB) + c(Alr 1) 0.

Recall that the degree and Clifford index of a divisor have the same parity.
Thus, A, B have odd degree and AB and AB -1 have even degree and also
even Clifford index. Thus either c(AB)= 0 or c(AB -1 )= 0. If c(AB)= 0,
then by Clifford's theorem (Corollary 1 in 111.8.5), M is hyperelliptic unless
AB — Z. If c(AB') = 0, then M is hyperelliptic unless AB - is principal.
In this latter case A B, contrary to hypothesis. •
111.8.9. Proposition. Let A and B be integral divisors of the same degree

<g — 1 with r(A -1 ) = r(B- lj = t + 1, t 1. Then,
c(AB) deg(A,B) — c((A.B)) + 2(c(A) — s), (8.9.1)
whenever s is defined by
r(DA - I ) = r(A - 1 8') — s, (8.9.2)
for some integral divisor D of degree s t with (A,B)/D integral.
PROOF. We write
le" A = A'D, B
with A', B' integral divisors. Clearly L((.4,B)/AB) L(D/AB). Hence
r((A,B)/ AB) 5 r(D/AB), and thus (8.9.2) implies
r( 1\ s rRA,B)\ .
AB )
Translating the above inequality to Clifford indices, we obtain
AB \
deg(AB) — c(AB)— 2s deg AB — deg(A,B) c
((A,B)7
or
AB
c(AB) 5_ deg(A,B) + 2s.
c((A,B))
We now use Corollary 1 to Proposition 111.8.3 in the form 2c(A) c((A,B)) +
c(AB/(A,B)) to obtain (8.9.1).
111.8.10. Let A', B' be two integral divisors of the same degree. Assume that
r(A' -1 )= r(B-1 )= t + 1, with t > I. For almost all (to be defined in the
proof of the assertion) integral divisors D of positive degree s t, it is possible
to find integral divisors A, B satisfying
A — A', B B' (8.10.1)
(A,B)/D is integral, (8.10.2)
and
r(A -1 B') — s = r(DA'B'). (8.10.3)
To verify the above claim, we begin by showing that for every s t + 1
there is an integral divisor D = P, • • P, such that r(1/A'B') — s = r(D/A'B').
This is clearly equivalent to showning that the matrix (fic(Pi)), k = 1, . , d,
j = 1, . . . , s, with f1 , . . , fd a basis for L(1/A'B'), has rank s. Note first
that d > t + 1> s.
We choose P, such that P, does not appear in A'B' and such that fi(P i)
0. Consider now the meromorphic function of P:
f2(P1)1
det
fi(P) f2(P)
Since {f 1 ,f2 } are linearly independent, the determinant is not identically

zero, and thus we can find P2 such that P2 does not appear in A'B' and
such that the determinant does not vanish at P2. Hence
fa(Pi)
rank [ fi(P1) 2
f1(P2) • fa(Pk)i
Having now chosen P,,.. ,P,,_ such that no PI appears in A'B' and such
that det(f„,* (P;)), m = 1, , k — 1,j = 1, . . . , k — 1 (k s) does not vanish,
we consider
.1.01) • • • fk(P1)
det
i) ' • • fk(Pi---11
.îi(P) • _
The linear independence of ffi, ,f,) assures us that the determinant
does not vanish identically so that we can choose P, not to appear in A'B'
and such that det(f„,(P i)), m = 1, . . . , k, j =1, . . . , k does not vanish. Hence
1) • • • fd( 1) = k.
rank [
f,(Pk) ••• fd(Pk)
This verifies the existence of a divisor D of degree s with the required
properties and in fact, shows that almost all divisors D of degree s would
work,
Finally, we need show the existence of divisors A — A' and B B' such
that (A,B)/D is integral. To this end consider L(D/A'). Clearly (for s
r(DIA') t + 1 — 1, and thus there is a non-constant function f E L(D/ A')
such that (f)= DI,/A' and we may take A = D11. Similarly there is an
integral divisor 12 such that B may be chosen as D/ 2 .
111.8.11. Theorem. Let M be a compact Riemann surface of genus g > 4.

Assume that M is not hyperelliptic. Let 91 be an integral divisor of degree
5g — 1 with c(91) = 1. Then r(9.1 - I) 5 2 (and thus deg 91 3) except possibly
if g = 6. In this case it is possible that r(21-1 ) = 3 and 91 2 is canonical.
PROOF. Suppose that r(91 - ') > 2. Let s = r(21 -1 ) — 2. Choose integral
divisors A, B, D with deg D = s such that they satisfy (8.10.1), (8.10.2), and
(8.10.3) with A' = 21 = B'. We use now (8.3.4) to obtain
AB
+ c((A,B)) c(A) + c(B)= 2.
c((A ,B)
From (8.10.2) we see that
1 s = deg D < deg(A,B) deg A g— 1, (8.11.1)
and hence,
AB
1 deg( --.) 2g< — 3.
(A ,B)
Thus, by Clifford's theorem,
AB
= 1 = c((A,B)).
c((A ,B)
We now consider cases:
Case I: r(11(A,B))= 1.
From-the definition (*Clifford index,
1 ---- c((A,B))= deg(.4,B).
But Proposition 111.8.9 implies that
c( 4112) = c(AB) deg(A,B) — c((A,B)) + 2(1 — s) = 2(1 — s).
Since s > 1, we see by Clifford's theorem that s = 1,20 Z, and r(91 - 1 ) = 3.
Furthermore,
1 = c(21) = deg 91 — 4,
shows that deg Z = 2 deg 91 = 10 or g = 6.
Case II: r(11(A,B))._ 2 (thus deg(A,B) 3).
In this case we may assume that (A,B) is the polar divisor of a function.
(Note first that if P E AI appears in the divisor (A,B), then
1\
r 1.
((A,B)) = r ((A ,B)
Otherwise,
=
deg(A,B) 1 2r(1 2 = c((A,B)) — 1 = 0,
P (A,B))+
contradicting that M is not hyperelliptic. A function belonging to
GA1,B)) \ PeY4,B) L GAPA)

(this is non-empty since every term in the finite union is of codimension 1
in L(1/(A,B)) will necessarily have polar divisor (A,B).) We thus apply
Corollary 1 to Proposition 111.8.8,
2= 2c(21) c(91(A,B)) + c (()). (8.1 1.2)

,
Since 2 and (A,B) have odd Clifford index, they also have odd degree. Hence
21(A,B) and 2I/(A,B) have even degree and even Clifford index. Thus one
of the terms on the right hand side of (8.1 1.2) must be zero. Since neither
91(A,B) nor 211(A,B) is principal or canonical we are done. (If, for example,
21/(A,B) were principal, then A — B 91— (A,B). Thus A =(J./3) B, which

clearly can be avoided from the beginning because r(DI9.1) r(1/%) — s = 2.)
111.8.12. To change the pace slightly, we prove a result in linear algebra. For
the proposition of this section, we will need some elementary results from
algebraic geometry.
To begin with, the set of r x r symmetric matrices can be viewed in a
natural way as a vector space of dimension 112-r(r + 1) which we identify
with Ç(2)(+ 1)
Proposition. The set Vp of r x r symmetric matrices of rank <p is an irre-

ducible homogeneous, algebraic subrariety of I 2)rir+ I) of dimension
(1/2)p(p + 1) + p(r — p).
PROOF. The points in V, are those r x r symmetric matrices which satisfy
the homogeneous equations of degree p + 1 obtained by equating all
(p + 1) x (p + 1) subdeterminants to zero. Thus Vp is a homogeneous alge-
braic subvariety. Furthermore, for every T E Vp , there exists an r x r, matrix
T such that
= TE pT, (8.12.1)
where Ep is the diagonal matrix with ones along the first p diagonal entries
and zeros on the remaining r — p diagonal entries. Thus V, is connected
and irreducible. To compute the dimension of lip , we may consider only
the matrices in Vp of rank precisely p. Consider such a
with Aapxp non-singular symmetric matrix and thus F1 is a p x (r — p)

matrix ... etc. By (8.12.1) we see that there exists an r x r matrix
[A 131
T=
C D
such that
tA 01 F A Bi ['AA P:
L`B `Di LO j LC D ['BA 'BB LC BS
From the above it fo lows that A is non-singular CAA = A implies (det A) 2 =
det A 0 0). We claim that A, B uniquely determine C, B. It is clear that
C =T. Further, since fi = 'AB and A is non-singular b = 'BB =
t i(rAA) -I fi=q1-Â - '11. Conversely, given a non-singular symmetric A as
above, it can be written as 'AA for some A. Also given an arbitrary IT as
above, we can define a matrix t of the above form. Thus we see that dim V,
is equal to the sum of the dimension of all possible A and the dimension
of all possible
111.8. Special Divisors on Compact. Surfaces 117
Corollary. Let V be a k-dimensional vector space of symmetric r x r matrices.

A sufficient condition for V n Vp to contain a non-trivial matrix is that
r(r + 1) 1
< k + - p(p + 1) + p(r — p).
2 2
PROOF. The vector space V is clearly an irreducible homogeneous subvariety
of C(112 "*". So is lip. The intersection of two such varieties is never empty
and in our case has dimension
k p + 1)p(r — p) r(r + 1) 1. 0
111.8.13. Theorem. Let M be a compact Riemann surface of genus g and let

A be an integral divisor of degree n > g. If r(.4 -1 ) > -.1(2n + 7 — g), then
there is an integral divisor B on M with deg B < In and r(B') > 2.
PROOF. From the Riemann-Roch theorem,

r(A - = 2n — g + 1.
Let r = r(A - 1 ). Let {f1 , . . ,f,} be a basis for L(A -1 ). Then fifk E L(A -
for 1 j k r, and these ir(r + 1) elements are dependent (because
, 6(2n + 8 — g)(2n + 12 — g) > 2n — g + 1), and satisfy at least
ir(r + 1) :2_.
k = ir(r + 1) — (2n — g + 1) linearly independent symmetric relations of

the form
aikfifk = O.
j.k=1
By the corollary to the previous proposition, a necessary condition for the

existence of a non-trivial rank 4 relation among these is that
ir(r + 1) < k + 10 + 4(r — 4),
which is precisely the condition imposed on r = r(A -1 ). By a change of

basis in L(A'), we may assume the relation is of the form (it cannot be
of rank <2)
fif2= f3f4 or fi f3.4.
From here it is easy to get the desired conclusion. We use a variation of a

previous argument. Let A = P, P„. Assume (in case of the relation of
rank 3 set f2 = fl )
Qjl • • • Qjn
(fi)—
P1 Pn
(we are not assuming that Qfl 0 Pk for all j, I, k). Then
Qii • • • Qi.°221 • Q2n = .231 • • • Q3nQ41 • • • ■24ii•

Half the 0,02 1k ; k = 1, . , n1 occur in {Q 3k 1 or 1Q4k }. Say in the {Q 3k }, then

QuQ12 - • • QI„
Q31Q32 Q3;
and f 11/13 has not more than n/2 zeros and is not constant. We can set
B = the divisor of zeros of f, and observe that 1/f E L(B -1 ).
Corollary. Let M be a surface of genus g > 4. Then M carries a non-constant

tneromorphic function of degree 1(3g + 1).
PROOF. Let D be a special divisor of degree n with ig < n 2g - 2. The
Riemann-Roch theorem implies that
/ ( D') = n - g + 1 + i(D) n - g + 2.
The assumption that n > ig implies n - g + 2> 1(2n - g + 7) and allows
us to apply the theorem. We conclude that there exists an integral divisor
B of degree 5 4,-n, with L(B ') > 2. Choosing the integer n as low as possible,
the Corollary follows. 0
Remark. The above result generalizes Proposition 111.8.6.

111.8.14. We consider a special case of the preceding theorem. Let Z
be an integral canonical divisor (then r(Z - f) = g). Note r(Z - 1 )>
;1(2 deg Z + 7 - g) if and only if g> 3. Hence we obtain, in this case, from
Theorem 111.8.13, an integral divisor B of degree - 1 with r(11B) > 2.
Thus, also i(B) 2. (The above also follows from the corollary to Theorem
111.8.13.)
We have produced the divisor B as a consequence of a quadric relation
of rank 54 among products of meromorphic functions. It could have
equivalently been produced as a consequence of a quadric relation of rank
54 among products of abelian differentials of the first kind. Now, there
are ig(g + 1) such products and 3g - 3 linearly independent holomorphic
quadratic differentials. Thus there are at least ig(g + 1) - (3g - 3) =
1(g - 2)(g - 3) linearly independent symmetric relations
E afimg , = o
j.k=
among products of a basis tcp i , ,cp,1 of abelian differentials of the first

kind. The space of symmetric g x g matrices of rank <4 has dimension
4g - 6, and thus the dimension of the "space of relations of rank <4" is
at least
(4g - 6) + i(g - 2)(g - 3) - ig(g + 1) = (4g - 6) - (3g - 3) = g - 3.
Thus (another loose statement), the dimension of the space of integral divisors
of degree - 1 and index of specialty is -3. The proofs of these
assertions involve new ideas, and will be presented in 111.11.
111.8.15. The next lemma is both technically very useful, and explains
what it means for an integral divisor to have positive dimension. Roughly
it says that an integral divisor D has dimension >s if and only if D has
s — 1 "free points", and gives a precise meaning to this statement.
Remark. The lemma could have been established at the end of 111.4. We
have delayed its appearance because its proof uses techniques of this sec-
tion. In fact, we have already used and proved part of the lemma in 111.8.10.
Leming. Let D he an integral divisor on M. A necessary and sufficient condition

for r(1/D)> s is: given any integral divisor D' of degree — 1, there is an
integral divisor D" such that D'D" D. Further, for sufficiency it suffices to
assume that D' is restricted to any open subset U of Mcs _ 1) , the (s — 1)-
symmetric product of M.
PROOF. To prove the sufficiency, we assume r(1/D) = d and that (f1 , ,fd )
is a basis for .1(1/D). As in 111.8.10, we construct a divisor D' = Q, • • • Q,_
such that rank (fk (Qi)), k = 1, . , d, j = 1, . , s — 1, is precisely
min {d, s — 1) and such that none of the points Oi appear in D. If d s — 1
we would have that the only function which vanished at Q1,..., Q 1 in
L(1/D) would be the zero function contradicting the fact that we can choose
an integral divisor D" such that D'D" D. Hence d > s.
To show necessity assume that r(D -1 )= s> 1. Note that for arbitrary
divisor 21 and arbitrary point P E M, r(P91 1 ) > r( 21 - 1) — 1. Now let D' be
integral of degree — 1. By the above remark, r(D'/D) s — (s — 1) = 1.
Now choose f e L(D'/D). Thus there exists a divisor D" such that D'D" D.
111.9. Multivalued Functions

We have on several occasions referred to certain functions as being (perhaps)
multivalued, and then proceeded to show that they were single-valued.
Examples of this occurred in the proof of the Riemann-Roch theorem, in
the proof of the sufficiency part of Abel's theorem (Theorem 111.6.3), and
in the section on hyperelliptic surfaces. In this section we give a precise
meaning to the term multivalued function and generalize Abel's theorem
and the Riemann-Roch theorem to include multivalued functions. Multi-
valued functions will also be treated in IV.4 and IV.11. Analytic continuation
(= multivalued functions) is one of the motivating elements in the develop-
ment of Riemann surface theory. Riemann surfaces are the objects on which
multivalued functions become single-valued. This aspect of multivalued
functions will be explored in IV.1 1.
111.9.1. Let M be a Riemann surface. By a functilm elenOtt (f,U) on M,

we mean an open set U M and a meromorphic function
f:U -+C
Two function elements (f,U)and (g,V) are said to be equivalent at PEUn V,
provided there is an open set W with P E WC U n V and
flIV = gii.V.
The equivalence class of (f,U) at P E U is called the germ of ( f,U) at P and
will be denoted by (f,P). It is obvious that the set of germs of all function
elements at a point P E M is in bijective correspondence with the set of
convergent Laurent series at P (in terms of some local parameter) with
finite singular parts. We topologize the set of germs as follows. Let (f,P) be
a germ. Assume it is the equivalence class of the function element (f,U)
with P E U. By a neighborhood of (f,P), we shall mean the set of germs
(f,Q) with Q E U. It is obvious that each connected component Sr-, of the
set of germs, is a Riemann surface equipped with two holomorphic maps
C L.) { c;c}
where
eval( f,P) = f(P)
proj(f,P) = P.
The verification of the above claims is routine, and hence left to the
reader. In this connection the reader should see also IVA.
111.9.2. We shall be interested exclusively in a restricted class of compo-
nents g7 as above. Namely, we require that
i. proj be surjective, and that
ii. for every path c:I —> M, and every f e ...42-• with proj(f) = c(0), there
exists a (necessarily) unique path a:I 3-- with E(0) = f and c = proj 0 E.
We shall call e the analytic continuation of E(0) along c.
Note that by the Monodromy theorem E(1) depends only on the homotopy
class of the path c and the point E(0). (In the language of 1.2.4, we are con-
sidering only those components Y which are smooth unlimited covering
manifolds of M.)
111.9.3. Let M be a compact Riemann surface and rc,(M), its fundamental
group. By a character x on ic,(M) we mean a homomorphism of ic,(M) into
the multiplicative subgroup of C, C* = C\10). Since the range is commuta-
tive, a character x is actually a homomorphism
x : Ii i(M) C*.
The character x is normalized if it takes values in the unit circle {z c C;

izi = 1. If M has positive genus g, and {N,, ,N 2g} = {a 1 , . b1,
is a canonical homology basis on M, then x is determined uniquely by its
values on a canonical homology basis, and these values may be arbitrarily
assigned.
The set of characters on rz 1 (M) forms an abelian group (under the obvious
multiplication) that will be denoted by Char M.
111.9.4. We are finally ready to define a multiplicative multivalued function
belonging to a character .2t on M. By this we mean a component 5 of the
germs ofrf meromorphic rinctions on M satisfying the two properties listed
in 111.9.2 and the following additional property:
iii. the continuation of any f e 5 along a closed curve c leads to a point
fi with
eval f1 = x(c) eval f.
111.9.5. We examine more closely a multiplicative function 5 belonging
to a character x. Let c be a closed path in M and t a path in 5 lying above
it (proj o = c). For each point t E [0,1], the point (t) is represented by a
function element (f„U(t)) with U(t) open in M and c(t) E U(t). By the con-
tinuity of the map "c":/ 5 and the compactness of I, we can find a sub-
division
0= to < t i < t2 < • • • < t„ < =1
and function elements ( 4 .U0), (f1 ,U 1 ), , (f,„U„) such that(t) is the
equivalence class of (fi,U;) for t E [tpti+ 1 1, j = 0, , n. Furthermore, if c
is a closed path, c(0) = c(1), we may assume without loss of generality that
U0 = Un . We say that the function element (f„,U„) has been obtained from
the function element (f0,U0) by analytic continuation along the curve c.
Since 5 belongs to the character x, we see that
= x(e)fo.
Thus, we may view a multiplicative function 5 belonging to a character
x as a collection of function elements (f,U) on M with the properties
(i) given two elements (f1 ,U 1) and (f2 ,U2) in 9, then (f2,U2) has been
obtained by analytic continuation of (f1 ,U 1) along some curve c on M, and
(ii) continuation of a function element (f,U) in F along the closed curve
c leads to the function element (x(c)f,U).
111.9.6. To define multiplicative differentials belonging to a character, we
proceed as follows: Consider the triples (w,U,z) where U is an open set in
M, z is a local coordinate on U, and w is a meromorphic function of z. If
(0)1, 17,C) is another such triple and PE Un V, then the two triples are
said to be equivalent at P provided there is an open set W U r) V, with
P e W, and for all Q E W
c1C
— = w(z), z = z(Q).
dz
Repeating the previous arguments, with this equivalence relation, one

arrives at multiplicative (or Prim) differentials belongingto a character x.
To fix ideas, this involves a collection of triples (o.U,..:). IT (w0 ,U 0 ,z0) and
(a)„,U„,z„) are two such triples, then we can find a chain of triples
(a);,Upzi), j = 0, , n,
such that
n # 0, j 0, . , n — 1,
and
dzi
coi(zi(zi .„ „)) — o f ,(zif ,), zit :J .,. 1 (Q), QEUi U j+
-J+
Furthermore, if we continue an element (a),U,z) along a closed curve c to the
element (w 1 , U,;), then
co i(z)= x(c)a)(z), z= Q E U.
111.9.7. It is quite clear that if ff(j = 1,2) is a multiplicative function be-
longing to the character xi, then 1112 is a multiplicative function belonging
to the character X X2 (L/f2 is a multiplicative function belonging to x,x2-
provided 12 0 0). Similarly, if coi (j = 3,4) is a multiplicative differential
belonging to the character xi, then f1 (o3 is a multiplicative differential be-
longing to the character x i x 3 and 0)3/0)4 is a multiplicative function belong-
ing to the character x 3x," j, provided a),, # O.
Proposition. If f r 0 is a multiplicative function belonging to the character

X, then df is a multiplicative differential belonging to the same character and
dflf is an abelian differential.
PROOF. We need only assure the reader that df is exactly what one expects
it to be. If f is represented by (f,U) on the domain of the local parameter z,
then df is represented by (f '(z),U,z). 0
111.9.8. It is quite obvious that a multiplicative function (and differential)

has a well-defined order at every point, and thus we can assign to it a divisor.
Corollary 1. If f 0 is a multiplicative function, then deg( f) = O.

PROOF. The order of f at P, ord,, f, just as in the ordinary case is given by
the residue at P of df/f. Since df/f is an abelian differential, the sum of its
residues is zero.
Corollary 2. If co 0 0 is a multiplicative differential, then deg(w) = 2g — 2.
PROOF. Choose an abefian differential a), on M, a), 0 O. Then a)/a), is a

multiplicative function belonging to the same character as a). Since deg(a) 1 ) =
2g — 2, Corollary 1 yields Corollary 2.
111.9.9. If f is a multiplicative function without zeros and poles, then

dfif = d(log f ) is a holomorphic abelian differential. Letting jC i , ,} be
a basis for the abelian differential of the first kind on M dual to the canonical
homology basis, we see that
df
- = d log f E
f
and thus
f(P) = f(P0) eXP 5P Po

CI:» with ci E C. (9.9.1)
The character x of the function f is then given by

x(ak )= exp ck , k = 1, . . . , g, (9.9.2)
z(bk) = exp(E cirrik), k= (9.9.3)

.= I
We shall call a character x as above inessential, and f as above a unit.
Proposition. If y is an arbitrary character, then there existsa unique inessential

character y i such that y/y, is normalized.
PROOF. Assume
X(ak) = esk+ irk, sk , tk E 01,
x(bk) = uk , E
for k = 1, . . , g. To construct an inessential character x, with lx,(c)i =

Ix(c)I for all c E ,(M), we choose constants ck = Œ + i/3,, so that (compare
with 9.9.1, 9.9.2, and 9.9.3),
= esk or ak = Sk ,
and
t cgr,
= v -,
Re c,x ,
= euk or E Re cirri, = uk . (9.9.4)
1=1
To see that this cho'ce is indeed possible and in fact unique, recall that we
can write the matrix 17 = (ink)
k ) as
11= X + iY
with Y positive definite, and thus non-singular. To solve (9.9.4) we write
c = r(c,, ,eg), = t(a l , ,;), etc.,. , and note that we want to solve
Re[(X + iY)(a + ill)] = u.
Since we have already chosen a = s the equation we wish to solve is
Re[(X + iY)(s + il3)] = u,
or what amounts to the same thing

Yfl = — u + Xs.
Since Y is non-singular there is a unique fI which solves this system of
equations.
Corollary. A normalized inessential character is trivial.
111.9.10. Theorem. Every divisor D of degree zero is the divisor of a unique

(up to a multiplicative constant) multiplicative function belonging to a unique
normalized character.
PROOF. Let D = P, • • • PA, • • • Q, with Pi Qk all j, k = 1, , r > O. If
fi is a multiplicative function belonging to the normalized character zi
(j 1,2), and (fi) = D, then f 1 /f2 is a multiplicative function without zeros
and poles. Thus, 7.17.2-1 is inessential and normalized; hence trivial. Thus
it suffices to prove existence for the divisor D = Pi/Q,, with P,.Q, e M,
P, Q 1 . Recall the normalized abelian differential Tp,Q, introduced in
111.3.6. Define
f(P)= exp Tp i Q i .
The character to which f belongs is not necessarily normalized. But the

arguments in 111.9.9 showed how to get around this obstacle.
Corollary. Every divisor D of degree 2g — 2 is the divisor of a unique (up to a

multiplicative constant) multiplicative differential belonging to a unique
normalized character.
PROOF. Let Z be a canonical divisor, and apply the theorem to the divisor
of degree zero D/Z. 0
111.9.11. Theorem. Every character z is the character of a multiplicative
function (that does not vanish identically).
PROOF. Let {a 1, b1, ,b,} be a canonical homology basis on M.
It is obvious that x may be replaced (without loss of generality) by xx, with
Xi inessential (a unit always exists with character x i ). Since the value of an
inessential character can be prescribed arbitrarily on the "a" periods (see
111.9.9), we may assume
x (a) = 1, = 1, (9.1 1.1)
Furthermore, writing
z(b) = exp(fli), j = 1, , g,
and fixing e> 0, we may assume in addition
< e, j = I, • g• (9.1 1.2)

(For if z is arbitrary and satisfies (9.11.1), then choose an integer N > 0 so

that
111j, NI < j = 1, , g.
Set
2(a) = 1, j?(6.1 )= es-0, j = 1, . . . , g.
If f is a function belonging to the character 2, then .f N is a function belonging
to the character z.) Let us now fix a single parameter disc U on M with local
coordinate z. We may assume U is equivalent via z to the unit disc. Choose
a point (z,, e U9 such that the divisor D = P1 . • • I', (P; = `(::) ) is
not special. (This is, asf"ive have previously-seen, always possible.) We use
once again the normalized abelian differential tpe of the third kind (intro-
duced in 111.3).
We define
f(P) = exp Ef po
i=
where 2 = (2,, ... ,2g) e Ug is a variable point, and Po U. For fixed I' we
get a multiplicative function with character zf satisfying (9.11.1). This is,
of course, a consequence of the fact that fak rP = 0, for k = 1, . . . , g. Further-
more,
Mk) = exp E bk T. . = exp>2 2rci f 1') r,k (9.11.3)
by the bilinear relation (3.6.3), where {C,, ..; g } is the normalized basis
for the abelian differentials of the first kind dual to the given holomogy
basis.
Now (9.11.3) obviously defines a holomorphic mapping 40: Ug Cg
= (0 1, • • • , ( Pg)
(Pk (2) = exp E1 27ri

j= ri
11(:1, :g) = (1, ,1).
The theorem will be established if we show that 0 covers a neighborhood
in Cg of (1, . ,1). By the inverse function theorem it suffices to show that
the Jacobian of 0 at (z 1 , ,zg) is non-singular. Write 27riCi(z) = cpi(z)dz in
terms of the local coordinate z, and note that
00 k
= (pk (zi), j, k = 1, . . , g.
xi
Thus, we have to show that the matrix
01(7, 2) ••• 91(z9 )
92(z g)
9g(zg)_
is non-singular. If this matrix were singular, then a non-trivial linear com-

bination of the rows would be the zero vector in Cq. That is (since , Cg
are linearly independent), there would be a non-zero abelian differential of
the first kind vanishing at P 1, , P,„ contradicting the assumption that
the divisor D is not special. 0
Remark. The reader should notice the similarity between the proof of the
above theorem and the proof of the Jacobi inversion theorem.
111.9.12. Let 21 be an arbitrary divisor on M. In analogy to our work in 111.4,

we define for an arbitrary character x,
4(91 ) = (multiplicative functions f belonging to the character x such that
rx(91) = dim L,(21),

Q1(91) = {multiplicative differentials w on M belonging to the character x
such that (w) 21), and
ir(21) = dim f2x(21).
Theorem (Riemann-Roch). Let M be a compact surface of genus g, and x
a character on M. Then for every divisor II on M, we have
r(91') deg 21 — g + 1 + (9.12.1)
PROOF. Choose a multiplicative function 0 f belonging to the character x.
(Theorem 111.9.11 gives us the existence of such an f.) Then
h e L,(21 -1 ).=. h/f E L(It - t ( f) (9.12.2)
and
e cof e Q(21(f)). (9.12.3)
Thus
r,(21 1 ) = r((21(f ))') and j7 - i(21) = 491( f)). (9.12.4)
We apply now the standard Riemann-Roch theorem (4.11) to the divisor
21(f ) and obtain
r((21(f )) -1) = deg((91(f ))) — g + 1 +1 (21(f)),
which is equivalent to (9.12.1) in view of (9.12.4) and the fact that
deg(21(f )) = deg 21 + deg( f) = deg 21.
Remark. The isomorphisms established in (9.12.2) and (9.12.3) are also useful
in their own right.
111.9.13 An important class of characters are the so-called nth-integer
characteristics. Let {a i, b 1 , . . ,b,} be a canonical homology basis on
M. Consider an integer n > 2 and a 2 x g matrix

[el = I- & Lin, ... ,e,/n1
Le' in Le',/n, . . . ,e;inj
with ere; integers between 0 and n — 1. The symbol [], will be called an
nth-integer characteristic. It determines a normalized character x on M via
X(a) = exp(27tiej/n),
x(b3) = exp(27ris;/n), j = I, . . . , g.
P. le' _ • -.'
It is clear that for every multiplicative function f belonging to such a
character x, Ifl is a (single-valued) function on M, and f itself lifts to a function
on an n-sheeted covering surface of M. Furthermore, we can construct such
an f by taking nth roots of a meromorphic function h on M provided (h)
is an nth power of a divisor on M (that is, provided the order of zeros and
poles of h are integral multiples of n).
111.9.14. Proposition. For x E Char M,
if x is inessential,
ix (1 ) = { gg _ I if x is essential.
PROOF. The Riemann-Roch theorem says:
r - i(l) = —g + 1 + i,(1).
Thus, i1(1) ..- g — 1, and ir(1) __ g. Furthermore. i,(1) = g if and only if there
is an f E L 1 _ 1 (1), f # O. Since such an f must be a unit if it is not identically
zero, we are done.
111.9.15. We end this section with the statement of Abel's theorem for mul-
tiplicative functions belonging to a character x. The proof is omitted since
it is exactly the same as the proof already studied (in 111.6.3).
Theorem (Abel). Let D E Div(M), x e Char M. A necessary and sufficient con-

dition for D to be the divisor of a multiplicative function belonging to the
character x is
1g co
(PP) 1g log x(c (mod L(M)),
27ti .41 log X (L)e
and
deg D = O.
111.9.16. Exercise
Define a mapping
9:Char M -■ J(M)
as follows. For X E Char M. select a non-constant meromorphic function f belonging

to the character x. Let rp(x) = g)( ( f)), where, as before, ça(( f)) is the image of the divisor
(f) in the Jacobian variety. Show that:
(1) The mapping (p is a well defined group hornomorphism.
(2) The mapping q) is surjective.
(3) x e Kernel q) if and only if x is an inessential character. Cone-ride that as groups
J(M)-1- Char Al/Unessential characters on M).
(4) Obtain an alternate proof of the Jacobi inversion theorem as follows. First show
that every e E J(M) is the image of a divisor of degree zero. (We established this fact
by the use of the implicit function theorem.) Thus every e e J(M) is the image
of some y e Char M. Now use Theorem 111.9.12 (Riemann-Roch) to show that
rx il : P4)= 1. Thus there is a multipheative function belonging to the character x
with < g poles. Jacobi inversion follows from this observation. The same method
(see HD I) can also determine the dimension of the space of divisors of degree g that
have image e.
Remark. The reader should at this point review the remark at the end of 111.9.11.
111.9.17. Exercise
(1) Let P E M and let z be a local coordinate vanishing at P. Let n e Z, n > 1. By a
principal part (of a meromorphic function) at P we mean a rational function of z of
the form
f( ,)= akz4.
-n
(2) Let {P 1, ,P„,} be in distinct points and zi a local coordinate vanishing at P.

Let fi be a principal part of a meromorphic function at Pi (in terms of the local
coordinate zi). The collection F = (f1..... f,,,} will be called a system of principal
parts at (I' 1, ,P.}.
(3) Let F be a system of principal parts at {P 1 , ... ,P„,}. Let gl be an abelian differential
on M that is regular at Pi lor i = 1, . , rn. Then
F(v)= E Resp, fjgr

.1= I
is a well-defined linear functional on the space of all such cp. In particular, F induces
a linear function on ifl(M), the vector space of holomorphic differentials on M.
(4) Let ye Hom(H,(M),C); that is, x is a homomorphism from the first homology
group of M into the complex numbers. By an additive multivalued function belonging
to y we mean a component 5Fof the germs of meromorphic functions on M satisfying
the two properties listed in 111.9.2, and (iii)' the continuation of any f E ..5F along a
closed curve c leads to f, e 3'7 with
eval f1= eval f y(c).
Show that for every additive function ..5r, dgr is a (well-defined) holomorphic
differential. Further .F defines a system of principal parts and this induces a linear
functional on
111.10. Projective Imbeddings 129
(5) Using the normalized abelian differentials of the second kind introduced in 111.3,
show that
(a) Every system of principal parts is the system of principal parts of an additive
function.
(b) For every x e Hom(11 1 (M),C) there is an additive function belonging to z.
(c) Let { al, b1, ,b9} be a canonical homology basis on M. A homomor-
phism x e Hom(H,(M).C) is called normalized if x(c(i) = 0, j = 1, , g. Show
that every system of principal parts belongs to a unique normalized homomor-
phism.
(6) Prove that a system F of principal parts is the system of principal parts of a (single-
val ued) mcromorphic (OM ion on M if and on ly if F induces the zero linear functional
on
(7) Use the notation of 111.3, and show that

an _ 2 J.P
C too
n—1 R
where
TN= E (ajzi)dz at P,
jO
and
R. P, Q, are three distinct points on M.
(8) Let F be a system of principal parts at {P I , ... ,P.}. Let Q be arbitrary but distinct
from Pi, j = 1, , m. Define for P # P, P # 0,
E(P)= — F(T pi!),
Show that E agrees on M ,P„„Q} with the unique (up to additive constant)
additive function with F as its system of principal parts and belonging to a
normalized homomorphism.
111.10. Projective Imbeddings

Throughout this section, M is a compact Riemann surface of genus g 2, q
is an integer 1, and d = dim O (M ) (=g for q = 1, =(2q — 1)(g — 1) for
q > 2). We show that every such surface M can be realized as a submanifold
of three-dimensional complex projective space.
We have seen that for each P E M, there is a a.) e Ye l (M) with
co(P) 0 0 (thus also ail E Ya(M) with w(P) 0 0). Let {C I, ... ,Cd} be a basis
for Yeq(M). The preceding remark shows that we have a well-defined
holomorphic mapping, called the g canonical mapping, of M into complex
-
projective space
0:M pd
where 0(P) is given by (C 1 (P), ,:"J(P)) in homogeneous coordinates. We

are using here our usual conventions: Let z be any local coordinate on M.
Express the differential
= cpi(z)dzq
in terms of this local coordinate. Then
0(z) = (9 1(z), ,cpa(z))
in terms of the local coordinate z. The image of P E M in Pd-1 is clearly
independent of the choice of local coordinate used, and a change of basis of
feq(M) leads to projective transformation of Pd-1 • Hence the map 0 is
canonical, up to the natural self-maps of projective space.
111.10.2. Theorem. The g-canonical holomorphic mapping 0:M -, 11' is

injective (and of maximal rank) unless g = 1 and M is hyperelliptic or g = 2 = q.
In these exceptional cases 0 is two-to-one.
PROOF. Assume that for P e M, 2 is a "q-gap" (that is, there exists a holo-
morphic q-differential with a simple zero at P). Then by choosing a basis for
09(M) adapted to P, we see that (z = local coordinate vanishing at P)
91(z) = (1 + 0(IzI))dzg, z — ■ 0,
92( z ) = (z 0(1.71 2 ))dzq, z
Thus
0,
z 0,
01
and we conclude that 0 has a non-vanishing differential at P (z = 0) and is,
hence, of maximal rank at P.
Now assume there exist P and Q E M, P Q, with 0(P). 0(Q). By
choosing a basis adapted to P as above, we see that in homogeneous co-
ordinates
0(P) = (1 0 0).
(d — 1)-times
Thus, if 0(P) = 0(Q), we must have,
0(Q) = ,0), A 0.
(d — 1)-times
In particular, we see that every holomorphic q-differential that vanishes
at P also vanishes at Q, or
L(Z-q P) = L(Z -4 PQ), (10.2.1)
since L(Z - qP) and L(Z - qPQ) are isomorphic to the vector spaces of holo-
morphic q-differentials which vanish at P and P and Q, respectively. Hence
r(Z - qP) = r(Z- VQ) = d — 1. (10.2.2)
111.10. Projective lmbeddings 131
Let us assume q = 1, and use (10.2.2) and Riemann-Roch to compute
= 2 — g + 1 + r(PQ/Z)= 2.
1)
Thus M must be hyperelliptic. Next we assume q> 1, and compute
r(Z - qPQ)= q(2g — 2) — 2— g + 1 + r(Z9-1 /PQ)
= (2q — 1)(g — 1) — 2 + r(Zq - 2 /PQ).
Now for (10.2.2) to hold we must have that
r(Zi - 1 /PQ) =I;
which implies that
deg(Z"/PQ) 0.
This last statement is equivalent to
(q — 1)(g — 1) 1.
Since g 2 and q> 2, this is only possible for g = 2 = q. Note that the above
argument also establishes that for each P E M, 2 is a "q-gap" except if g = 2 =
q or q = 1 and M is hyperelliptic.
111.10.3. To study the excluded cases, we represent a hyperelliptic surface
M by
w2 = (z — el ) • • (z — e29 + 2)
with distinct ei. We have seen that a basis for dri(m) is then
j dz zdz zg dz}
tw w
Thus in affine coordinates

0(P) = (1,z(P), ,z(P)6-1 ).
Thus 0 is clearly two-to-one in this case (since z is two-to-one), and not of
maximal rank at the Weierstrass points z -1 (ei).
For the other excluded case (q = 2 and g = 2), M is hyperelliptic again.
A basis for .0 2(M) is
Again
IdZ 2 (12 2 2 C/Z 2
W2 W 2 w2 1'
0(P) = (1,z(P),z(P)2)
is independent of w, and the 2-canonical map (for genus 2) is two-to-one, and
not of maximal rank at the Weierstrass points. 0
111.10.4. Since the image of a compact manifold under an analytic mapping
of maximal rank is a sub-manifold, we have obtained
Corollary 1. Every Riemann surface of genus >_ 2 is a submanifold of a complex

projective space.
Corollary 2
a. Every non-hyperelliptic surface of genus 3 is a sub-manifold of P2.
b. Every other surface of genus g 2 is a sub-manifold of P 3.
PROOF. Part (a) has already been proven. We have also seen that every surface
is a submanifold of for large d. Now assume that a Riemann surface
M can be realized as a submanifold of Pk for k> 3. Call a point x E Pk\M
good, provided for all P e M, the (projective) line joining x to P is neither
tangent to M at P, nor does it intersect M in another point. Say that we can
find a good point x. We may assume that
x = (1,0 , 0)
k-times
A line L through x may be represented thus by any other point y on it.
Since y 0 x, y = (4, ). 1 , ).,), where (;. 1 , ,;.k ) = y(L), determines a well
defined (depending only on L) point in P j. Now the mapping
M 9 P y(L) E Pk-1 ,
where L is the line joining x to P, is a one-to-one holomorphic mapping of
maximal rank. Thus we are reduced to finding good points. The tangent
lines to M form a two-dimensional subspace of Pk, and the lines through
two points of M form a three dimensional subspace of Pk. Thus a good point
(a point not in the union of these two subspaces) can certainly be found
provided Pk has dimension >4.
We also saw in the above proof that the embedding of M as a submanifold

of P3 can be achieved by using 3 or 4 linearly independent holomorphic
q-differentials (g = 1 except in the few exceptional cases). We will show in
1V.11 that every two meromorphic functions on M are algebraically depen-
dent. Hence we will also have
Corollary 3. Every compact Riemann surface of genus g > 2 can be realized

as an algebraic submanifold of P 3.
111.1 1. More on the Jacobian Variety

This section is devoted to a closer study of various spaces of divisors on a
compact Riemann surface M, and the images of these spaces in the Jacobian
variety J(M). We show that J(M) satisfies a universal mapping property
(Proposition 111.11.7). The technical side involves the calculation of di-
mensions of subvarieties of J(M). The most important consequence is
Noether's theorem (111.11.20). Throughout the section, we assume that the
reader is familiar with elementary properties of complex manifolds of di-

mension> 1.
I11.1 1.1. By a complex torus T, we mean the quotient space, T= C"/G,
where G is a group of translations generated by 2n R-linearly independent
vectors in C". A torus T is thus a group (under addition modulo G) and a
complex analytic manifold with the natural projection
T,
a holomorphic local homeomorphism.
We introduce now some notation that we will follow throughout this
section..If u E T, then iitE Cn will denote a point with p(fi) = u. The gener-
ators of G will be denoted by the column vectors //"), , /1' 2") E C. The
j-th component of the vector Irk) will be denoted by trik . The n x 2n matrix
OW= II will be called the period matrix of T.
Our first observation is that the 2n x 2n matrix [fi] is non-singular.
To see this, assume that there exists a vector c E C 2" such that [ ]c =
[ifcc] = O. Then I7(c +?) 0 = — Z). Thus Re c = 0 = Im c, by the
R-linear independence of the columns of H. Thus c = 0.
Hence we have for `x, 'y E Cm, E C 2" the equation (x,y)[0] = c has a
unique solution. In particular if c E C 2", then
xI7 +yfi = c =Z = 17 +Vii,
Or
(x — y)/7 (y — x)n = o.
Thus x = y, and
c = 2 Re(x/7). (11.1.1)
111.1 1.2. Since G acts fixed point freely on C", n i (T) -1-• G, and since G is
abelian 1/ 1 (T,7L):,,_-: G. As a matter of fact, the paths corresponding to the
columns of H (that is,
t/r), t e [0,1 ], k --= 1, . , 2n)
project to a basis of H,(T,Z). We observe next that the holomorphic
differentials, dû are invariant under G, and hence project to holomorphic
1-differentials du; on T.
Remark Let V be a complex manifold of dimension m. By definition, a

holomorphic 1-form to on V is one that can be written locally as dF for some
locally defined holomorphic function F on V, or in terms of local coordinates,
z = (z 1, . ,z,„), as
w = E fi(z)dzi,
with is, holomorphic. In particular, to is closed. Since
I71 111 af
dco =EE dzk A dz = o,

J=1 k=1 a2k
we also have
= (14- , all k, j = 1, . . . , m.
ez, cz j
Lemma. The projections to T of the differentials dû 1 ,. , di.1„ form a basis

for the holomorphic 1-differentials on T, that will be denoted by tdu,, , du}.
PROOF. Let {a 1 , ,a2„ } be a basis for H 1 ( T,Z) corresponding to the gener-
ators of G. Then
jai, dui = rcik , j = 1, n, k = 1, . . . , 2n.
Thus, letting e E R2", it follows by (11.1.1) that there is a unique vector E C"
such that
Re E xi du, = ck , k = 1,.. . , 2n. (11.2.1)
ak
Now (11.2.1) shows that the differentials du,, du,, , du„ are linearly inde-
pendent over C. Furthermore, given any holomorphic 1-differential on T,
there exists a differential co = x dui such that
Re f = Re L1/4 to, k= 1, . . . , 2n. (11.2.2)
Define a function F on T by
F(P) = Re j: ((5 — to), P E T.
By (11.2.2), F is well-defined. Since (5— cu is holomorphic, F is locally

the real part of a holomorphic function. Thus F satisfies the maximum (and
minimum) principle. Since T is compact, F is constant and thus = O. By the
Cauchy—Riemann equations
1m J" (ô — CO) =
and thus 3 = w.
Definition. By du we will denote the column vector of 1-differentials

`{du„ ,du}.
111.1 1.3. Let V be any connected compact m-dimensional complex an-

alytic manifold, and let (1): V --. T be a holomorphic mapping. Let z =
(z 1 ,. ,z) be a local coordinate at a point (P(P) E T. If co is a holomorphic
1-form on T, then locally
w=E f3(z)dz.
1=1
III] I. More on the lacobian Variety 135
Let C = ( ( 1 .... ,C„,) be a local coordinate at P on V. The pullback of co via (P,

tb*co, is the holomorphic 1-form defined in terms of the local coordinate C by
ns
SP * 0) = E
where we write z = h(( ) = (ha), . ,h„(C)), and
oh k
g = E ji(h(C))— =
k= 1
Let 1 , . e-. , 3„ denote the,pullbacks of du 1 , . du,, via 0. Let .5 be the column

vector formed by the 3.1 , and p be, as before, the projection from Ca -+ T.
Proposition. Let P0 e V. Then
OW) = (P(Po) + (9 (fpPo (5). (11.3.1)
PROOF. Since (5 = 0* du, and

P S I:4P)
du = 0(P)— 0(P0) (11.3.2)
SP0 o(ro)
modulo periods, the result is clear.
111.11.4. Corollary. Let 01 :V T he holomorphic mappings for j = 0,1.

Assume 00 is homotopic to 0 1 . Then there exists a co e T such that
0 0(P)= 01(P) + co, aIlP e V.

PROOF. Since 00 is homotopic to eb„ there exists a continuous function
0:V xi T
(1= [0,1]) such that
0 o, 0(', 1) = 0 1.
Thus for every closed curve a in V, 00(a) is homotopic to 0.1 (a). Let (5‘1) =
Ofdu. From (11.3.2) we see that c) =
(51,1) (since they have the same periods
over every closed curve a on V). Thus 0 0 and 0 1 satisfy (11.3.1) with the
same (5. 0
111.1 1.5. Let T 1 = Cm 1G 1 and T2 = Cn/G2 be two complex tori. Let

0: T i --+ T2 be a holomorphic mapping. As above, let (5 = eb* du. Then there
exists an n x m matrix A such = A dv where dv =`{dv i , ,dv,„} is a
basis for the holomorphic 1-forms on Ti . Hence, as a consequence of the
previous proposition, the map 0 can be written in the form
0 (P) = P2 ° A ° P1-1 (P) + co, PE Tip
for some co E T2. (Since A is an n x m matrix it also represents a linear

transformation from Cm into C".)
We have thus established the following
Proposition. The only holomorphic maps of a complex torus into a complex

torus are the group homomorphisms coin posed with translations.
1II.11.6. By an underlying real structure for the complex torus T = C"/G

we mean the real torus R 2"/Z 2" together with the map R2 "g 2n T induced
by the linear map
R 2" 17X E Cm.
We have seen (as a consequence of Proposition 111.1 1.5) that any
endomorphism of T is induced by a linear transformation A: C" C" that
preserves periods. Thus if A represents the matrix of this linear transformation
with respect to the canonical basis for C", then there exists a 2n x 2n integral
matrix M such that All = TIM. The matrix M now induces an endomorphism
of the underlying real structure. The endomorphism A is completely deter-
mined by M (since [ff] is nonsingular), and the following diagrams commute:
R2" C"
which is simply another way of saying All = 17M.
It follows immediately from the previous remarks that a holomorphic
injective map of one complex torus into another torus of the same dimension
is necessarily biholomorphic. If H i and n, are the period matrices of the
two tori, the map can be represented by a matrix A :C" C" such that
A/7 2 = 11 2 M for some M as above. It is necessarily the case that both A and
M are non-singular. Thus we have established the following
Proposition. Two complex tori T 1 = C"/G 1 and T2 = Cm/G2 are holomorphi-

cally equivalent if and only if n = m and there are matrices A E SL(n,C),
M E SL(2n,7L) such that All = 112M where II is a period matrix of T
j = 1, 2.
Let A represent an endomorphism of a complex torus

A: C"/G -+ C"/G.
Let /7 2, /72 be two period matrices for this torus. Then for some M. e
GL(2n,Z),
All, = 17 1 M i and An, = n2m2.
Further,
11 2 M E SL(2n,Z).
Thus
1 1 1M = Afl ,M = A17 2 = 112 M 2 =
and hence (since H " C" is an isomorphism)
MiM = MM2.
It thus follows, since M is non-singular, that trace M i = trace M2.
Corollarj: The trace of tlfé endomorphism A is-well defined by setting it equal

to trace M 1 (or M 2).
111.1 1.7. We return now to the situation of 111.6. Let M be a compact

Riemann surface of genus g > 0, `{a,b} a canonical homology basis on M,
and {C } the dual basis for ye1 (M ). As before II denotes the period matrix
of the surface. (Here II is ag x g matrix.) Let J(M) be the Jacobian variety
of M; it is, of course, a complex torus (with period matrix (LIM. Let 0 be
the mapping of M into J(M) with base point Po previously defined. Note
that 9 *dui = Ci, j = 1, . . . , g.
Now let 4): M T be any holomorphic mapping of M into a complex
torus T = C"/G. Let dv 1 , ,dv„} be a basis for the holomorphic differentials
on T. Let (5.1 = tb*dvi E Je (M ). Since {C} is a basis for Ye l (M), there are
unique complex numbers aft such that
3,- Ejkk, J = 1, . . . n,
k=1
(or 3 = AC, 6 =` {6 1 , ,6„}, A = (aft )). Then

p(Ail)+ (P(P0) E T
defines a unique mapping
ili:J(M)-4 T.
It now follows from (11.3.1) that
= i,1, 0 (p. (11.7.1)
We have established the following
Proposition. Let ck:M T be a holomorphic mapping of a Riemann surface

M into a complex torus T, then there exists a unique holomorphic mapping
0:J(M)-4 T such that (11.7.1) holds.
The above proposition shows that J(M) is determined by M up to a

canonical isomorphism. The mapping 9 is, of course, determined up to an
additive constant by the canonical homology basis on M.
111.1 1.8. We have seen in 111.6, that the mapping 9 extends to divisors
on M. Let W. be the image in J(M) of the integral divisors of degree n. Set
by definition Wc, = {0}. It is thcn clear that
WN WN+1,
(because tp(D) = cp(DP0) for every divisor D) and 147, = J(M)(Jacobi inversion
theorem).
Let W„ be the set of points in J(M) which are images of integral divisors
D that satisfy the two conditions deg D = n, and r(D - ')> r + 1. Denote
by K the image under of the canonical (integral) divisors. By Abel's theorem,
K consists of one point.
Proposition. 1K) =
PROOF. Let D be an integral with deg D = 2g — 2. Then r(D') > g if and

only if i(D)> 1 if and only if D is canonical.
111.1 1.9. Let M be a Riemann surface and n > 0 an integer. The n-fold
Cartesian product, M", is naturally a complex manifold of dimension n. By
M. we denote the set of integral divisors of degree n on M. We topologize
and give a complex structure to M. as follows: Let Y„ be the symmetric
group on n letters. An element o- E .99„ acts on M" by:
C(P1 , - •• ,P.) = (Paw, • • • 'Poo).

As point sets M. and M"/Y„ can clearly be identified. We shall show that
much more is true. A function f on M. is said to be continuous (holomorphic)
provided f o p is continuous (holomorphic) on M", where
p:M" M„
is the canonical projection. This gives a natural topology and complex
structure to M„. To see that with this structure M„ is a complex manifold,
let (P 1 , ,P„) E M" and let zj be a local coordinate at P. Define the ele-
mentary symmetric functions of zi :
= ( — 1) E
= ( _ 1)2 EZiZk
Pck
(„ = ( - 1rZi • :in .
Notice that C.; is (locally) a holomorphic function on M. and that the ordered
set {C I , ,C„} determines the unordered set {z i, ,z„} uniquely as the
roots of the polynomial z" + C i f + • • • + C„ = O. Hence =
is a local homeomorphism of a neighborhood of p(P 1 , 'P.) E M„ and
thus serves as a local coordinate at p(P 1 , ,P„) E M„.
111.1 1. More on the Jacobian Variety 139
Another useful set of local coordinates on M„ is obtained by considering

the elementary symmetric functions of the second kind :
t„ k = 1, , n.
j=1
An easy induction argument shows that for each k, 1 k n, {t 1 ,. ,tk }

uniquely determines and is uniquely determined by {CI, :k 1 • • • >1
We remark that with the choice of local coordinates made, p is obviously

a holomorphic map (between complex manifolds) and that M„ is compact
if and ably if M is. We Mlle established the following
Proposition.If M is a compact Riemann surface, then M,, can he given a

unique n-dimensional complex structure so that the natural projection
p: M" M is holomorphic. Further, if Visa complex manifold, and the diagram
M" ■ V
M„
commutes, then f is holomorphic if and only if fi is.
Remarks
1. Let f be a holomorphic function in a neighborhood of 0 in C. Thus

.0
f(z) = E akzk.
k=0
For (z 1 , ,z„) e CI with 14 sufficiently small F(.7 1 , ,z„) = f(z i)

defines a symmetric holomorphic function in a neighborhood of the
origin in C. On the quotient space (C"1,99 we can write
n
F(z,, ,z„) =
k=0 j=1
and conclude that in terms of the local coordinate (t 1 , ,t„) on C'115' „,
OF 1 dif
= a..
at dZi z=0
2. If D = P 1 • • • P„ e M„ and the Pi are distinct, we can identify a neighbor-

hood of D in M,, with a neighborhood of (P1 , ,P„) E Mn. Thus the
symmetric group and symmetric functions enter only at those points
D E M„ which contain non-distinct entries. It is also clear from this remark
that in general we can describe a neighborhood of D by considering blocks
consisting of the distinct points of D listed according to their multiplicities.
140 in Compact Riemann Surfaces
111.11.10. Let b be a holoinorphic 1-differential on J(M). Let a E AM)

and set cps(P) = cp(P) + a, P e M. Then S' = 9:6 is a holomorphic 1-
differential on M, and is independent of a. Thus there is a canonical identifi-
cation via cp of the space of holomorphic 1-differentials on M and J(M).
Let Q1,. , Q,, be distinct points on M and let 4 be a local coordinate
vanishing at Qk. Assume s 15_ n, and let m i , , ms be positive integers with
E m = n.
I
Consider the map
: M,,
in a neighborhood of the n-tuple A made up of elch Qs appearing ink times.
Let 6" be 3 pulled back to M,,. A neighborhood of the point A consists of
points
Q1, Q1, • • . Qi, • • • , Q,1 2 , •••,Qi,
s • • • Qfn,,
with Q, near Qk . Consider the point

= Q1, • • • , Q1, Q2, ••• Q2' Q3' • • , Qs, •••, Qs 6 Mn•
mi - times m2-times ms-times

A local coordinate (on Mil vanishing at this point is therefore given by
(z11, • • • >Zino., Zi2, • • • ,7m 2 2, • . •
where
zik(Q) = zk (Q), j = 1, . . . , mk, k = 1, . . . , s.
Let h,,(4) be a local primitive of 3' near Qk on M. Without loss of generality
h,,(0) = 0. The sum
E
k= 1
mkhk(zk)
defines a function on M„ whose differential is 3". (To see this recall the
definition of the pullback of a differential. The differential can be written
as df with f a linear function on Cg. Now hk is simply f o cp. The differential
of f ocps is 3", where 9„ is (I) viewed as a map of M„ into J(M). Since f is
linear, f (9 JP • • P.)) = f(9( 13 1) + • • • + (p(P.)) = .1((P(P 1)) + " • +
f(T(P s)).) Assume now that .5" vanishes at the point A. Since the pullback
of 3" to M" vanishes at we must have dh k/dz k = 0 at zk = 0 for k = 1, . . . , s.
We need more accurate information about the differential 6' in the case that
at least one mk > 1. In this case, the function
hk(zu) + • • • + hk(z.,k) (11.10.1)
can be expressed as a power series in the elementary symmetric functions
of the second kind of the Ink variables z1 . If we write
hk(zk) = E
v=1
we see that the coefficient of the /-th symmetric function of the second kind
in (11.10.1) is precisely a,. We see therefore that
6" = d( E Mkhk),
k= 1
vanishes at A = • Qs?". if and only if dhk vanishes at zero to order m„.

Thus the differential 3' vanishes at Q,, to order > mk . We have thus proved
the following.
Lemma. If 6 is a holomorphic 1-differential on J(M), lose pullback to M„

via themap 9: M n JeVf) vanishes at a preimage of a point U E 147„, corre-
sponding to an integral divisor D of degree n on M, then the holomorphic
differential 6' on M which corresponds to 6 under the canonical map 9:M
J(M) has the property that WO is integral.
111.11.11. Before proceeding we define a filtration of M,, that is analogous

to the filtration of W„ by W;, described in 111.11.8. Let
M;, = {D e Mn ; r(D -1 )_ r + 1).
(We abbreviate M,? by M„). It is obvious that
M; = (P -1 (Win.
Proposition
a. Let De M„. The Jacobian of the mapping 9:M„ W„c J(M) at D has
rank equal to n + 1 — r(D -1 ).
b. The fiber 9 -1 (9(D)) of the mapping is an analytic subvariety of M„ of
dimension y = r(D -1 ) — 1, which can be represented as a one-to-one
analytic image of P.
c. The mapping 9:M„ W„ establishes an analytic isomorphism between
M„',114,1, and W„\W l .
PROOF. Let us examine the differential d(pD of the analytic mapping 9:M „ —■
J(M) at a point D = QV • • Q'sn' (where m 1 + • • • + m, = n). It is, of course,
a linear mapping between tangent spaces
d90 :TD (M„)-- ■
Let us denote by Z a local coordinate vanishing at Qk and let Ci, the j-th
normalized differential of first kind, have the power series expansion
E arzt dzk
(
I= 0
in a neighborhood of 12,,. The matrix which represents d90 is then

11 11 12 12
am,_ tao mz - 1 • • • ak
•
•
gl 91
a°
[a0 a mi - 1
or interpreting the number ce in the obvious manner the matrix can be

written (up to certain obvious constants) as
; i(Q 1) • • • ,;(1"" — n (Q I) • • • C i( Qs) • • • ,',11"' "(QJ]
[i9 02 1) — • C (',"' —1) (Q1) • • • C 9 02 s) • • • C!',"' — 1) (Q s) • (1" 1.1)
The rank of the above matrix is g — i(D), which by Riemann-Roch equals

n + 1 — r(D - I ). Thus (a) holds.
Let Di E Ai n A1,./ = 1, 2. If cp(D,)= 9(102), then by Abel's theorem D i/D,
is principal. Hence D, = D2 unless r(D2-1 ) > 2. The latter would imply that
D2 E M. We have thus established (c).
Since 9: M. --* AM) is analytic, the fiber tp '((p(D)) is a subvariety of M..
Thus it suffices, in order to establish (b), to produce a one-to-one surjective
holomorphic mapping tli: P' —•. (p'((p(D)). By Abel's theorem, 9 -1 (9(D))
consists of integral divisors of degree n equivalent to the divisor D. Let D' be
an arbitrary integral divisor of degree n equivalent to D, then D'/D is principal
and we conclude that every such D' is of the form (f )D for some f e L(D').
Let {f0 = 1, fi , ... ,f, I be a basis for L(D'). Send the point 0 #
(co ,c i , . . . ,c„) = c onto the divisor P(c)= D(f) with f =Y:i=.,, cif/ . Note
that if P(c) = .1, to, then (f)/(j) is the unit divisor and' is a constant multiple
of f. Thus we have produced a well defined one-to-one surjective mapping
W:P v --■ 9 -1 (9(D)) c M..

It remains to show that this mapping is holomorphic. Let us write
D= fl PatP), E cc(P) = n.
Pe Al Pe M
Note that
W(c) = 11 pord, + * 11) .
PEM
Fix a point 0 # (cg, 4) = C° E Cv +1 . Let (co, ... ,c„) = c be sufficiently

close to c°. Let f ° = E;., 0 cm. Let { P1, ,P,,} be a list consisting of the
(distinct) zeros off ° and the (distinct) points in D. Let 7. be a local coordinate
vanishing at pi defined in the closure of U. The image of c ° in M. is, of
course, (t i , ,t.) = (0, ,0). (We are using the symmetric functions of the
second kind as local coordinates on M. at P(c °).) If c is sufficiently close to
c° the function
f= E
j= 0
will have zeros only close to the zeros off ° or close to the distinct points of D.
To see that this is the case, we first observe that if P is a zero of f° of multi-
plicity m then f has m zeros in a neighborhood of P. It is, however, possible
that new zeros are introduced which are not in these neighborhoods. We
claim that the new zeros must be in neighborhoods of the distinct points of D.
(Delete from M the open neighborhoods of the distinct zeros of f ° and the
distinct points of D. On m\ur,,, (4, If°1 is bounded and bounded away

from zero. For c sufficiently close to c° the sanie is true for f. Hence the only
place the zeros of f can be are in the sets Uk . k = 1, , p.) We compute
P(c) in tcrms of the local coordinates
= E j= 1, n.
k=0
Clearly
ti(c)= E
zk (c)= — L ,
1 ,A r zikdzk,
t= 2ni k=1 da" f(=k)
and we have ti as a comptex analytic function of c.
Remarks
1. We saw in the proof that the rank of the Jacobian of ço at D E M. can be
written as g — i(D).
2. A "generic" (see 111.6.5) divisor D E M„, n < g, has index of specialty
i(D)= g — n. Thus W. for n g has dimension precisely n (as expected),
by Remark (1).
111.11.12. By the inverse function theorem it follows that at the image of an
integral divisor D of degree n < g with r(D - = 1, there are local coordinates
• , .79 for J(M) so that the points of W„ are given by the equations
• = • • • = = 0. We say in this case that W„ is regularly embedded at
9(D).
Conversely, if W„ is regularly embedded at a point u e J(M), then there are
g — n linearly independent holomorphic differentials on J(M) whose pull-
backs to M. vanish at the pre-image of u on M.. We have seen (Lemma
111.1 1.10) that such a holomorphic differential corresponds to a differential
6 on M such that (3) is a multiple of D for all D E 9 -1 (u). Now if u E W,1„
then for any Q E M there is a divisor D of degree n containing Q such that
(p(D)= u. Hence the differential 6 must vanish identically on M. But then
it vanishes identically on J(M). Now if g — n 1, and W. is regularly im-
bedded at u, there is at least one differential on J(M) that vanishes on W.
and is not identically zero. We have established the
Proposition. If n s g — 1, then u E W„ is a singularity of W„ if and only if

u E 141!.
Remarks
1. The above considerations allow us to describe more intrinsically the
tangent space to J(M). Let u 1 . .... u9 be the canonical coordinates on Cg.
Then these also serve as local coordinates at an arbitrary point x e J(M)=
Co/G. In terms of these coordinates, a natural basis for the (complex)
tangent space Tx (J(M)) of the manifold J(M) at the point x is given by
the vectors a/aui, , a/aug. On the cotangent space 'T(.1(M)), the
covectors du i , , du, provide a basis. The dual pairing

Tx (J(M)) x T,I(J(M)) C, (11.12.1)
is then given by
g a g y
E ai .---)x
bi du)=
(E b E ai i,
( i=i u uj „,=„1 i= 1
here ai, bi E C. Of course, every cotangent vector may also be viewed as a

holomorphic 1-form on J(M) and conversely. As we have already seen the
holomorphic 1-forms on J(M) restrict to holomorphic 1-forms on W, c
J(AI) and pull back via an isomorphism to elements of .fe'(M). Thus the
cotangent space to the complex manifold J(M) at any point x is naturally
identified with the abelian differentials of the first kind on M.
We return briefly to the differential &pp discussed in 111.11.11. The image
of &pp is spanned by the column vectors of the matrix (11.11.1). The
linear subspace of T:(D)(J(M)) dual to the image of dcp, consists (by
definition) of those cotangent vectors (E5= 1 bi dui) that annihilate the
image of &pp under the pairing (11.12.1); in other words, of those covectors
( du i + • • + bg clug) which are annihilated by the transpose of the above
matrix. Under the natural identification of T:(D)(J(M)) with yew), these
covectors correspond to those co E yet(t4) with (w) > D.
2. If V c J(M) is any analytic subvariety, then R(V) denotes the regular
points of V; that is, those points I; E V at which V is an analytic sub-
manifold of J(M). The remaining points are called singular, and the set
of singular points is denoted by S( V). To any point x E V, there is asso-
ciated a linear subspace T:(V)c T(,I(M)) spanned by those covectors
of the form dfx , where f is any analytic function in an open neighborhood
of the point x in J(M) which vanishes (identically) on V. The natural dual
to the subspace Tt(V) is a linear subspace Tx(V)c T x(J(M)) called the
tangent space to the variety V c J(M) at the point x, and dim Tx(V) is
called the embedding dimension of the variety V at the point x. The
embedding dimension is the dimension of the smallest submanifold of
J(M) which contains the intersection of V with a small neighborhood of x
in J(M). It is thus clear that the embedding dimension of x e R(V) is
precisely the local dimension of x at V. The proposition preceding these
remarks has shown that W„ has embedding dimension g precisely at the
points of W,1, for n < g — 1. (Hence for n g as well.)
III.11.3. We introduce now some useful operations on subsets of J(M). If

S c J(M) and a E J(M), then we set
S + a = ts + a; ses),
—S = {—S; S E
If S, Tc J(M), then we set

SQ T= u{S + a; a E T } = {s+ t; s E S, t E T},
e T= nst S — a; a c T.
A subvaricty S of J(M) is irreducible if every meromorphic function on
J(M) that vanishes on an open subset of S vanishes on S. Proposition
111.11.11 has as an immediate consequence the following
Corollary. For each n g, I4 an irreducible subvariety of J(M) of dimension

n.
111.1 1.14-. Proposition. For any a EJ(M), •

—W9 1 a - a — K.
PROOF. For any integral divisor D of degree g — 1, we can find an integral
divisor D' of the same degree such that DO' is canonical. Thus
cp(D) + (p(D') = K,
showing that
W9 _ 1 = K — W9 _ 1 .
111.1 1.15. Proposition. Let 0 r < t < g — 1. Let a e J(M), b e J(M). Then
(W, + (W, + h).=> a e (W,_, + b)•= e (— W,_,. + a).
PROOF. First note that a E (PK, + b)-4.> a = X + b, x e b = a — x,
xe E (— + a). Hence the last equivalence is trivial. Also if
aE + b), it is easy to see that (W, + a) c ( + h).
Assume now that (W, + a) c (141, + h). Thus for every integral divisor
D of degree < r there is a D' E M, such that
p(D) + a = (p(D') + b. (11.15.1)
We need show that there is an A E M,_, such that a = ç(A) + b. Now the
Jacobi inversion theorem implies that there is an integral divisor B such
that a = (p(B) + b, and (11.15.1) implies that deg B :5_ t. Let A be a divisor
of minimal degree such that a = q)(A) + b. It follows that A is unique,
since r(A') is necessarily equal to one. If r(A")> 1, then A would be
equivalent to a divisor which contains P o . Thus (p(A)= 024') = (p(A');
contradicting minimality of the degree of A. We now wish to show that
deg A < t — r. We now have for every D e M,, there is a D' e M, such that
9(D) + cp(A) = (p(D'), where deg A = s < t. (11.15.2)
To show that s < t — r, we assume that s > t — r. We can now choose a
divisor D of degree t + 1— s< r such that P o D and such that r(A 'D -1 ). 1.
(We are here using the facts that deg A + deg D < g and !IA = 1.) Now,
(11.15.2), r(A - 1 D - 1 ) = 1, and Abel's theorem give us AD = D'Po ; which is
a contradiction since Po tt A, P 0 0 D. Hence we conclude s t — r and thus
aE + b. El
Remark. The proposition shows that the sobvarieties W J(M) for t < g
are as far from being translation invariant as possible. Specifically an
inclusion 141, + u c Wu W, = {0 } .
111.11.16. Proposition
a. For any r, t 0 and any a, b e J(M), we have
(W, + a) + (W, + h) + a + b).
b. For 0 r t g — 1 and any a, b E J(M), (W, + a)e (W,. + b) =
PROOF. Part (a) is a triviality. To prove (b) we use Proposition 111.11.15 to

obtain u + (a — b)) (b — a) E (W,_, — U) 4=> (W,. ± (b — a)) c
(W, — u)-=. (14; +h) c (W, + a— u). Assume now that u + a — b)
[and thus (W, + b) c (W, + a — u)] and V e (W,. b). Thus v E (W, + a — u),
or u E W, + a — v for all v (W, + b). Hence u (W, F a) C)(W, + b). Con-
-
versely, if u (W, + a) e (W, + h) then u W, + a — v for all ye W, + b or

v (W, + a — u). Hence (W, + b) c (W, + a — u) or u (VV,, + a — 17).
Remarks
1. The condition that t < g — 1 in (b) is necessary because W, = J(M) for
t g. Hence for any S c J(M), es=
J(M) for t g.
2. A special case of the proposition is also worthy of mention here:
= Wg-1 e Wg-2 =
1,6 W9-2
K/9_ 1 - u.
Thus W1 M can be recovered from 14/9 _ 2 and Wg_ Hence M is
determined by W8 _ 1 and Wg _ 2.
111.11.17. Proposition. For any n > 0 and any r > 0,
Wr„ = W„_, e(-- W,), whenever r < n, and (11.17.1)
W rn = Ø whenever r > n. (11.17.2)
PROOF. Let x E W. Then x = (p(D), D E M., and r(D') r + 1. The
Riemann—Roch theorem gives r(D") = n — g + 1 + i(D). This is clearly
impossible when r > n.
We have previously seen (Lemma 111.8.15) that u E Wr„ if and only if
for every v E W, there is a if E W, such that u = u + e. Hence
= n
ye W,.
(w„_, y). (11.17.3)
Remarks
1. Formula (11.17.3) can be reformulated as u E —(W, — u) c W,,„.
Clifford's theorem gives a necessary condition that Wr„ not be empty.
The condition is that 2r < n or that r < n — r. Hence the above gives
a geometric interpretation of this theorem.
2. It is an immediate consequence of the proposition (in the form of
Equation (11.17.3)) that the subsets W: are complex analytic subvarieties
of J(M).
3. If we define W„ to be the empty set for n < O, then (11.17.2) becomes a
special case of (11.17.1), and (11.17.3) is always valid. We shall adopt
this convention.
111.1 I.18. Proposition. Let 1 n g — 1 and let x = q(Q) with Q Po . Then

(H' x)= (14/„_ + x) u WL. 1 . (11.18.1)
PROOF. Assume u E W„ n (IV„ + x). Then
u ço(Q i
• Q.) + 4)(Q) = (P(Pi ' • '
Thus QQ1 ' • ' Q.— PoPi • • P„. If — can be replaced by =, then Q appears
among P1 ,. , P„ and we may assume Q = P„. Thus
u = cp(P • • • P .1) + (P(Q) 6 (Wm— + X).
If the two divisors are not identical, then r(P,77 • • P; > 2 and u E W , 1 .
The reverse inclusion is trivial.
Remark. A non-empty component of WL. cannot be a subset of W„_ + x

for all x e W. For if V is a component of WL. 1 and V c 14/„_ + x for
all x E W1 , then
v. n ( w„_,+x) = KI,.
XE W1
Now Vc W certainly implies that V + W1 c WL. I . Since V + W1 is an

irreducible subvariety of J(M) contained in W +1 (it is the image of the
irreducible subvariety V x W1 under the mapping (x,y)t---+x + y) that con-
tains V, it must agree with V. Thus in particular we have W1 invariant
under translations by ve V. This contradicts the remark following
Proposition 111.11.15.
III.I 1.19. Theorem

a. Let r be the dimension of a non-empty component of W, 1, +1 with 1 n :5
g — 1. Then
2n — g < r < n — 1.
b. A component of W2,-1, 1 < n < g — 1, has dimension n — 1 if and only
if M is hyperelliptic.
PROOF. Let V be a component of WL. 1 . By the above remark we can choose

an X E W1 such that V± (W„_ + x). By (11.18.1), V must be a component
of the intersection W, n (W. + x). Hence dim V > 2n — g. Since W„ is irre-

ducible, and W„ + x o W„, for each component V of the intersection, we
must have dim V < n — 1.
Assume now that M is hyperelliptic. Then WI is non-empty and consists
of a single point x. Hence x + W„_, is a component of WL., of dimension
n — 1.
Conversely, assume W,1, 4. 1 has a component V of dimension n — 1. If
n = 1, then WI is not empty and M is hyperelliptic. Thus assume n > 2.
Let us choose a point X E W1, and a point u E R(V) c W„ n (W„ + x) that
is a manifold point of the two varieties of the intersection. (This is possible
since V has dimension n — 1 and each of the two singular sets +
have dimensions at most n — 2.) The tangent space to at u has
dimension n — I. Thus the dual cotangent space has dimension g — n + 1.
Now the point u E k n (I,V„ + x ) is given by
u = 49 (Qi ' • • Q + T(Q) = 9(13 • • P.) + (P0),
)
where x 9(Q). Assume now that P 1 • • • P„Po is the polar divisor of a

function. We can then choose Q so that neither Q nor any of the Q. appear
among the Pk. The space of differentials vanishing at u on WL., is the span
of those vanishing at u on PK and on W. + x, which are, respectively those
vanishing at P1,..., P„ and Q1,..., 0„. However, r(P1-1 • • • P; 1 P0-1 )=
r(13 1-1 • • P; + 1 implies that i(P, • - • P„Po) = i(P, • • P„). Thus every
differential vanishing at P I , . , P„ also vanishes at P o . Similarly, every
differential vanishing at Q ,, . . . , Q„ also vanishes at Q. Each of these spaces
are of dimension g — n. Their span must have dimension g — n + 1. Thus
their intersection has dimension
2(g — n) — (g — n + 1) = g — n 1.
The intersection is S2(Q, • • Q.QPI • • P„Po) = Cl(D). Now
r(D - = 2n + 2 — g + 1 + (g — n — 1) = n + 2,
and hence
c(D) = 2n + 2 — 2(n + 2) + 2 = O.
By Clifford's theorem, M is hyperelliptic unless D — Z.
If D Z, then 2n + 2 = 2g — 2 or n = g — 2. In this case 2u = K, which
has only finitely many solutions in J(M). But n 2 implies (g 4 and)
dim V = n — 1 1. Thus V is a continuum and u could be chosen so that
2u K (from the beginning).
There remains the possibility that D = P1 • • • P„Po is not the polar divisor
of a function for every D E T - 1 (V) with D containing P o . Note that every
D' E g + , is equivalent to a D E ML. 1 that contains P o . Thus for every
D e cp -1 (V) there is a P c D, such that r(PD- = r(D -1 ); showing that
every u E V can be written in the form u = y + y with y e 147„1 and y e W,.
Thus WI must have a component of dimension > n — 2. By induction this
implies the hyperellipticity of M.
111.11.20. An application of the above results on the dimension of WL.,

yields the following.
Theorem (Noether). On a non-hyperelliptic surface of genus g 3, for every

g 2, the g-fold products of the abelian differentials of the first kind span the
space of holomorphic g-differentials.
Before we prove Noether's theorem we make the following useful obser-

vation: we can always find two elements of .Ye9, (m) that have no common
zeros. Choose any oh E ye '(1t4) and let P I , , P, be its distinct zeros. If
the result were not true, eery other- element of if i (M) would have to vanish
at one or more of the points P ....., P,. Consider, however, S2(P,) k.) • •
Q(P,.). Each set is g — 1 dimensional, so that the union is not all of Ye l(M).
Thus there is an co, e lf 1 (M) which does not vanish at any of the points
P 1, • • • , Pr•
The preceding implies that the function f = co l/a)2 gives rise to a (2g — 2)-
sheeted cover of the sphere with the property that for each zeCu {cc},
f "(z) is a canonical integral divisor. Since the function f is branched over
only finitely many points we can even assume that the differentials oh and
co 2 have only simple zeros.
A similar argument applied to S2(P0) shows that we can always find two
elements co l , co 2 e '(M) with precisely one common zero at P,. We shall
use these results in the proof of Noether's theorem.
PROOF OF THEOREM. Assume that M is a non-hyperelliptic surface. Thus
there exists on M an integral divisor D of degree g — 2, such that i(D)= 2
and for each Q E M we have i(DQ)--= 1. Assume, on the contrary, that for
every D e M9 _ 2, there is aQEM such that i(DQ)._ 2. Thus for all v
there is an x e W, such that v + x e W, , orvE — x c ® (— W„).
But then W. 2 C OE) (— W,), and it must be the case that dim 147 ,
g — 3. Theorem 111.11.19 implies that dim 14/1,_, < g — 3, and that M is
hyperelliptic.
Let cop co2 span Q(D) and let 0) 3 be any holomorphic differential which
does not vanish at any of the zeros of co l co,. Our assumptions on D give
that co l /w 2 is a meromorphic function on M with precisely g poles and
i((co 2)/D) = 1. The function 0) 1/(0 2 has precisely g poles because co, and co2
have no common zeros other than in D. The assertion on the index of (0) 2)/D
follows from the equality i((co 2 )/D) = r(D')= —1 + i(D). Let {(9 1 ,
be a basis for .)F 1 (M) and consider the 2g elements of 3t02(M):
(0 1 0 1, • • • WA; w2 0 1, • • • (0 2 09.
Note that the first g products are linearly independent and so are the last
g products. Let A, and A2 denote the subspaces of d 02 (M ) spanned by
these products. Now dim(A, n A 2) = dim A, + dim A2 — dim(A, v A 2),
and dim(A, n A 2) = I. To verify the last assertion write (coi) = Dpi,j = 1, 2,
and note that D, and D2 are relatively prime integral divisors of degree g
150 In Compact Riemann Soi faces
(with (co 1 /co 2 ) = D 1 /D 2 ). Now if ti eA l n A 2 , then rr= (icop j = 1, 2, with

e Yel(m) (these ‘`,"; need not be normalized). Thusco 2t,l /co In par-
1,-2.
ticular, (C,) = /5D 2 and () = [W I for some 15 E 2, Since i(D 1 ) = 1 =
we must have C,/co, and L:2/co 1 E C and A, n A2 is spanned by (.0 1 0) 2 .
Thus dim(A, v A 2) = 2g — 1, and the 2g products span a subspace of 02(M)
of dimension 2g — 1.
We now adjoin w 3 0 1 , (9 309 to our list, and denote the subspace of
2 (M) spanned by these g linearly independent products by A3. Once
again
dim((A, v.4 2 ) n A 3 ) = dim(A, v A 2 ) + dim A 3 — dim(A, V A2 V A3)
= 2g — 1 + g — dim(A v A2 V A 3).
We show that dirnt (A, v A 2) n A 3) = 2. and in fact the space in question is
spanned by w 1 w 3 , co,w 3 . Note that if i) e(.4 1 v A,) n A3, then q = (:30) 3 =
co, ± ," 2a) 2 . Since the right-hand side vanishes at D, it follows that (C 3) =
DD. Thus 4:3 = X1011 ± X2(02 (with Xi E C) and the dimension is 2, as claimed.
Thus dim(A, v A2 V A3) = 3g — 3 = dim y" 2(M). This concludes the proof
for g = 2.
For the case g = 3, we start by choosing two elements co l , (0 2 E Ye i (M)
such that co, and co, have precisely one common zero at Po , and a) 3 E Ye l (M)
such that (03 does not vanish at the zeros of w 1 co 2 .
Let {f„ ,f39 _ 3 } be a basis of if 2 (M) with each fi a 2-fold product of
elements of Ye i (M). Let A ; he the (3g — 3)-dimensional space spanned by
3. As before
dim(A n A 2) = dim A, + dim A2 — dim(A, v A 2).

Ifwq 1 = (0 2/12 6 A 1 n A 2 , then 1) 2 /co 1 is an abelian differential with at most
a single pole at Po and therefore holomorphic at Po . Hence q 2 can be written
as )1 2 = co,co with CO E air j (M). This shows that dim(A, n A 2 ). g, and thus
that dim(A, v A 2) = 5g — 6. Clearly co3 does not vanish at 13 0 , while every
element in A, V A2 does. Hence co3 is not in A 1 y A2. Adjoining it to our list,
we have a space of dimension 5g — 5 = dim 03(M), spanned by three-fold
products. This concludes the proof for g = 3.
For g 4 we now can proceed by induction. We let co„ co, E OW be
such that co, and co, have no common zeros. Let If1 , , x9 _ „I be a
basis for Yem(M), with m > 3, composed of m-fold products of elements of
..e l (M). Let A ; denote the space spanned by f,•, " aV(2m - 1)(6— 1)•
Then dim(A, n A 2) = 2(2m — 1)(g — 1) — dim(A, v A 2 ). Clearly however
dim(A, n A2)= (2m — 3)(g — 1), and thus dim(A, v A 2) = (2m + 1)(g — 1) =
dim °' 4 '(M).
EXERCISE
Recall the exercises of 111.7.5 and complete the above discussion for hyperelliptic
surfaces (including the case g = 2).
CHAPTER IV
Uniformizati on
This chapter has two purposes. The first and by far the most important is to
prove the uniformization theorem for Riemann surfaces. This theorem
describes all simply connected Riemann surfaces and hence with the help
of topology, all Riemann surfaces.
The second purpose is to give different proofs for the existence of mero-
morphic functions on Riemann surfaces. These proofs will not need the
topological facts we assumed in Chapter II (triangulability of surfaces). As a
matter of fact, all the topology can be quickly recovered from the complex
structure.
This chapter also contains a discussion of the exceptional surfaces (those
surfaces with abelian fundamental groups), an alternate proof of the
Riemann—Roch theorem, and a treatment of analytic continuation (algebraic
functions on compact surfaces).
IV. 1. More on Harmonic Functions

(A Quick Review)
In this paragraph we establish some of the basic properties of harmonic
functions. The material presented here is probably familiar to most readers.
IV.!.!. We begin by posing a problem that will motivate the presentation
of this section. Details will only be sketched. For more see Ahlfors' book
Complex Analysis.
DIRICHLET PROBLEM. Let D be a region on a Riemann surface M with
boundary SD. Let f be a continuous function on SD. Does there exist a
152 IV Uniformization
continuous function F defined on D u 6D such that

j. F I D is harmonic, and
FISD = f?
1V.1.2. Let g be a real-valued harmonic function in {1z1 < p}. There exists,
of course, a holomorphic function f defined on {1z1 < 19 ) with g = Re f.
We may define f by
Im f(z)= jz *dg,
and observe that the integral is independent of the path (because {1z1 < pl
is simply connected). The Taylor series expansion of f about the origin is
pre') = E a„rnel", 0 r < p.

n=0
Without loss of generality a, E R. Hence
1
g(ren = (f(re'e) + f(ren)
1 ine).
= a, + E ianeine+ Le'
n1L
Multiplying the above by e -i" and integrating, we get
—Ir 0 g (a, re) dB,

=1
2
1 fit g(ren
an= - dO n > 1.
it 0 (reier
Thus for Izi < r, we have
f(z)=
17, f 2x g(ren[l + 2 E re()
tz 1
re' + z
= j ' g(rele) . dB (1.2.1)
2ir 0 2 re' - z '
and
g(z)= Re f(z)= — s g( re") Re w dB
2n 0 re - z
1 $27r r2 - 1:1 2
= — g(ren .0 2 dO. (1.2.2)
27r 0 Ire' - z1
The expression (r2 - 1z1 2)/Irew - z1 2 is known as the Poisson kernel (for the
disc of radius r about the origin). It has the following important properties:
2. r2 - 1z12
d19 = 1, (1.2.3)
2n
10J - 21 2 Izi <
1V. 1. More on Harmonic Functions (A Quick Review) 153
r2 - Izi 2
> 0 for fzi < r. (1.2.4)
r2 -
urn
z -re°o 2n
I 9-
fr-?-1
8°I>— 12 dB = 0 for 0 < I < (1.2.5)
Il <r
From the reproducing formula (1.2.1) we also get a formula for the har-
monic conjugate of g that vanishes at z = 0, namely,
1 r 2norea) , _ re' + z
Im f(z) = 1." o - z d0
Jo
1 nit re-"z - reit
=— g(re0) d0. (1.2.6)
-z' 2
IV.1.3. Theorem. The Dirichlet problem for the disc has a unique solution;
that is, given a continuous function f defined on {Izi = r}, there exists a con-
tinuous function F on {Izi rl such that Fis harmonic in IN < ;1 and F(ren =
f(ren, 0 0 2 1t.
PROOF. Without loss of generality f is real-valued. Since real harmonic func-
tions satisfy the maximum and minimum principle, uniqueness is obvious.
For existence, one sets for fzi < r
s 21 r2 — 1:12 .
F(z) = f(re")d0 (1.3.1)
2n 0 -
and uses the properties of the Poisson kernel (1.2.3)-(1.2.5). El
Corollary. If f is a continuous function on a domain D c C, and f satisfies
the mean-value property in D, then f is harmonic in D.
PROOF. Again without loss of generality f is real-valued. Solve the Dirichlet
problem for f — zol = rl with {iz - z ol c D. Call the solution F.
Then F - f satisfies both minimum and maximum principles, since the
mean value property is all that one needs to prove these principles. Hence
F =f on {iz - zol r), and f is harmonic.
IV.1.4. For zf < r, it is easy to see that

r - 1zi - 1z1 2 r + 1z1
r + zf frei8 - zI 2 r - Izi .
These estimates on the Poisson kernel imply almost immediately
Hamack's Inequality. Let D be a domain in C and D I c c D (that is, D I is a

relatively compact subdomain of D). Let u be a positive harmonic function on D.
Then there exists a constant c = c(DI ,D)that depends only on D, and D (not on
u) such that
1 u(: 1 )
— c, all :1 , :2 E Dl.
C U(.72)
IV.1.5. Because harmonicity is a local property and we have the Poisson

reproducing formula (1.2.2) for harmonic functions, we can establish the
following
Proposition. If {u„} is a sequence of harmonic functions on a Riemann surface

M and fun} converges to u uniformly on compact subsets of M, then u is also
harmonic.
This can be seen from the fact that the limit function is continuous and
necessarily has the mean-value property.
IV.1.6. Harnack's Principle. Consider a sequence of real valued harmonic

functions {u„ 1,- each defined on a domain D„ on the Riemann surface M. Assume
that each Po E M has a neighborhood U such that U c D„ for all but finitely
many n. Further assume that
Un(P) un+ 1(P), Pe U, n large.

Then either
i. lirn u„ = + op, uniformly on compact subsets of M, or
II -•
lim u„ = u, uniformly on compact subsets of M with u a harmonic function.

oo
OuruNE OF PROOF. Without loss of generality we may assume u„ are positive

harmonic functions. Define
u(P) = lim u„(P).
Harnack's inequalities show that the sets

IP E M; u(P)= +)
{PE M; u(P)< + }
are both open. Hence one of them is empty. The same inequalities show that
the convergence is locally uniform. Thus the result follows from the previous
proposition.
IV.1.7. Theorem. Let u be a harmonic function on IO <z < 11. Then there
exist constants a, 13 such that for 0 <r < 1,
2x
o u(reie)d0 = a log r + (1.7.1)
IV.!. More on Harmonic Functions (A Quick Review) 155
PROOF. Recall Formula I (4.4.2). For u 1 , u, harmonic and 0 < p < r (and
the usual counterclockwise orientation for the circles) v‘e have:
(fi4 – =p)(1/ 1 *du2 – u2 *dui) = 14 1 du2 – u2 JI/, = O.
Now we let u = u2 , and set

u 1 (z) =
(recall that on 17.1 = r, (Oui/ar) rde = *dui), to obtain
ôu
– = *? log r r de – f 2: u(real r de
(– fi is, of course, the value of the right-hand side of the above equation for
r = p, which we take to be a fixed value). Thus
fo2n ufren de = /3 A- log r flz 1=-• *du = fi + a log r.

The last equality holds because ffri ., *du is independent of r. This is simply
Cauchy's theorem for du + i*du is a holomorphic differential in (0 < fzi < 1)
—alternatively, because *du is closed. El
Remark. The above also shows how to evaluate a:
Œ = fi r *du.
Furthermore, we may view (1.7.1) as a formula for computing 13, especially

when we know that x = O.
Corollary 1. If u is harmonic and bounded in (0 < izi < 11, then = O.

PROOF. If M = suplui on 0 < Izi < 1, then
/oz.
u(ren de
Corollary 2. If u is harmonic and bounded in (0 < 121 < 11, then u can be
extended as a harmonic function to lizi < I).
PROOF. Since a = O. *du = O. Thus (we assume u is real, this involves
no loss of generality) there exists an analytic function f on { 0 < jzi < 1},
with u = Re f on {0 < Izi < 1 } . Set F=exp f. Since IFI
= exp u, and u is
bounded, so is IF1. By the Riemann removable singularity theorem F can be
extended to izi < 1. Since a pole or an essential singularity off is an essential
singularity for F, f has a removable singularity at z = O. El
Remark. As a consequence of the preceding, we have the following: The

Dirichlet problem does not have a solution for D = (0 < Izi < 1), f(0) = 1,
f(z) = 0 for Izi = 1.
156 IV Uniforrnization
IV.2. Subharmonic Functions and Perron's Method

The linear functions f(x) = ax + b in one (real) variable satisfy the mean-
value property. The harmonic functions in two variables are the natural
generalization. Similarly, both classes of functions satisfy the (appropriate)
Laplace equations. Subharmonic functions are the natural generalization
of convex functions. Throughout this section, M is a Riemann surface. All
functions considered will be real-valued.
In this section we establish Perron's principle which gives sufficient con-
ditions for the supremum of a family of subharmonic functions to be a
harmonic function. Using this principle, the Dirichlet problem is solved.
IV.2.1. A continuous function u on M is called subharmonic on M if and
only if for every domain D on M and every harmonic function li on D with
u h on D we have u h on D or u <Ii on D. The function u is called super-
harmonic if and only if— u is subhannonic. Obviously every harmonic func-
tion is both subharmonic and superharmonic.
Proposition. A continuous function u is subharmonic on M if and only if for

every domain D c M and every harmonic function h on M, u + h has no max-
imum in D unless u + h is constant.
PROOF. Say u is subharmonic and u + h If with H constant and H assumed
by u + h at: some point in D, then u < H — h in D. Since H — h is harmonic
in D and equality holds at least one point in D, u = II — h. Thus, u + h = H,
and u + h is constant.
Conversely, say u < h on D. Then u + (—h) O. Then either u + ( — h) < O
on D or u + (— h) equals zero at a point in D. In the latter case, the hypothesis
implies u + (— h) is constant (and = 0). Thus u is subharmonic.
Corollary. Subharmonicity is a local property (that is, a function subharnionic

in a neighborhood of every point is subharmonic).
IV.2.2. A conformal disc K a M is an open set (K) whose closure (Cl K)

is in a single coordinate patch (with local coordinate z) such that z(C1 K)
is a closed disc in C of radius > 1, and center z = O.
Let u be a continuous function on M(u E C(M)). Fix a conformal disc K on
M. We define a new function ll(K) on M as follows:
u(K) E C(M),
le) 1M\K =
liK) is harmonic in K.
The solution of the Dirichlet problem for the disc gives the existence and
uniqueness of u(K). Furthermore,
C(M) n u le) e C(M)
IV.2. Subharrnonic Functions and Perrons Method 157
defines an P.)-linear operator (to be called harmonization) on C(M). Also, u

is harmonic if and only if u 14( ' ) for all conformal discs K on M.
Proposition. Let u E C(M). The function u is subharmonic if and only if u

tio° for every conformal disc K on M.
PROOF. Assume u is subharmonic. Consider

110
U—U.
This function vanishes onitf \K. It has no maximum in K(unless it is constant).

Its maximum must be on 5K. Thus u — u O.
To prove the converse, let h be harmonic on D. We show that the maximum
principle holds for u + h. Assume u + h achieves a maximum H on D, a
domain in M. Set
DH= E D; u(P) + h(P)= HI.
Then Du is non-empty and closed in D. Pick a conformal disc K c D around
P e pH with the local coordinate z. Now for 0 < r < 1, K, = z- < r})
is also a conformal disc, and
H = tt(P)+ h(P) = u(0) + h(0) u'(0) +h(0)
lç2n io + h(re e))d0 < H.
=
2n . 0
Thus u(ren + h(re18) = H all r, 0 < r < 1, and all 0, û < û 5 2n. Hence D„
is open in D. Since we have taken D to be connected (without loss of gen-
erality), Du = D, and u + h is constant in D. Hence U is subharmonic by
Proposition IV.2.1.
Corollary (of Proof). Let u E C(M). Then u is subharmonic if and only if
i f 02E u(end0
u(0) -3Tr
for every conformal disc on M.
Corollary (of Corollary). Let D be a domain on M. Assume that u E C(C1 D)

is subharmonic and non-negative on D and identically zero on SD. Extend u
to be zero on M\D. Then u is subharmonic on M.
IV.2.3. Proposition. Let u, y be subharmonic functions on M and c E 18, c > O.

Let K be a conformal disc on M. Then cu, u max{u,r}, and e) are all
subharmonic.
PROOF. That cu and u are subharmonic follows immediately from the
above corollaries. Next assume that max {u,v}(P 0) = u(P0). Letting z be a
158 1V Unifonnization
local coordinate vanishing at Po , corresponding to a conformal disc, we

see that
1 r..nr
max{u,r}(P 0) = —
17r o u(e )d0
1 2n
— ax{u,s}(endO,
2.7t 0
showing that max{u,v1 is also subharmonic. Finally, u(K) is clearly sub-
harmonic on M K Thus, let P0 E K. Using the same notation as above,
we see that
1 r,n
u(0) r2ir 14" Li0 Iu(0) u(k) (ei° ) do,
-i---n Jo
27c
proving that u(') is subharmonic. 0
IV.2.4. Proposition. Let u E C(M). Then u is harmonic if and only if u is

subharmonic and superharmonic.
PROOF. If u is subharmonic, then u < u(') for all conformal discs K. If u is
superharmonic then u > u(K). Thus, if u is both, u = u. Since harmonization
does not affect such a function u, it must be harmonic. The converse is, of
course, as previously remarked, trivial.
IV.2.5. Proposition. Let u E C2(M). Then u is subharmonic if and only if

du> O.
PROOF. Since subharmonicity is a local property, it involves no loss of
generality to assume that M is the unit disc {z = x + iy; Izi < I}. Further-
more, du > 0 is a well-defined concept on any Riemann surface (because
we are interested only in complex analytic coordinate changes). We view d
as an operator from functions to functions:
az u azu
du = — + —
ax 2 (3y 2.
Say du > O. Thus u has no maximum on M. (If u had a relative maximum
at P,, then
a2u 52 u
v-- 0 or au(120).o.)
oy 2- (Po)
-
ax2 (PO) < 0
If h is harmonic on M, then tl(u + h) > 0, and, as seen above, this implies
that u + h has no maximum on M. Thus u is subharmonic.
Suppose now du _>. O. Let e> 0 be arbitrary. Set
v(x,y) = u(x,y) + &(x 2 + y2).
IV.2. Subharmonic Functions and Perrons Method 159
Then r E C 2(M) and „1r = 4.1u + 4E> 0. Thus, by the first part, y is sub-
harmonic. Hence, for every K, a conformal disc on M, y< or ,
u (K) e > noc) e(x 2 y 2 K) > u t (x 2 ± y2),

)
or (by letting e approach zero) u < u(K) ; that is, u is subharmonic.

Conversely, say u is subharmonic and du < 0 at some point. Then also
in a neighborhood D of this point. By the above, u is superharmonic in D.
Hence, we conclude that such a u must be harmonic in D, and we arrive
at the contradiction du = 0 in D.
IV.2.6. A family 97 of tubharmonic functions on a Riemann suface M
is called a Perron family (on M) provided:
•
is non-empty, (2.6.1)
for every conformal disc K c M and every u e 3F,
there is a y E Y such that v I K is harmonic and y > u, (2.6.2)
and
for every u1 e ,F and every u2 E 37, there is a
E ..9-7 such that y > maxtu 1 ,u 2 1. (2.6.3)
Remarks
1. In most applications the functions y satisfying (2.6.2) and (2.6.3) will be
u( K) and max{u 1 ,142 }, respectively.
2. If F is a Perron family on M, if K is a conformal disc in M, and if u; E 37-",
j = 1, , n, then there is a V e Y such that viK is harmonic and y
= 1, . , n.
Theorem (Perron's Principle). Let 3-47 be a Perron family and define

u(P) = sup v(P), P M.
ve..*
Then either u + op or u is harmonic.

PROOF. Cover M by a family of discs {DJ. If we have the theorem for discs,
we have it for all of M. We claim that if u is harmonic on one disc in the
cover, say D i, then u is harmonic on all discs, Let D, be another such disc.
Since M is connected we can find a chain of discs
D 2 ,D 3 , ,D 1 =D
with
Di n D + 1 non-empty for j = 1, , n. (2.6.4)
By the theorem for discs u I Di is either harmonic or E + oo. Since we have
(2.6.4), it is impossible for uD 1 to be harmonic and ul D,1 to be + oo.
Thus we may assume
K = {z C; izi < c {z E C; IZI < r) = M, r > 1,
and prove the theorem for K. Let it :JILT= 1 be a dense set of points in M. (We
cannot at this point choose a countable dense set in our original M, since
we do not know )et that every Riemann surface is second countable.) For
each ], choose a sequence such that
u(z) = lim V k(2
k--•
Choose any Y 1 E .97 such that y i is harmonic on K and r 1 C. Having

chosen
choose E -5r'' such that

r„+I IK is harmonic,
rk+ 1 > Pm,
and
v, +1 vrni, all m < n + 1, all I < n + 1.
We now observe that
vn(zi) yik (z,), for n k j,
and thus
lim v(z) = sup v(z) = u(.7;).
ra-.33
Assume u + cc. Without loss of generality we assume that u(z i ) < + cc.
By IIarnack's principle
W = lim yk (2.6.5)
is harmonic in K. We must verify W = u. Since Vk E 3(7, vk < u, and hence

W < u by (2.6.5). Further W = u on a dense set (we do not know yet however
that u is even continuous). Thus W > y on a dense set for all y E .F. Since
all u are continuous, W > u for all V E F. Thus, W > u on K.
Remark. The above proof also showed how to obtain the function u. Let
K be an arbitrary compact subset of M. Cover K by finitely many discs
{K; = 1, . . ,n}. For each j, there is a sequence of increasing harmonic
functions {VA } such that
u = lirn Vi,, on K
Choose uk E such that yk max v1,,; j = 1, ... ,n}. Then

u = lirn vk
uniformly on K. In general, the functions yk are only subharmonic on K

(that is, not always harmonic).
IV.2.7. We now return to the Dirichlet problem introduced in IV. 1.1. We

take a region D with boundary SD on a Riemann surface M.
IV.2. Subharinonic Functions and Perron's Method 161
Let P e D. We shall say that # is a barrier at P provided there exists a

neighborhood N of P such that
/3 E C(CI(D n N)), (2.7.1)
fl is superharmonic on Int(D n N), (2.7.2)
I3(P) = 0, (2.7.3)
and
/3(Q)> 0 for Q P, Q E CHD n N). (2.7.4)
Rentark.rif P e SD can tte. reached by an analytic arc (= image of straight
line under holomorphic mapping). with no Points in common with Cl D,
then there exists a barrier at P.
PROOF. This is a local problem and so we may assume that P can be reached
by a straight line with no points in common with D and D c C. Furthermore,
we may assume P = 0, and the line segment is y = 0, x < O. Choose a single-
valued branch of „G in the complement of this segment and set I3(z) = Re
Writing z = re', we see that 13(z)= r112 cos 0/2 with — n < 0 < it, and is
thus a barrier at O.
We need a slight (free) improvement. Let fl be a barrier at P E S'D with
N (as in the definition) a relatively compact neighborhood of P. Let us
choose any smaller neighborhood N o of P with CI No c Int N. Set
m = min (/3(Q); Q E (CI(N\No) n Cl D)} > O.
Then set
imin{m4Q)}, QeN n D,
Q E Cl(g,N).
Then /7 is continuous on D, 0, #(Q) = 0 if and only if Q = P, and 13- is
superharmonic on D. Further ifini is again a barrier at P with Film = 1
outside N. (It is defined on all of Cl D.) We shall call 137m a normalized
barrier at P.
IV.2.8. Let D c M. A point P e SD is called a regular point (for the Dirichlet
problem) if there exists a barrier at P. A solution u to the Dirichlet problem
for a bounded f e C (Ô D) is called proper provided
inf {f(P); P E 6D) u(Q)_ sup{ f(P); P e SD}, all Q eCI D.
Theorem. The following are equivalent for D c M:

a. There exists a proper solution for every bounded f E C (5 D).
b. Every point of SD is regular.
PROOF. (a) (b): Let P e SD. It is easy to construct an f E C (5 D) with
0 f 1 and f(Q)= 0 if and only if Q = P. Let u be a proper solution to
the Dirichlet problem with boundary value f. Then 0 < u < 1. We claim
162 Iv Uniformization
u > 0 in D. Otherwise, u 0 in D (by the minimum principle) and f O.

Since u is harmonic, it is superbarmonic, and thus a barrier at P.
(b) (a): Let
= v e C(C1 D); u is subharmonic in D,
m o = inf f sup f = in 1 and v(Q)
, f(Q)
for all Q e
Clearly the function which is identically m o is in F. If u,, u 2 E F, then
max{u 1 ,u2 } E F. Also for every u e 5 and every conformal disc K in D,
u(K) e F. Thus 5 is a Perron family on D. Let
u(Q) = sup v(Q), Q E D.
ve.F
Then u is harmonic in D and m o u < mt.

We verify two statements for P e (5D:
1. lim inf u(Q) f(P),
and
2. lim sup u(Q) f(P).
Q
PROOF OF (1). If f(P) = mo , there is nothing to prove. So assume f(P) > trio .
Choose e> 0 such that f(P) — e > m o . There is then a neighborhood N(P)
such that
f(Q) f(P) — & for all Q E N(P) n SD.
Let # be a normalized barrier at P which is 1 outside N(P). Set
w(Q) = — (f(P) — mo — 6)P(Q) +f(P) — e, Q E CI D.
Clearly, 11? E C(CI D) and w is subharmonic. For Q E Cl D,
w(Q) f(P) — a < mi,
and
w(Q) = mofl(Q) + (f(P) — 0(1 — I3(Q))
moll(Q) + mo( 1 — fl(Q)) = mo.
Finally, for Q E SD,
w(Q) = mo f(Q), Q N(P),
and
w(Q) f(P) — & f(Q), Q E N(P).
We have shown that w E F. Hence, w(Q) u(Q), all Q E D, and thus
lim inf u(Q) w(P) = f(P) — e.
Since & is arbitrary, (1) follows.

IV.3. A Classification of Rieinann Surfaces 163
PROOF OF (2). There is nothing to verify if f(P) = in,. Assume f(P) < m,.
Choose e > 0 so that f(P) + e < in s . Choose N =- N(P), a relatively compact
neighborhood of P, such that
f(0). f(P) + e for all Q e N(P) n D.
Let y cF be arbitrary. We claim
r(Q) — (m, — f(P) — e)fl(Q) f(P) + E, Q E N(P) n D. (2.8.1)
(Here # is again a normalized barrier of P, that is F_-- 1 outside N(P).) Since
the function on the left of the inequality is subharmonic, it suffices to check
the inequality on ii(N D). If Q e iS(N D), then either (i) Q e 6N n
Cl D or (ii) Q E Cl N n 6D. In case (i), the left-hand side of (2.8.1) satisfies
=r(Q) nil +f(P) + e f(P) + e.
In case (ii) we have the estimates (for the same quantity)
v(Q) f(Q) f(P) -F e.
We have thus verified (2.8.1). Thus for Q E N(P) n D
v(Q) fiP) + (M1 — f(P) 6)13
and hence also
1 4 0) .f(P) + & + f(P)
From this last inequality we conclude
him sup u(Q) 5_ f(P) + e.
Since e can be chosen arbitrarily small, we have (2).
IV.3. A Classification of Riemann Surfaces

In this section we partition the family of all Riemann surfaces into three
mutually exclusive classes: compact (=elliptic), parabolic, and hyperbolic.
The partition depends on the existence or non-existence of certain sub-
harmonic functions. It will turn out (next section) that each of these classes
contains precisely one simply connected Riemann surface. Perhaps of
equal importance is the fact that this classification also enables us to con-
struct non-constant meromorphic functions on each Riemann surface. The
constructions in this section differ in a few important respects from the
constructions in 11.4. We do not need here the topological facts that were
previously used (triangulability of surfaces and existence of partitions of
unity), and we get sharper information about the meromorphic functions
that we construct (see, for example, Theorem IV.3.11).
164 IV 1;niformization
IV.3.1. Lemma. Let K be a compact connected region on a Riemann surface

M, with K M. There exists a domain D on M such that
K D, (311)
Cl D is compact, (3.1.2)
and
6D consists of finitely many closed analytic curves. (3.1.3)
PROOF. If M is compact the lemma is trivial. Choose P K and a small
disc U about P in NI\ K. In the general case, every P E K is included in a
conformal disc. Finitely many such discs will cover K. Let D, be the union
of these discs. By changing the radii of the discs, if necessary, we may assume
that the discs intersect only in pairs and non-tangentially. Delete from D,
a small disc U in D i\K and call the resulting domain D2. Soke the Dirichlet
problem with boundary %aloes I on 6L'. 0 on 6D 1 (note !ii.zt i), , D 1 Cl U
has a regular boundary). Let D be the component containing K of
1P E D2; u(P) > e > 01,
where e < min tu(P); P e K1. The critical points of the harmonic function
u (the points with du = 0) form a discrete set. By changing e we eliminate
them from 6D. Thus, the domain D satisfies (3.1.1)-(3.1.3).
IV.3.2. Let M be a Riemann surface. We will call M elliptic if and only
if M is compact ( = closed). We will call M parabolic if and only if .11 is not
compact and M does not carry a negative non-constant subharmonic
function. We will call M hyperbolic if and only if .11 does carry a negative
non-constant subhartnonic function.
Remark. It is obvious that a hyperbolic surface cannot be compact (by the

maximum principle for sulpharmonic functions), and thus we have divided
Riemann surfaces into three mutually exclusive families.
IV.3.3. Subharmonic functions on a parabolic surface satisfy a strong
maximum principle.
Theorem. Let D be an open set on a parabolic surface M. Let u E C(C1 D).

Assume u is subhartnonic in D. Furthermore, assume there exist m l , m2 E R
such that u < m 1 on SD and u < m2 on Cl D. Then u m l on Cl D.
PROOF. Assume m2 > m, (otherwise there is nothing to prove). Choose e,
0 < e <m2 — m i . Define
{max f,u, m, + el — m2 in D,
V =
+e—m2 m, in M\D.
It is clear that y is subharmonic on M, y < O. Thus y is constant; that is,
maxtu,:n i + el = m, + e in D.
1V.3. A Classification of Riemann Surfaces 165
Hence
u < m, e,
and since e is arbitrary, we are donc.
Corollary 1. Let u be a bounded real-valued harmonic function on an open set D

on a parabolic surface M. Assume that u E C(Ci D),with m o = inf{u(P);P e SD}
and m 1 = sup {u(P); P E SD}. Then m, u m (on Cl D).
Corollary 2. On a parabolic Riemann surface, the Dirichlet problem has at

most one bounded solution.
IV.3.4. On hyperbolic surfaces we do not, in general, have uniqueness of

solutions to the Dirichlet problem. To see this we first establish the following
Theorem. Let M be a hyperbolic Riemann surface and K a compact subset

with b(M\K) regular and M\K connected. Then there exist a function
E C(CI(W,K)) such that
i. to is harmonic on M\K,
= 1 on (5(M\K), and
iii. O <w < 1 on M\K.
Remark. We will call the smallest co as above, the harmonic measure of K.
PROOF OF THEOREM. Let 4/ 0 be a non-constant superharmonic function on

AI with oo > O. Let mo = min(lpo l K) and tp i = tP o/mo . Then is super-
harmonic on M, non-constant, tP i > 0 and 0 1 1 K 1.
We claim there exists P o E SK such that tP i(Po) = I. Clearly, since K is
compact we can find such a Po E K. If Po E Int K, then tP i is constant on
the component of K containing Po , and thus also on the boundary of that
component. Thus we can find a Po e 6K at which tp, has the value 1.
There exists a Q 0 E M\K with tp 1 (Q 0) < 1. Otherwise IP I 1 and since
iP i(Po) = 1, this would mean that tP i is constant.
Finally, we set ip = min {1,tp i }, and note that 1P is superharmonic on M,
0 < 11/ il/(Qo) < 1, 11/1K = 1.
We define
= tveC (C1(M\K)); v is subharmonic on M\K and u l(M\K)}.
The family is clearly closed under formation of maxima and under
harmonization. Thus 37 is a Perron family on M\K provided it is not empty.
Clearly, —t/' e However, we have to show that .F has more interesting
functions.
Choose a domain D K with Cl D compact, and SD consisting of
(finitely many) Jordan curves (this is possible by Lemma IV.3.1). Let vo
be the solution to the Dirichlet problem on D\K with boundary values 1 on
(5K and 0 on SD. Clearly, 0 < v o < 1 on Cl(DK). Extend vo to be zero on

M\D and observe that ro is subharmonic on Al (by the Corollary to Proposi-
tion IV.2.2).
We show that vo E .f. We must verify that vo < ti/ on M\K. Note that
— ill is subharrnonic on M, and ro — if( < 0 on (5D, and also on M\D. By
the maximum principle vo — 5 0 on D because Cl D is compact. Define
co(P) = sup v(P), P E Cl(M\K),
then
V0
and in particular co is harmonic on .44\ K, and to = 1 on 6K (and also co e
C(C1(M \K))). The function to is non-constant since (( ( O()) < tproo) < I.
Furthermore, 0 < < 1 on C1(.11 K) and thus 0 < w < 1 on M K.
IV.3.5. Important Addition. We can obtain the harmonic measure of K with

slight modification of the above argument. Set
{v E :1-7 ; V has compact support)
and define
co i(P) = sup v(P), P E Cl(M\K).
E .Y71
Note that 4r., contains ro and is hence non-empty. Furthermore, co, has all
the properties of co. We claim that co l < (.75 for all C15 enjoying the properties
of the theorem. Consider
ve
Assume that v I M\K' = 0 for some compact set K'. Thus
on 5(K",K)
(since Co 0 on SK', u = 0 on 61(' ; & > v on SK). Hence Co' > v on (K'\K) k.)
(M\K'), and since v is arbitrary (4) 1 on M\K.
Corollary. Let M be a hyperbolic Riemann surface and D a domain in M with

regular boundary such that M\D is compact. Then we have non-uniqueness of
solutions for the Dirichlet problem for D.
PROOF. If u is any solution to a Dirichlet problem, then so is (1 — (o) + u,
where co is the harmonic measure for M\D.
Remark. Any D as above cannot have compact closure in M. If it did, we

would have a unique solution to the Dirichlet problem for D.
IV.3.6. Let M be a Riemann surface and P E M. A function g is called a
Green's function for M with singularity at P provided:
g is harmonic in M\ {P}. (3.6.1)
IV.3. A Classification of Riemann Surfaces 167
g > 0 in MVP}. (3.6.2)

If : is a local parameter vanishing at P, then
g(z) + logizi is harmonic in a neighborhood of P. (3.6.3)
If is another function satisfying (3.6.1)-(3.6.3), then g. (3.6.4)
Remark. Condition (3.6.3) is independent of the choice of local parameter

vanishing at P (that is, the condition makes sense on M). For if ; is another
such parameter, then (with at 0 0)
C(z)=„a iz + ci2 z 2 + • •
= a l z(1 + z + • • -)= a I zf(z),

at
where f is holomorphic near z = 0 and f(0) # O. We write f(z) = ez ), with
h holomorphic near z = 0, and conclude that
= logla i l + logizi + Re h(z).

Since Re h(z) is harmonic, we see that g(z) + logizi is harmonic if and only if
+ logj is.
A CLASSICAL EXAMPLE. Let D be a domain in C with Cl D compact and SD

regular (for example (SD consisting of finitely many analytic arcs). Let z o E D.
By solving the Dirichlet problem we can find a function y E C(C1 D) such
that y is harmonic in D and
y(z) = loglz — zol, z e SD.
Set
g(z) = —loglz — zol + y(z), z E D.
Show that g is the Green's function for D with singularity at z o . (The
proof of this assertion follows the proof of Lemma IV.3.8) Formulate
and prove a general theorem so that this example and Lemma IV.3.8 become
special cases of the theorem.
EXERCISE
Let D c C be a domain bounded by finitely many disjoint Jordan curves C 1 , , Cn.
The harmonic measure of CJ(j = 1, . ,n) with respect to D is classically defined as the
unique harmonic function co) in D that is continuous on Cl D and has boundary values
k = 1, • • . , n. Show that this definition makes sense and relate this concept to the
one introduced in IV.3.4. Show that co l + • • • + con = 1 and discuss the properties of the
(n — 1) by (n — 1) "period" matrix Li *dcok.
P1 .3.7. Theorem. Let M be a Riemann surface. There exists a Green's function

on M (with singularity at some point P E M) if and only if M is hyperbolic.
PROOF. Let g be a Green's function on M with singularity at P. Let m> 0. Set

f = min {m,g}. Then f is clearly superharmonic in M\{P}. Since g(Q) + oo
as Q P, f ni in a neighborhood of P. Thus f is super harmonic on M.
Also f> O. If f were constant, then g > in, and thus g — m would be another
candidate for the Green's function with g — in < g. This contradiction shows
that f cannot be constant and hence M is hyperbolic.
Conversely, assume that M is hyperbolic. Let P e M. Let K be a con-
formal disc about P with local coordinate z. Set
= {y; y is subharmonic in MVP),
0, y has compact support, and
v(z) + log1:1 is subharmonic in Izi < 11.
To note that F is non-empty, we define
log1:1, 0 < 1:1 < 1
vo(z) =
{ —
0, 1z1 1,
and observe that vo e F. It is easy to see that F is a Perron family (on
M \ {P}).
We establish now the following
Lemma. Outside every neighborhood of P, .F is uniformly bounded.

PROOF OF LEMMA. Choose r, 0 < r < 1. Let a), be the harmonic measure of
{1z1 r}. (It is only here that we use the fact that M is hyperbolic.) Thus a),
is harmonic on Iz1> r, a), = 1 on 1z1 = r, and 0 < a), < 1 for 1z1 > r. Let
A, = max{a),(z);1z1 = 1 } . Thus 0 < ;., < 1. For u e F,let it, = max{u(z); z = r).
We claim
urco„ — u 0 for r. (3.7.1)
Clearly urai„ — u is superharmonic on 1z1 > r, and u,a), u 0 on 1z1 = r.
Let .Y/' be the support of u. Then u = 0 on , and thus (3.7.1) holds on syr.
Hence (3.7.1) holds on AP\ {1z1 r} by the minimum principle for super-
harmonic functions. Inequality (3.7.1) obviously holds on MVC.
Finally, u(z) + logizi is subharmonic in 1z1 < 1 and continuous on 1z1 _5 1.
Thus
up + log r = max u + log r 5 max u + log 1 = max u ur).,
1=1= r =1 Iz1 = 1
(the last inequality is a consequence of (3.7.1)). Thus

— log r
U, <
1—
Since u = 0 off a compact set dr, we conclude that
log r
max{u(z); 1z1 r} (3.7.2)
—1.
CONCLUSION OF PROOF OF THEOREM. Set

g(Q) = sup u(Q), Q E M\{P}
ue.3
Inequality (3.7.2) implies that g(Q) < oo for Q 0 P. Thus, by Perron's prin-
ciple, g is harmonic in MVP}. The fact that g > 0 on MVP} follows from
the corresponding fact that u > 0 on M\{P} for all u e „F. Next we show
(3.6.3). Note that for 1z1 < r, u E
r A log r
u(z) + logz
11 + log r + log r = ; . .
4.• A, 7 1 4— 1
Thus also
„ log r
g(z) + log for 1z1 r.
—1
Hence z = 0 is a removable singularity for the bounded harmonic function

g(z) + loglz1.
To finish the proof that g is the Green's function, let § be a competing
function satisfying (3.6.1)—(3.6.3). Let u e F. Then the function — u is super-
harmonic on M. Since u has compact support, say K', — u 0 on M\K'
and by the minimum principle for superharmonic functions also on K'.
Thus g > u on M‘ {P}. Thus g. (In fact, either g> g or if = g on M {P}.)
Remark. We have shown a little more than claimed in the theorem:
Existence of Green's function at one point
Hyperbolic
Existence of harmonic measures
Existence of Green's function at every point.

We hence define g(P,Q) as the value at Q of the Green's function (on the
hyperbolic surface M) with singularity at P.
IV.3.8. Lemma. Let M be a hyperbolic Riemann surface. Let D be a domain

on M with Cl D compact and SD regular for the Dirichlet problem. Let P E D.
Let u be the unique harmonic function on D with u(Q)= g(P,Q) on 6D. Then
gp(P,Q)= g(P,Q)— u(Q), Q e D defines the Green's function for D with
singularity at P.
PROOF. The function gr, is harmonic in D\{P}. Take a small disc d about P
so that g — u is positive in its interior. Thus by the minimum principle for
harmonic functions, g — u 0 on D\{P} since we also have these estimates
on (5(D\d). Condition (3.6.3) is trivially satisfied. Let 6i be another candidate
170 IV Unifornnzation
for the Green's function, and let Q0 E D\{P}. It suflices to show that
#(120) gu(P,120) — E
for all e > 0. For each Q e iSD, there exists a neighborhood UQ of Q in
Cl D\{ Q0} such that gr, < e on UQ . Set
U= U U.
QeSD
Then on D\U we have — gp> —e since we have this estimate on S(D\U)=
SU. In particular, j(Q0) — gD(P,Q0) —E. (Intuitively ge, is necessarily the
right choice since it has the smallest possible value on SD, namely 0.)
IV.3.9. Lemma. In addition to the hypothesis of the previous lemma, assume

that SD consists of closed analytic arcs, and P. Q E D. We have
g v(P,Q) = gv(Q,P), all P, Q e D.

PROOF. Let U1, U2 be two small disjoint discs about P and Q respectively.
Let 13 = D\(U1 u U2). For R e 1.:0,P.Q1 set
u(R) = gD(P.R)
r(R)= go(Q,R).
Then by 1 (4.4.2),
0 = ffb. (u de — v 4u) = Li„ (it *dv — v*du)
= —ib u 1 +6u 2 (u *dv — v *du). (3.9.1)

Note that by the reflection principle for harmonic functions, we may assume
that u anduare C 2 in a neighborhood of the closure of D. We introduce now a
conformal disc (U 1 ) at P with local coordinate z = re'e. In terms of this local
coordinate, we write
u(z) = fi(z)— log r
with Et harmonic in z < I. Thus
Lut u*dv — v *du =— log r) *dv — y*d(ii — log r)

Lui
= f6u rt*dv — v*dfi — (log r)*dv — v*d(logr)
1
= —v — Lui (log r)*dv — v(re i9)- rd0
ui r
2
Similarly,
= f v(rel°)
o dB = 27tv(0) 27rg0(Q,P).
u*dv — v*du = —2ngD(P,Q).

fatf2
IV.3. A Classification of Ritrnatm Surfaces 171
IV.3.10. Theorem. If M is hyperbolic, then
g(P,Q)= g(Q,P), all P, Q e M.
PROOF. Fix a point P E M. Consider the collection 3 of all domains D c M

such that
1. P E D,
2. Cl D is compact, and
3. 6D is analytic.
Note trat if Di e 9 (j 4.'1,2), then there is also a D E 9 with D i U D2 c D.
Extend each of the Green's functions go (P,•) to be identically zero outside D.
Let
= {ga(P,•); De f2}.
The last corollary in IV.2.2 shows that the functions in F are subharmonic
on MVP.
Let K be any conformal disc on M\ {P}. Let D E 9. Choose D* e 3 such
that D* c D t.) K. Thus ga.(P,•) ge,(P,•) and ga.(P,•)lInt K is harmonic.
Similarly, if D i , D2 e 9, we can choose D E with D D 1 U D2 and observe
that gb(P,•) goi(P,•), j = 1, 2. Thus the family F is a Perron family. By
Perron's Principle
y(Q)= sup fgp(P,Q)1, Q E M \ (,11
DE 9
is harmonic on MVP}, since

g(P,•)
shows that 7(Q) < + cc, all Q e M \ {P } . The last inequality also shows that
y g(P,•) on MVP}.
Since y is a competitor for the Green's function (it clearly satisfies (3.6.2) and
(3.6.3)), y g(P,•) on M \{P}. We have thus shown that
7(Q) = g(P,Q) = sup {g D(P,Q)}, Q e M.
Deg,
Hence for Q, P e D
go (P,Q) = gp(Q,P) g(Q,P).
Now fixing P and taking the supremum over D E 9, we see that
g(Q,P).
Reversing the roles of P and Q gives the opposite inequality. Thus the
proof of the theorem is complete.
172 IV Uniforrnization
EXERCISE
Show that the Green's function is a conformal invariant; that is, if

f :AI --■ N
is a conformal mapping and g is the Green's function on N with singularity at f(P) for
some P e M, then g 0 f is the Green's function on M with singularity at P.
DIGRESSION. Let D be a domain on a Riemann surface M with SD consisting

of finitely many analytic arcs. Let us generalize the Dirichlet problem and
(recall 11.4.5) our earlier discussion of the Dirichlet principle. Let f? be a
2-form which is C2 on a neighborhood of the closure of D. (We shall show in
IV.8 that there is a Coe 2-form flo on M that never vanishes. Thus Q = FS20
for some function Fe C2 (C1 D).) Let f e COD). We want to solve the
boundary-value problem for u E C 2 (C1 D):
=
14 1 6D = f.
Let Po e D be arbitrary and assume our problem has a solution u. Let us
take a conformal disc z centered about Po and let
D, = DV1z1 r}, 0<r< 1.
Apply Formula I (4.4.2) on Dr with (p = u and g(P0 ,-), the Green's
----
function for the domain D. Recall that u = f on SD and that Ag(P0 ,•) =
0 on D\ p301 while g(P,•)= 0 on SD. Thus
f * dg(P 0 ,• ) — r (u(z) * dg (13 G ,z) — g(P 0,z) * du(:)) = — g(PG,• )0.
Letting r 0, we see that

27tu(P0) = JID g(P0 ,-)S2 — Si * dg(P0 ,-). (3.10.1)
Conversely, it can be shown that Formula (3.10.1) does indeed provide a
solution to our problem.
TV.3.11. Theorem. Let M be a non-hyperbolic Riemann surface. Let D be a

domain on M with P e D. Let f be a holomorphic function on DqP). Then
there exists a unique harmonic function u on MVP} such that
u — Re f is harmonic in D and vanishes at P, and (3.11.1)

u is bounded outside every neighborhood of P. (3.11.2)
Remarks
1. The theorem should be contrasted with Theorem II. 4.1 (and its com-
panions). What is important for us is not the more general singularity at P
that we can produce, but the boundedness statement (3.11.2).
1V.3. A Classi fication of Riemann Surfaces 173
2. If f has no singularity at P, then existence is trivial. We set u = (Re f)(P).

3. The uniqueness part of the theorem is also quite easy to establish. If u,
and u, satisfy the conditions for u, then u, — u 2 is a bounded harmonic
function on M and hence constant. Since (u, — u 2)(P) = 0, u, = u 2 .
Before obtaining existence, we must establish some lemmas.
IV.3.12. Lemma. Let D c C. Let u be harmonic in D and Iul < m. Let P E D,
then
il (grad u), 115_ cm
IP —
._
with c a universal constant.
PROOF. First: by grad u we mean the vector (u,,u,.), and by its norm we mean
max{1 14,cl, luyi }. Choose r > 0 such that the closed disc of radius r about P
is contained in D. The function u, is harmonic in D. Thus (without loss of
generality P = 0), by the mean-value property for harmonic functions
u(0) = am ux(pe4)do, 0 < p < r.

ig $
0
Multiplying both sides by p and integrating from 0 to r we obtain the "areal

mean-value property"
1
ux (0) = --r-i7r ffizi, ux dx dy.
Thus
lux(0)1 =
ff izi <, ux dx dy
1
r2 — y2 , y) — u(— r2 — y2, y))dy
nr2
/nt 4m
< 2r =
icr trr
From the above we see that c = 4/n.
IV.3.13. Lemma. Let {u;} be a sequence of harmonic functions on a domain

D c C. If {u;} converges uniformly on compact subsets to a function u, then
{1.13, } converges uniformly on compact subsets to ux .
PROOF. Since the result is local in nature, it involves no loss of generality to

assume that D is the unit disc and to show uniform convergence on a smaller
disc. Now choose analytic functions L such that
u; = Re f; and f;(0) = u;(0).
Formula (1.2.1) shows that .6 converges uniformly to f (similarly constructed).

Thus f; converges uniformly to f ' (on any compact disc) and since
f ; =llj.x —
we are done.
EXERCISE
Reprove the above lemma using the methods and result of Lemma IV. 3.12.
IV.3.14. Lemma. Let {u i } be a uniformly bounded sequence of harmonic

functions on a Riemann surface M. Then there exists a subsequence converging
uniformly on compact subsets of M.
PROOF. If D is a closed disc contained in M, then the sequence 141 con-
structed in the proof of the previous lemma is uniformly bounded on the
closure of any smaller disc D o and thus contains a subsequence converging
uniformly on Do. The same holds for the sequence {u}—the real part of
the sequence {4 . If M were second countable (it is—but we have not yet
}
established this) the general result follows by a "diagonalization" procedure

to be described in detail in IV.3.16. For the present we can use V e lemma
only for surfaces we know to be second countable.
IV.3.1.5. Lemma. Let M be a non-hyperbolic Riemann surface, and K a con-

formal disc. Let u be a bounded harmonic function on MK. Assume that u is
C' on CI(M\K). Then
fax
PROOF. Without loss of generality we may assume (by adding a constant)
that u > 0 on M\K. Let z be the local coordinate corresponding to K so
that bK = = 11. Since
fry, *du = lim f11-1=p *du,
it suffices to assume that u is harmonic in fizi rl, r < 1 and to show that
=1
J!
Let g be the collection of all domains D such that K cc D cc M and bD
is analytic. Let up be the solution to the Dirichlet problem on CI(D\K,.) with
uo = ul5K, and uo iSD = 0, where K,. = {Izi< r}. Extend ur, to be zero
outside D. Let
= fuo ;D e
and
y = sup Up.
0E9
The reasoning in Theorem IV.3.10 shows .9" is a Perron family on IVACI K,.
For every D e up u; hence y < u. Now u — y is a bounded harmonic
function on M \CI K,. By Theorem IV.3.3, the maximum and minimum of
this function occur on 6K,. Thus u = y. We have shown that
u = lim u p = sup up on tizi > rl.
DE2 DE 2
Let cop be the solution to the Dirichlet problem on CI(D\K,) with w, 6K. = 1
and w0 15D = O. Then (as a special case of the previous argument)
lim cop = sup coD = 1 on izi > r.
DEge.Deg
-
Now note that by the reflection principle, up and cop have harmonic exten-
sions (which we do not use) across 6D. It thus follows that *du *chop
are defined and smooth on CI(D\K,.).
Now use the remark following Perrons principle (IV.2.6), and choose
sequences of domains A") c 2, {DIP} c g, such that
u = lim upço, 1 = lim cop(p,
uniformly on a neighborhood of 6K = lizi =11. Choose Di e such that

D. D(I ) u DS2). Then u = Ern; 1401, 1 = Ern; cop, uniformly on a neighbor-
hood of 6K. Further, the functions involved are all harmonic in this
neighborhood. Finally,
0 = HOAK (COD , A 14 — 140,-10) D,) = i\p(a)0,4V140, — upi * da) Dj)
fa( 0
=— LK ( *dup,_u*dwo .
By Lemma IV.3.13. this last integral converges to —f,,K *du.
IV.3.16. Proof of Theorem IV.3.11. Choose a local parameter z vanishing

at P. We may assume that tizi < c D with R> 1. Let 0 < p <1. Let u°
be the solution to the Dirichlet problem on M\ :j < p} with uPif izi = pl =
Ref = pl. We claim that there is a constant c(r)—independent of p—such
that for 0 < p < r < 1,
lu°I :5_ c(r) for izi r. (3.16.1)
It suffices to verify (3.16.1) on { izi = r } .
Now, Lemma IV.3.15 implies that
*du° = 0, for p _t R.
Thus we can define a holomorphic function F° on tp <Izi <R) by choosing

zp with p < z <R and setting
P(z) = 11(z0) + sizzo (du° + i*du°).
We know that Re FP(z) = uP(z), p < Izi <R. Now both FP and f have
Laurent series expansions on p < Izi <R, say
FP(z) — f(z) = E a„z".
Thus, taking real parts, we obtain (after changing the names of the constants
in the Fourier series) for z
. P
CCo co
UP(teie) — R e f(te) = — +
2
E
„=
(04t. + cos nO
CO
+E (tit" + 13P_„C") sin nO. (3.16.2)

11 =1
Multiplying (3.16.2) by cos IX or sin k0 and integrating from 0 to 2g, we

get (for p _5 t _5 R)
o (uP(ten — Re
f(ten)d0 =1f) .
—1 o (uP(tew) — Re f(te n ) cos k0 dO = xftk + X ktk, k = 1, 2, ... ,
1 j .?..c •
— o (uP(te) — Re f(te)) sin k0 dO = + fi t kt —k , k = 1, 2, ...
(3.16.3)
We first use each of the above equations for t = p (uP(pe) = Re f(pe i8)) to
obtain (k = 1,2,3, ...)
= 0,
Œk= _ p 2koc c, (3.16.4)
= P 2kfifc•
We let
rn = sup {I f(z)i ; = 1 } ,
m(p) = sup{luP(z)1; z = 1 } .
Using Equation (3.16.3) for t = 1, we obtain
'at + 2(m(p) + m),
Ifl + 13P_k i 2(m(p) + m).
Combining the above result with (3.16.4) we have:
1411 1 — P 211 5- 2(m(P) + m),
141 1 — P 2I 2 (m(P) + m);
and for p <
Xi 4(m(p) + m),
Ififl 4(m(p) + m).
11/.3. A Classification of Riemann Surfaces 177
Also with the same restrictions on p:

4(m(p) + m)p 25,
Ifr 4(m( p) m)p 2k.
Thus (using (3.16.2))
co
max u° = c(r,p)
Izi=•
5_ max iRe fi+ 8 E (m(P)+m) (r"
n=1
Since p2Ir < r, we conclude that
e-
c(r,p) max lite 16(m(p)- + m) . (3.16.5)
1—r
To finish verifying our claim (that c(r,p).--- c(r)) we must show that m(p) is
bounded independently of p. Now
m(p)= max !VI 5 max IV! = c(r,p)
1:1=1 121=r
(by the maximum principle).
Thus by (3.16.5)
r
m(p) max iRe fi + 16m(p) + 16m .
izi=, 1— r lr— r
Choose r small so that r/(1 — r)= q <316 (for example, r < if). Hence, we
have
m(P) max IRe f I + 16m c(r).

1 — 116q(
We have now verified (3.16.1) as well as the following estimates (by adjusting
c(r))
Ice141 c(r)p25,
1415 e(r), k = 1, 2, 3, ....
We now let A be the annulus
A = {r <12:1 < 1}, p < r < 311.
The set of harmonic functions
;p<
is uniformly bounded in A (actually in {1z1 r }) . Thus we can choose a
sequence converging uniformly on A. By the maximum principle this se-
quence converges uniformly on { lzi r} and the limit function is harmonic.
Let us choose now a decreasing sequence of radii r; —■ 0 and the cor-
responding annuli A. Let {p i 4)2, .} be a sequence with
> P2 > • • • ,
pi < ri , j = 1, 2, . ,
and
lim u = u on r1}.
178 IV U niform iza tion
We relabel {P1 , 1) 2 , P3 ,• -} as flPi 1 , P i2,1) 13.. ..1. Now we can choose a sub-
sequence fo n
tr 21 , r- 221r 23 , • • •I of {P1149 124'13, • • • } so that uP2k converges uni-
formly to u on tr Izi r2 1. By induction the sequence f. 1.3, • • -}
satiNfies
Pi- 1.i > >•'•,
P- 1.k < rk, k = 1, 2, ... ,
and
lim uPi -- 1.k = u on fi lzi
So we can choose a subsequence
{Pi1,p;2,P;3, • • •} of {pi- 1,1,pi- 1,2,Pi- 1,3 , • • •}

so that
Bin uPik = u on lzi j}.
We now let Pk = pkk (the "diagonalization" procedure) and observe that pk

is a decreasing sequence of positive real numbers with pk < rk such that
lim =u uniformly on {1z1 r} for all r> O.
Note that
(u — Re f)(ten = E (2„ cos nO + /3„ sin nO)t"

n=1
with
= lim co;„
p—c)
fin = hm
lim e_„ = 0 = lim fr) for n = 1,2 ....

( p-0 p-* 0
Thus, in particular, taking subsequences was completely unnecessary by

the uniqueness part of our theorem.
IV.3.17. As we saw in 11.5, existence of harmonic functions already implies

the existence of meromorphic functions.
Theorem. Every Riemann surface M carries non-constant meromorphic

functions.
PROOF. Let Pi e M for j = 1, 2 with P, # P2. Let zj be a local coordinate

that vanishes at P. We consider two cases:
M is hyperbolic. Let uj be the Green's function with singularity at Pj. Let
z = x + iy be an arbitrary local coordinate on M. Then
u 1x — iu, y
cp(z) =
u 2x — iu2y
IV.4. The Uniformization Theorem for Simply Connected Surfaces 179
defines a meromorphic function with a pole (of order > 1) at P, and a zero
(of order 1) at P2.
M is elliptic or parabolic. Choose u; harmonic on AP, [Pil such that
14 = Re 1 + y(z)
zi
with y; harmonic in a neighborhood of zero. Define 9 as before. This time
ordp, 9 5 —2 and ordp, cp 2.
IV.3.18. Theorem IV.3.1741as manKponsequences.
Corollary 1. On every Riemann surface M we can introduce a C'-Riemannian

metric consistent with the conformal structure.
PROOF. Let
f be any non-constant meromorphic function on M. Let
{P 1 ,P2 , .} be the set of poles and critical values (those P E M with df(.1))=
0) of f. Let z; be a local coordinate vanishing at P i with the sets {14 < 1}
all disjoint. Let 0 < r, < r2 < 1 and let coi be a C function with 0 _5 coj 5 1,
o.); = 1 on {Izil r 1 } and a); = 0 on { Izil r2 }.
Define arc length ds by
ds2 = Idf12 (i — to) + E w) ldzi12.
Remark. We shall (see IV.8) be able to do much better. We shall show that the
metric may actually be chosen to have constant curvature.
Corollary 2. Every Rieman,' surface is metrizeable.
Corollary 3. Every Riemann surface has a countable basis for its topology.
Corollary 4. Every Riemann surface may be triangulated.
While it is possible to prove the last two corollaries at this point, we shall
delay the proof until after IV.5 when we will be able to give shorter proofs.
IV.4. The Uniformization Theorem

for Simply Connected Surfaces
The Riemann mapping theorem classifies the simply connected domains in
the complex sphere. It is rather surprising that there are no other simply
connected Riemann surfaces. Our development does not require the Riemann
mapping theorem, which will be a consequence of our main result.
IV.4.1. Our aim is to prove the following
Theorem. Let M be a homologically trivial (H 1 (M) = ) Riemann surface.

Then M is conformally equivalent to one and only one of the following three:
a.
b. C,
c. 4 = {z e C; Izi < 1}.
These correspond to the surface M being
a. elliptic,
b. parabolic,
c. hyperbolic.
Of course, C u {cc} is not even topologically equivalent to either of the

other two, and C and d are conformally distinct by Liouville's theorem. The
fact that these three cases are mutually exclusive will also follow from our
proof of the theorem, and the fact that the types (elliptic, parabolic, hyper-
bolic) are conformal invariants.
IV.4.2. We recall the machinery introduce in 111.9. Let M be an arbitrary

Riemann surface. Let P e M. Denote by 6'p(M) the germs of holomorphic
functions at P e M. Let
P(M) =U p(M)
Pe M
denote the sheaf of germs of holomorphic functions. This space is given a

topology and conformal structure as in 111.9. The natural projection
proj = n: 0(M) M
is holomorphic and locally univalent. Similarly, we define the sheaf of germs
of meromorphic functions on M,,It(M).
Theorem. Let a be a discrete set on a Riemann surface M. Let u be a harmonic

function on M \cr and assume that for each P E M, there is a neighborhood
N(P) and a meromorphic function fp defined on N(P) with either
a. log If = u on N(P) n (MVO, or

b. Re fp = u on N(P) n (M \a).
Take any fp 0 as above, and let cp p c) be the germ of fp o at Po e M. Then
j. can be continued analytically along any path in M beginning at Po, and
ii. the continuation of tr, along any closed path (beginning and ending at Po)
depends only on the homology class of the path.
Remark. The hypothesis ((a) or (b)) is automatically satisfied on M\cr.

1V.4. The Uniformization Theorem for Simply Connected Surfaces 181
PROOF OF THEORFNI (The proof is almost shorter than the statement of the
theorem and has implicitly been established in the section on multivalued
functions.) Let c: [0,1] M be a continuous path with c(0) = Po . Let
0 = tt e [0,1]; ço can be continued along c, = cl [0,t] }.
It is easy to see that 0 is non-empty (0 E 0), open (without any hypothesis),
and closed (by use of (a) or (b)). Note also that the analytic continuation
satisfies (a) or (b).
Let c be a closed path beginning at P o . Let (p i be the continuation of ço
along c. when, assuming itypothesis, (a), we haye
log 191 = u = loglp i near Po .
Thus there is a z(e)E C, = 1, such that
(p i = x(c) (p near Po . (4.2.1)
Since (p i depends only on the homotopy class of c, x determines a homo-
morphism
x:ir l (M,P0) --■
from the fundamental group of M (based at P o) into the unit circle (viewed
as a multiplicative subgroup of C). Since S' is a commutative group, the
kernel of x contains all commutators and thus x determines a homomorphism
from the first homology group
H i(M) —> S 1 . (4.2.2)
In case (b), (4.2.1) is replaced by
(Pi = p + i(c)
with x(c)e R, and (4.2.2) is replaced by a homomorphism
CI
Corollary. Let M be a Riemann surface with H i (M). r,01. Let a- be a discrete

subset of M, and u a harmonic function on M cr. If u is locally the real part
(respectively, the log modulus) of a meromorphic function on M, then u is
globally so.
IV.4.3. As an application of the above corollary we establish the following
Proposition. Let D be a domain in the extended plane C u {co} = 5 2 with

H 1 (D) = {0}. Then D is hyperbolic unless S 2\D contains at most one point.
Remarks
1. The two sphere 5 2 is of course elliptic. If ,S 2 \D is a point, then (via a
Möbius transformation) D C. The plane C is parabolic. (Prove this
directly. This is also a consequence of Theorem IV.4.5.)
182 IV Li itiform izat i on
2. The proposition can he viewed as a consequence of the Riemann mapping

theorem. It can also be obtained by examining any of the classical proofs
of the Riemann mapping theorem. The proposition together with Theorem
IV.4.4, imply the Riemann mapping theorem.
PROOF OF PROPOSITION. Say S2\D contains 2 points. By replacing D by a

conformally equivalent domain, we may assume that S 2\ D contains the
points 0, x.
We now construct a single valued branch of \!: on D. Observe that
loglzi is a harmonic function on D. Thus there exists a holomorphic func-
tion f on D with
logIf(s)1 = 4 logizl, z a D.
Thus
logif(z)1 2 = z e D,
and there is a 0 e
J'(..)2 = eiez,
Set
g(z)= e -1912f(z), z e D.
Then
g(7)2 = 7, , Z e D.
Let a e D and g(a)= b. We claim that g does not take on the value —b
on D. For if 0.7.) —b, then z = g(z) 2 =- 112 = g(a)2 = a. This contiadiction
shows that g misses a ball about —b (using the same argument—since g
takes on all values in a ball about b). We define a bounded holomorphic
function
1
h(z)= z e D.
g(z)+
Since D carries a non-constant bounded analytic function, it is hyperbolic.
IV.4.4. Theorem. If M is a hyperbolic Riemann surface with H 1(M)= { 0 } ,

then M is conformally equivalent to the unit disc 4.
PROOF. Choose a point P E M. Let g(P,•) be the Green's function on M with
singularity at P. The function g(P,.) satisfies the hypothesis (a) of Theorem
IV.4.2. (The only issue is at P. Let z be a local coordinate vanishing at P.
Then g(P,z) + logizi = v(z) is harmonic in a neighborhood of z = O. Choose
a harmonic conjugate v* of v, write f = e"'. Then
g(P,z) + logizi = Re log f(z)= logif(z)I, near 0,

or
f(z)
g(P,z)= log , near O.
By Corollary 1V.4.2, (applied to - g(P,-)) there exists a meromorphic

function, f(P,•) on M such that
1ogif(P,Q)1 = - g(P,Q), all Q e M.

The function f(P,.) is holomorphic: For Q P,g(P,Q) > 0, thus I f(P,Q)I <1.
By the Riemann removable singularity theorem, f(P,.) extends to an analytic
function on M - that is, to the point P. Furthermore,
f(P,P)= 0, f(P,Q) 0 for Q 0 P. (4.4.1)
We want to show that frP,.) is one-to-one and onto.
Let R, S, T e M with R and S fixed and T variable. Set
T) = f(R,S) f(R,T)
(p
1 - f(R,S)f(R,T) .
Since ço is f(R,•) followed by a Möbius transformation that fixes the unit
disc, o is holomorphic, (p(S) = 0, and
IT(T)l< 1, T e M.
Let C be a local parameter vanishing at S. We may assume that maps a
neighborhood of S onto a neighborhood of the closed unit disc. Then
(p(C) = ar,"(1 + a i C + a2C2 + ...), n 1, a 0 O.

Set
1
u(T) = - - loglo(T)I.
Then u is harmonic and >0 except at the (isolated) zeros of (p. Also
1
-1 °g1001
n + log ICI
is harmonic for ICI small. Let y e .F, where .F is the family of subharmonic
functions defined in the proof of Theorem IV.3.7, with P replaced by S
(and z by C). Let D be the support of y, and D o be D with small discs about
the (finite number of) singularities of u deleted such that u - y > 0 on (D\Do).
By the maximum principle u y on D o . Hence, on M\ {S}. We conclude that
1
- - logl(p(T)I = u(T) sup v(T) = g(S,T)
ve.f
= -loglf(S,T)1,
Or
IP(T)I If(S,T)I. (4.4.2)
Setting T = R, we get (by (4.4.2))
If (R,S)I :5_ I f(S,R)I

or (since R and S are arbitrary)

I f(R,S)I = I f(S,R)i.
Remark. The above equality also follows from the symmetry of the Green's
function (Theorem IV.3.10).
CONTINUATION OF PROOF OF THEOREM. We consider once again a holo-

morphic function of T, mapping M into the closed unit disc, namely h(T)
(p(T)/f(S, T). By (4.4.2),
1h( T)I 1,
and since
f(R,S) — f(R,R) 1
ih(R)i 47(R-I
f(S,R) 1 — FRTS)f(R,R) f(S,R)
1(R.S)
= = 1,
we conclude that
cp(T) = yf(S,T), y E C, IXI = 1.
We rewrite the above equation as
f(R,S) — f(R,T)
y f(S,T) = ' ,
1 — f(R,S)f(R,T)
and deduce that
f(R,S) f(R,T)44. f(S,T) = øS = T.
We have shown that f(P,•) is an injective holomorphic function of M into it
Remark. If we are willing to use the Riemann mapping theorem, there is

nothing more to prove.
CONCLUSION OF PROOF OF THEOREM. We shall show that f(P,•) is onto. Let
a2 e J with a 2 it Image f(P,•). Since f(P,P) = 0, a 2 0 O. Let us abbreviate
f(P,-) by f. Since f(M) is homologically trivial, we can take a square root
(as in IV.4.3) of a non-zero holomorphic function defined on f(M). Let
z — a2
1— Ci2Z ia
h(z) = ze
z — a2 '
1+
1—
where we choose that branch of the square root with V a 2 = ia. Now
1 + lai2 1
h(0) = 0, Ih'(0)1 =
2ial
(4.4.3)
h(z) < 1 for z e f(M).
We now define
= h(f(Q)), Q 6 M.
Then F is a holomorphic function of M into LI with a simple zero at P and no
others. Thus —logIFI is a competing function for the Green's function and
we have
— g(P,Q) = —logif(P.Q)1,
Or
IRO if(Q)J.
Hence we conclude that
h(z)
1 for 1,71 small,
and
h'( 0)1 1
contradicting (4.4.3) El
IV.4.5. Theorem. Let M be a Riemann surface with 11 1 (M) = {0}. If M is

compact (respectively, parabolic), then M is conformally equivalent to the
complex sphere, C u {co} :4: S 2 (the complex plane, C).
Before proceeding to the proof of the theorem, we must establish some

preliminary results.
IV.4.6. Lemma. Let D be a relatively compact domain on a Riemann surface

M and 130 e D. Let f be a meromorphic function on Cl D whose only singularity
is a simple pole at Po . Then there is a neighborhood N of P o such that for any
QG E N,
AO f(Qo), all Q E D\{Q0}.
PROOF. There is a neighborhood N o of Po such that f I N o is injective. Let
mo = maxp c5(D\c, N.) {1f(P)1} and let m 1 > mo be so large so that { izi m l }
is contained in f(N o). Let N = f t ({z E C , > m1) C No . Then
I f(Q)1 < m i on D \CI N
If(Q)1 mi on CI N. El
Corollary. Let M be a parabolic or compact Riemann surface. Let Po e M.

Assume that J E dr(w) with ord o f = —1, f is holomorphic on M\{P 0 } and
f is bounded outside some relatively compact (therefore, outside every) neigh-
borhood of Po . Then there exists a neighborhood N of P o such that for any
QG e N,
f(Q) f(Q 0), all Q e M \{i2 o}.
PROOF. This is actually a corollary of the proof of the lemma, using the fact
that under the hypothesis, a bounded analytic function assumes its bound
on the boundary (Theorem IV.3.3). D
1V.4.7. Lemma. Let M be a parabolic or compact Riemann surface with

11 1(M)= {0 } . Let Po e M. There exists a function f E YOM) with ordeo f = --I
that is bounded outside every neighborhood of Po .
PROOF. Let z be a conformal disc at P o. By Theorem IV.3.11, there exists

a function u that is harmonic and bounded outside every neighborhood of
Po and such that
1
u(z) - Re -
z
is harmonic in a neighborhood of z = 0, and vanishes at z = O. By the corol-
lary to Theorem IV.4.2, there exists a function f holomorphic on M \ {Po}
with
f = u + iv,
f(z) - 1/z holomorphic near z = 0 and ( f(z) - 1/z) vanishes at 0 (for some
harmonic function y on MqP01). Similarly, there exists a holomorphic
function Ion MV,P0 1
+
bounded outside every neighborhood of P0, and flz) - i,/z is holomorphic
near z = 0 and it vanishes at zero. We want to prove that ivi is bounded
outside every neighborhood of Po . We shall show that J= if (thus y = 17),
which will conclude the proof.
Choose m > 0 so that
lu(z)I < m, < m on {izi = 1}.
Thus, also on {izi 1}. It involves no loss of generality to assume that f
and .7 are one-to-one on { Izi 1}. Choose Q0 with 0 o z(Q 0) = z0 and
Izol < 1 such that lu(Q0)1 > 2m and 15(Q0)1 > 2m.
Define
1 1
g(Q) - , Q e M.
1(42) f(Qo) -. T1Q o/'
The functions g and '4 are holomorphic on MVQ0}. Furthermore ordQ0 g =
-1 = ordQ. g We claim that these two functions are bounded outside every
neighborhood of Q0. It suffices to show that they are bounded outside
{1z1 <1}.Now for I 2 (Q)1 1,
1
10012 =
(14(2) 14(20)) 2 + V(Q0)) 2 "12'
and similarly
0012 .
IV.4. The Uniformi7ation Theorem for Simply Connected Surfaces 187
The Laurent series expansions of g and g in terms of : — : 0 are
g(z) = + a0 + a,(.-: — : 0) + • •
(— - -.0)
+ rio + 1 (z— z.)+ • • • .

z0)
Thus Fg — cif is a bounded holomorphic function on M and thus constant.

In particular f is a Maius transformation of f. Thus
œf(Q) -c(6- fly 0 O.

-
7./(Q) + 6 '
Setting Q = P0 , we see that y = 0 (we may thus take 6 = 1) and thus (because
we know the singularity of f and f at P0)1 = I. D
IV.4.8. Proof of Theorem IV.4.5. Let P e M. A function g e .K(M) will be

called admissible at P provided
g e Ye(MVP}), (4.8.1)
ordp g = —1, and (4.8.2)
g is bounded outside every neighborhood of P. (4.8.3)
We have seen that there exist functions admissible at every point P and
that any two such functions are related by a Möbius transformation.
Assertion: Given f admissible at P and g admissible at Q e M, then there
exists a Mitibius transformation L such that g = L o f.
PROOF OF ASSERTION. Fix Pc M, and a function f admissible at P. Let

M be defined by
= {Q e M; g admissible at Qg=Lo f, for some
Möbius transformation L . }
The set E is non-empty because P e E. Let Q 0 E E. Let g0 be admissible

at Q0. Thus g0 = L0 ° f, for some Möbius transformation L 0 . Choose a
a neighborhood N of Q0 such that every value g0 taken on in N is not as-
sumed in M\N. Let Q 1 e N, Q, # Q 0 . Then
1
g 1 (Q) — = (L1 ° g 0)(0, Q G
g0(42) — go(Qi)
is admissible at Q 1 . If g is admissible at Q l , then g = L2 o g, = L2 o L 1 o go =
L2 o L, o Lo o f. Thus E is open. Similarly (by exactly the same argument),
is closed in M, and thus I = M.
Assertion: Every admissible function is univalent.
188 IV U ni form ization
PROOF OF ASSERTION. J.. et f be admissible at P. Thus f(P 0) = co. Assume

AP I ) = f(P2). Choose g admissible at P 1 and a Mbitis transformation L
such that f = Lo g. Thus L(g(P 1 )) = L(g(P 2 )). Since L is univalent, cc =
gay = g(P2). Thus P, = P1 since g is by hypothesis admissible at P1 .
CONCLUSION OF PROOF. Choose an admissible

f:M -4C u
If M is compact, then f is also surjective (and conversely). Thus if M is para-
bolic, f(M)omits at least one point. Following f by a Möbius transformation
L, we may assume L of(M) c C. If L f(M) g C, then L o f(M) (and hence
M) would be hyperbolic.
Remark. We have now established Theorem 1V.4.1. This is a major result

in this subject.
IV.5. Uniformization of Arbitrary

Riemann Surfaces
In this section we introduce the concept of a Kleinian group and show how
each Riemann surface can be represented by a special Kleinian group—
known as a Fuchsian group. These "uniformizations" will involve only fixed
point free groups. More general uniformizations will be treated in 1V.9.
1V.5.1. Let G be a subgroup of PL(2,C) (that is, G is a group of Möbius

transformations). Thus G acts as a group of biholomorphic automorphisms
of the extended plane C k.) {co}. Let Zo E C { co}. We shall say that G acts
(properly) discontinuously at z o provided
the isotropy subgroup of G at z o,
(5.1.1)
G, = fg e G; = zo), is finite,
and
there exists a neighborhood U of zo such that
g(U)=U for g e G zo ,
and
g(U) n U = 0 for g E G\Gzo . (5.1.2)
Denote by 11(G) (= 11) the region of discontinuity of G; that is, the set of
points Zo E C u {co} such that G acts discontinuously at z o . Set
A = A(G) = C u {or)} \SI(G),
and call A(G) the limit set of G.
1V.5. Uniformization of Arbitrary Riemann Surfaces 189
It is immediately clear from the definitions that Q is an open G-invariant

(GQ = (2) subset of If Q Ø. we call G a Kleinian group.
From now on we assume that G is a Kleinian group. Since Q is open in
C u }, it can be written as a union of at most countably many components.
We say that two components D and f5 are equivalent if there is age G such
that gD = D. If Q is connected, G is called a function group. In general, let
0 1, Q2 , - •
be a maximal set of non-equivalent components of Q. It is clear that (as point
sets) the orbit spaces
S-2/G and la)
are isomorphic, where (the stabilizer of Q)

G. ={g e G;gQ= Q}.
It follows from our work in 111.7.7 that each Qi/Gi is a Riemann surface and
that the canonical projection Q. -+ 52i,Gi is holomorphic. Thus 01 G is a
(perhaps countable) union of Riemann surfaces with the projection
ir: Q Q/G
holomorphic.
IV.5.2. Proposition. If G is a Kleinian group, then it is finite or countable.
PROOF. Choose Z E S2(G) such that Gz is trivial. Then
{g(z); g E GI
is a discrete set in Q. Hence finite or countable. But this set has the same
cardinality as the group G. 0
IV.5.3. Since SL(2,C) inherits a topology from its imbedding into C4,
PL(2,C) S L(2,C)/ + I is a topological group. A group G c PL(2,C) is
called discrete if it is a discrete subset of the topological space PL(2,C).
It is obvious that
Proposition. Every Kleinian group is discrete.
The Picard group
az + b ;
G = fzi— ■ ad — bc = land a,b,c,d eZ[i]
cz + d
shows that the converse is not true.
IV.5.4. A Kleinian group G is called Fuchsian if there is a disc (or half

plane) that is invariant under G.
Theorem. Let G Aut d, d = unit disc. The following conditions are

equivalent:
a. J c
b. J n 12(G) o 0,
c. G is discrete.
PROOF. (a) (b): This implication is trivial.
(b) (c): Assume that G is not discrete. There then exists a distinct
sequence Ig„} c G such that
gn --■ g
with g e Aut J. Thus also
g ?;.
(as is easily verified using the matrix representation of elements of PL(2,C)).

Consider
h. = g 1 o g., n = 1, 2, ... .
The sequence {h„} contains an infinite distinct subsequence and h„ 1.
Thus h.(z)-+ z, all z e J, and d n 121G) = O.
(e) (a): If the group G is not discontinuous at some point z o e A, then
there is an infinite sequence of points {:„I, n = 1, 2, , in d equivalent
under G to zo and which converges to Z. Choose g„ E G with g„(z„) = zo.
Consider the element A„ e Aut d defined by
Z - z„
/4„(z)= z E d, n = 0, 1, ,
1 - -z"„z'
and set for n --= 1, 2, 3, ...
C., = A„.„ g,41 1 g„ 0
Since C,,(0) = 0, we conclude from Schwarz's lemma that

C„(z) = Anz, = 1.
Thus there is a subsequence—which may be taken as the entire sequence—of
{C,,} that converges to Co (where C 0(:) = A 0z). Since A.-4 A 0, we see that
h.= g 1 g., -+ AV 0 Co 0 A 0 . Since the {z„ } are distinct, so are the t gn },
and hence also the {h,, }.
Corollary. If G is a Fuchsian group with invariant disc D, then A(G) c 6D.

PROOF. The exterior of D is also a disc invariant under G. Since G is a Kleinian
group, it must be discrete. Hence, both D and the exterior of D are subsets
of 12(G).
Before proceeding to our main result, we need a
Definition. A Kleinian group G with A(G) consisting of two or less points

is called an elementary group.
1V.5. Uniformization of Arbitrary Riemann Surfaces 191
IV.5.5. Let M be an arbitrary Riemann surface. We let ji be its universal

covering space. Let
it: fa M
be the canonical projection, and G the covering group; that is, the group
of topological automorphisms g of M for which the following diagram
commutes:
Of course, since it is a normal covering, G rc i(M). Furthermore, G acts

properly discontinuously and fixed point freely on M. Since it is a local
homeomorphism, it introduces via the analytic structure on M, an analytic
structure on Al With this analytic structure, G becomes a group of conformal
automorphisms of SI; that is, a subgroup of Aut M.
IV.5.6. Theorem IV.4.1 alive us all the candidates for AT/; that is, all the simply
connected Riemann surfaces: C u {o}, C or d U = {z e C; Im z > 0}.
Each of these domains has the property that its group of conformal auto-
morphisms is a group of Möbius transformations z (az + b)/(cz + d). In
fact:
Aut(C u {cc}) PL(2,C),
Aut C Pd(2,C),
Aut U PL(2,R).
(By Pd(2,C) we mean the projective group of 2 x 2 upper triangular complex
matrices of non-zero determinant.) We have hence established the following
general uniformization
Theorem. Every Riemann surface M is conformally equivalent to D/G with

D =Cu{x},C, or U and G a freely acting discontinuous group of Möbius
transformations that preserve D. Furthermore, G n i (M).
Remarks
1. We will see in IV.6 that for most Riemann surfaces M, 11-4 U.
2. At this point, it is quite easy to give alternate proofs of Corollaries 2-4
in IV.3.18. A stronger form of Corollary 1 will be established in IV.8.
IV.5.7. If i = U, then the group G is, of course, a Fuchsian group. If A = C
or C u {co } , then G can have at most one limit point (G acts discontinuously
on C). Thus we have established the following
Theorem. Every Riemann surface can be represented as a domain in the plane

factored by a fixed point free Fuchsian or elementary group.
IV.5.8. A Riemann surface M will be called prolongable if there exists

a Riemann surface M and a one-to-one holomorphic mapping f :M M'
such that M"\f(M) has a non-empty interior.
Compact surfaces and those obtained from compact surfaces by omitting
finitely many points are clearly not prolongable. We shall see (trivially)
in the next section that those Riemann surfaces that can be represented as
CiG with G a fixed point free elementary group are not prolongable. For
the Ftichsian case, we need the following
Definition. Let G be a Fuchsian group leaving invariant the interior of the

circle C. The group G is called of the second kind if A(G) g C. If 21(G) = C,
G is called of the first kind.
Theorem. Let G be a fixed point free Fuchsian group acting on U. Then

UIG is prolongable if G is ofthe second kind.
PROOF. If G is of the second kind, then 0,(G) is connected and the complement
of U , G in S2,G certainly contains L/G, where L is the lower half plane. 0
Remark. The theorem thus shows that compact surfaces are uniformized
by groups of the first kind.
IV.6. The Exceptional Riemann Surfaces

The title of this section is explained by Theorem IV.6.1. The same surfaces
will reappear in V.4.
IV.6.1. The fundamental groups of most Riemann surfaces are not com-
mutative. The exceptions are listed in the following
Theorem
a. The only simply connected Riemann surfaces are the ones conformally
equivalent to C u {on}, C, or 4 = {z E C, IZI < 11.
b. The only surfaces with tr i(M) Z are (conformally equivalent to) C* =
CVO}, 4* = AVID}, or A, = {Z E C; r <Izi < 1 } , 0 < r < 1.
c. The only surfaces with tr i(M);-.--.. Z Z (the commutative free group on
two generators) are the tori C/G, where G is generated by z + 1 and
z + r, Im r > O.
d. For all other surfaces M, it,(M) is not abelian.
The remainder of this section is devoted to the proof of this theorem.
IV.6.2. Let A be a Mains transformation, A # 1. Then A has one or

two fixed points. If A has one fixed point, it is called parabolic. We write
IV.6. The Exceptional Rieinaun Surfaces 193
4(z) = (az + b)/(ez + d), ad — he I. Then

trace' A = (a + d)2
is well defined. It is easy to check that A is parabolic if and only if trace A = 4.
The element A is called elliptic if trace A e R and 0 < trace A < 4. It is
called loxodromic if trace 2 A 0 [0,4] c R. A loxodromic element A with
trace 2 A > 4 (we are assuming here that trace A E R) is called hyperbolic.
Let A be parabolic with fixed point .:0 eCuf so). Choose C Möbius such
that C(z0) = oo. Thus C A s C- = pc and hence D = C A has
the forkn D(z) = az + be.with a 0 0. Since A is parabolic, so is D. Hence
a = 1. We conclude A is parabolicif and only ifA is conjugate to a translation
zi—z + b (and thus also conjugate to the translation + 1). Similarly,
it is easy to establish that an element A with two fixed points is conjugate
to 0 0, 1 and that
A is loxodromic<=-Ii'l 0 1, A 0 0,
A is hyperbolic <--> e 2 > 0. 2 1,
and
A is elliptic.. AI = 1, ;1. 0 1.
IV.6.3. Theorem. The only Riemann surface M which has as universal covering
the sphere, is the sphere itself.
PROOF. The covering group of M would necessarily have fixed points if
i(A1) { 1 }.
111 .6.4. The fixed point free elements in Aut C are of the form z Z + a,
a E C. Since a covering group of a Riemann surface must be discrete, we
see that (consult Ahlfors' book Complex Analysis) we have the following
Theorem. If the (holomorphic) universal covering space of M is C, then M

is conformally equivalent to C, C*, or a torus.
These correspond to r i (M) being trivial, and 2 e Z. Note that

if 7r1 (M) Z, then we can take as generator for the covering group of M,
the translation z z + 1. The covering map
it: C -- ■ C*
is given by n(z) = exp(2xiz).
IV.6.5. All surfaces except those listed in Theorems 1V.6.3 and IV.6.4
have the unit disc or equivalently the upper half plane U as their holomorphic
universal covering space. We have shown in 111.6.4, that every torus has
C as its holomorphic universal covering space (we will reprove this below).
Since no surface can have both U and C as its holomorphic universal covering
space, a torus cannot be written as U modulo a fixed point free subgroup
of Aut U. More, however, is true (see Theorem IV.6.7).
Since Aut U PL(2,R), we see that each elliptic element A e A ut U fixes

a point z e U (and as well). Conversely, every A E Aut U that fixes an
element of U is elliptic. Thus a covering group of a Riemann surface cannot
contain elliptic elements. (As an exercise, prove that a discrete subgroup
of Aut U cannot contain elliptic elements of infinite order.) Since every
element of Aut U of finite order is elliptic, we have established the following
topological result.
Proposition. The fundamental group of a Riemann surface is torsion free.
Remark. Using Fuchsian groups, one can determine generators and relations
for fundamental groups of surfaces.
IV.6.6. If A e Aut U is loxodromic, we can choose an element B E Aut U

such that
C(0) = B . A . B -1 (0) = 0,
and
C(x)) = B o A o B 1 (ci) = x).
Thus C(z) = Az with A e R, A > 0, A o 1. Thus Aut U does not contain any
non-hyperbolic loxodromic elements, and hence the covering group of a
Riemann surface (whose universal covering space is U) consists only of
parabolic and hyperbolic elements.
Lemma. Let A and B be Mafia transformations which commute, with neither

A nor B the identity. Then we have:
a. If A is parabolic, so is B and both have the same fixed point.
b. If one of A and B is not parabolic (then neither is the other by (a)), then
either A and B have the same fixed points, or both of them are elliptic
of order 2 and one permutes the fixed points of the other.
PROOF. Say A0B=B.A. If A is parabolic, it involves no loss of generality
to assume A(z) = z + 1 (by conjugating A and B by the same element C).
Write B = E S L(2,C), A = [(1) 1]. Thus the statement A commutes
with B gives
[ a + c b + d] [a a +
in PL(2,C).
d c c+d
From which we conclude that c = 0, thus ad = 1 and d -= a; showing that

B(z) = z +
If neither A nor B have precisely one fixed point, then by conjugation
we may assume A(z)= Az with A 0 0, 1. The commutativity relation now reads
[Aa Ab ] = [Aa b ] .
in
c d Ac d
IV.6. The Exceptional Riemann Surfaces 195
There are now two possibilities: e 0 or e = O. If c 0, then we must have

the equality
[ i za b] = [.2a
L ;al ;Ix di .
Thus a = 0 and if we assume that 2 —1, also b = 0 (hence ad — bc o 1).
Thus this case is impossible and 2 = —1. The matrix identity now reads
Fo bi _ o
L—c d
from which we concludra = 0 = d and be = —1; from which we conclude
B(z) = k/z. The remaining case is c = 0. Thus d O 0 and the matrix equality
becomes
a ,.b1 Fa bl
Thus b = 0 and B(z) = kz.

r0
d i — LO cli •
Corollary. Two commuting loxodromic transformations have the same fixed

point set.
IV.6.7. Theorem. Let M be a Riemann surface with ir,(M) Z G31 Z, then the
holomorphic universal covering space of M is C.
PROOF. Assume the covering space is U. The covering group of M is an
abelian group on two generators. Let A be one of the generators. If A is
parabolic, then we may assume A(z) = z + 1. Let B be another free generator.
Since B commutes with A, B must also be parabolic. Thus B(z)= z +
fi E RAI The group generated by A and B is not discrete.
So assume A is hyperbolic (it cannot be anything else if it is not parabolic).
We may assume A(z) = Iz it> L The other generator B must be of the
,
form B(z) = pz with p > 1 and 2" # pm for all (n,m) E Z Z \ {O}. Again,
such a group cannot be discrete (take logarithms to transform to a problem
in discrete modules). D
IV.6.8. To finish the proof of Theorem IV.6.1. we must establish the following
Theorem. Let M be a Riemann surface with holomorphic universal covering

space U. Then M zi zl*, or LI„ provided n,(M) is commutative.
,
PROOF. We have seen in the proof of the previous theorem that if M is

covered by U and n 1 (M) is commutative, then the covering group G of M
must be cyclic. The two possibilities (other than the trivial one) are the
generator A of G is parabolic (without loss of generality z + 1) or
hyperbolic (zi— ■ :41z, A> 1). In the first case the map
U
196 IV liniformization
is given by
• expi2ni.:).
For z = re', 0 < 0 < 27, we define
log z = log r + i0
(the principal branch of the logarithm). The covering map (for the case
of hyperbolic generator)
U —3 1.1,
is then given by
log :
zl--4 exp ( 2tri .

log,.
From this we also see that
r exp(-21r 2/log (6.8.1)
IV.6.9. As an application we prove the following
Theorem. Let D be a domain in C u (t x} such that C u f re, `•, D consists

of two components ; )3. Then D _+-L- C*, 4*, or LI,.
PROOF. The complement of a (in C u -.c ) is simply connected ( A C u i

and thus conformally equivalent to C or 4. Thus it suffices to assume a
is a point or the unit circle. Now (C u {o)\) is also equivalent to C or 4.
Thus we are reduced to the case where 6D consists of points or analytic
arcs. In either case, it is now easy to see that ic i (D) Z, and the result follows
by our classification of Riemann surfaces with commutative tr,(M).
IV.7. Two Problems on Moduli

The general problem of moduli of Riemann surfaces may be stated as
follows: Given two topologically equivalent Riemann surfaces, find necessary
and sufficient conditions for them to be conformally equivalent. What does
the "space" of conformally inequivalent surfaces of the same topological
type look like? The solution to this general problem is beyond the scope
of this book; however, two simple cases (the case of the annulus and the
case of the torus) will be solved completely in this section.
IV.7.1. Let Mi be a Riemann surface with tr.) : M., the holomorphic
universal covering map (j = 1,2). First, recall that the covering group Gi
of Mi is determined up to conjugation in Aut M1. Furthermore, if
f:mi-+ M2
IV.7. Two Problems on Moduli 197
is a topological, holomorphic, conformal, etc., map, then there exists a map

1: SI, -4 .171 2
of the same type so that
n 2 el= fo 1.
(Of course G., is the set of lifts of the identity map M; M;.) The map/ is
not uniquely determined. It may be replaced by A2 .1. A 1 with A i E Gi.
11/.7.2. How many conformally distinct annuli are there? W have seen
that every annulus can be written as U/G where G is the group generated
by :i—z, A e > 1jf A l and A2 are two such annuli with the cor-
responding ,1 1 and A2 , when do they determirre the same conformal annulus?
They determine the same annulus if and only if there is an element T a Aut U
such that
T(2 i z) = A2T(z), z e U.
From this it follows rather easily that A i =A. (by direct examination or
using the fact that the trace of a Möbius transformation is invariant under
conjugation).
We conclude
Theorem. The set of conformal equivalence classes of annuli is in one-to-one

canonical correspondence with the open real interval (1,x).
Of course, we could substitute for the word "annuli" the words "domains
in C u apl with two non-degenerate boundary components."
IV.7.3. Let T, and T2 be two conformally equivalent tori. As we have

seen, the covering group G. of Ti may be chosen to be generated by the
translations z z + 1, z' •—■ z + r; with Tm r; > O. Thus we are required to
find when two distinct points in U determine the same torus. Let f be the
conformal equivalence between T 1 and T2 and letf be its lift to the universal
covering space:
•C
°i .
gll
' T2
The mappingf is conformal (thus affine: that is, z' --4 az + b), and it induces
an isomorphism
G1 g g e G2.
We abbreviate the Mtibius transformation z + c by c. Thus
a = 9(1) = al + [3'1. 2 with a, /3 e
(7.3.1)
at, = 0(r 1 ) = 71 + 6r2 with y, Se Z.
198 iv uraformization
Further, since O is an isomorphism the ma trix n is invertible. Thus

— 137 = + 1. Considering the symbols in (7.3.1) once again as numbers,
we see that
y + br 2
T= n
Œ + pre 2
and since both r i and T2 E U we see that fly — ctb = —1. Conversely, two
es related as above correspond to conformally equivalent tori. Let F denote
the unimodular group of Möbius transformations; that is, PL(2,2). It is
easy to see that F is a discrete group (hence discontinuous), and with some
work that U/F;1'.- C. Thus we have
Theorem. The set of equiralence classes of tori is in one-to-one canonical

correspondence with the points in C.
IV.8. Riemannian Metrics

In this section we show that on every Riernann surface we can introduce
a complete Riemannian metric of constant (usually negative) curvature. We
also develop some of the basic facts of non-Euclidean geometry that will
be needed in IV.9.
IV.8.1. We introduce Riemannian metrics on the three simply connected

Riemann surfaces. The metric on M will be of the form
2(z)idzi, z e M. (8.1.1)
We set
2
2(z) = , for M = C L.) {
1+
).(z) = 1, for M = C,
2
2(z) = 1 _ 1z12 , for M = = {z e C; izi < 1}.
The definition of A for M = C L.) {co} is, of course, only valid for z o.
At infinity, invariance leads to the form of 2 in terms of the local coordinate
= 1/z.
We will now explain each of the above metrics.
IV.8.2. The compact surface of genus 0, C u {co}, has been referred to

(many times) as the Riemann sphere; but up to now no "sphere" has appeared.
Consider hence the unit sphere .52,
± r 2 + C2 1
IV.8. Riemannian Metrics 199
in R 3. We map .52\ {(0,0,1)} onto C by (stereographic projection)

+
4 ,0 1---■ =
1—
It is a trivial exercise to find an inverse and to show that the above map
establishes a diffeornorphism between S2\{(0,0,1)} and C that can be extended
to a diffeomorphism between S2 and C u {co}. The inverse is
z Fie( 2 Re z 2 Im z tz1 2 — 1
izi2 friz + 1 , z 12 + 1). (8.2.1)
1
(Write x = Re z, y Im z.) The Euclidean metric on R3
ds z = de 4. de + dc2
induces a metric on S2, which in turn induces a metric on C u { Do } . Equation
(8.2.1) shows that
2(1 — x 2 + y 2) dx — 4xy dy
cg =
(1 + 1z1 2)2
x2 — y2) dy 2(1+ 4.xy dx
du — (1 +
4x dx + 4y dy
dC —
(1 + lz1 2)2 •
A lengthy, but routine, calculation now shows that

4(dx2 + dy 2)
ds2 —
— (1 + )zI 2)2
The curvature K of a metric (8.1.1) is given by
log ).
K—
42
(here 4 is the Laplacian, not the unit disc). A calculation shows that
K= +1,
and that the area of C u {00 } in the metric is
4
Area(C u loop = ffc ).(z)2 dx dy = fo2n Sox' + r2)2 rdrd9 = 4n.
Proposition. An element T e Aut(C u {,,0 } ) is an isometry in the metric
(2/(1 + 1z1 2))1dzi if and only if as a matrix
[a +?
T= lar ic1 2 = 1' (8.2.2)
c 5
PROOF. Write
ra bl
ad — bc = 1.
Lc di'
Of course, T is an isometry if and only if
il(Tz)IT'(z)1 = ZEC u {X},
or equivalently if and only if

1 1
(8.2.3)
Cz + dj 2 + laz + 612 = 1 +
If (8.2.2) holds, then so does (8.2.3), as can be shown by the calculation

1 1 1
+ 41 2 + laz — 12 = (CZ + ÷ a) + (az - --e)(ZE — c) = 1 +
Conversely, if (8.2.3) holds, we have
1+ lc: + d 2 + + hr.
Expanding the right-hand side gives
1 + 1z1 2 = Oar + Ici 2)1.71 2 + ca + ab)z + (d-C + 161 2 + id1 2,

and the only way this identity can hold is if lal 2 + 1c1 2 = 1, 161 2 +1c112 = 1,
a + as = 0. We now add to this the determinant condition — cb + ad = 1.
The last four equations yield c = —5, a =
Remark Note that for T not the identity

Trace T = a + =2 Re a,
and (since Re a = +1 implies that T is the identity)
—2 < Trace T < 2.
Hence T is elliptic. As a matter of fact, T is an arbitrary elliptic element
fixing an arbitrary point z and —r
EXERCISE
Determine the geodesics of the metric of constant positive curvature on the sphere.
IV.8.3. The metric idzi on C needs little explanation. It is, of course, the
Euclidean metric. It has constant curvature zero. Geodesics are the straight
lines; and automorphisms of C of the form
z + b, 6 e R, b e C,
are isometries in the metric.
IV.8.4. We turn now to the most interesting case: the unit disk 4. Let us
try to define a metric invariant under the full automorphism group Aut 4.
The metric should be conformally equivalent to the Euclidean metric; hence
of the form ,1.(z)Id4 Set 40) = 2 and note that ;1(A0)124'(0)1 = ).(0) for all
A e Aut 4 that fix 0 (since A(z)= e lez). Let z o e 4 be arbitrary and choose
A e Aut J such that A(0) = z o. Define (to have an invariant metric)
= 2144'(0)1 - 1 .
Note that A(z) = (z + z0)/(1 + 70z) (it suffices to consider only motions of
this form). From which we conclude that
._
2
1 2
A simple calculation shows that this metric is indeed invariant under Aut 4.
(In particular, the elements of Aut A are isometries in this metric.)
Before proceeding let us compute the formula for the metric on the upper
half plane U. Since we want the metric X(z)id:( to be invariant under Aut U,
we must require
X(z) = 2IA'(0)1 -1 ,
where A is a conformal map of 4 onto U taking 0 onto zo . A calculation
similar to our previous one shows that
1(z) = iml
Computations now show that the metric we have defined has constant
curvature — 1.
Let c: I —* A be a smooth path. Then the length of this path 1(c) is defined
by
1(c). sol .1.(c(t))1e(t)idt. (8.4.1)
We can now introduce a distance function on J by defining
d(a,b)= inf{/(c); c is a piecewise smooth path
joining a to b in J } . (8.4.2)
Take a = 0 and b = x, real, 0 x < 1, and compute the length 1(c) of an
arbitrary piecewise smooth path c joining 0 to x,
2 ,
1(c) = fo 1 _ ic(t)12 ic (oldt
2 Ça
> $o1 1 — =
c(t)2 t =
2
_ u2
1+x 1+x
= log log .
1—x 1—x
We conclude tint
+
d(0,.x) = log
1— x
and that c(t) = tx, 0 t < 1, is the unique geodesic joining 0 to x. We now
let 0 # b = zed be arbitrary (and keep a = 0). Since
e y
(0 = arg z) is an isometry in the non-Euclidean metric i(z)Idzi, we see that
1 + IzI
d(0„-..) = log (8.4.3)
1 — lzr
and 00= I:, 0 t 1, is the unique geodesic joiniru0 to
Proposition
a. The distance induced by the metric 2: (1 !:i 2 );ii.:1 is ef,mplete.
b. The topology induced by this metric is equivalent to the usual topology on J.
c. The geodesics in the metric are the arcs of circles orthogonal to the unit
circle {z C; lzi = 1).
d. Given any two points a, b E .1, a 0 b, there is a unique geodesic between them.
PROOF. Note first that (8.4.31 shows that every Euclidean circle with center
at the origin is also a non-Euclidean circle and vice-versa. Also note that
. d(0,z)
lim
Izi
showing that at the origin the topologies agree. Since there is an isometry
taking an arbitrary point z e d to the origin, the topologies agree everywhere.
This establishes (b).
We have already shown that the unique geodesic between 0 and b is the
segement of the straight line joining these two points. Now let z i and z 2 be
arbitrary. Choose A E Aut d such that A(: 1 ) = 0. Let b = A(z 2). The geodesic
between z, and z2 is A 1 (c), where c is the portion of the diameter joining
0 to b. Since A' preserves circles and angles, (c) and (d) are verified.
Now let {z„} be a Cauchy sequence in the d-metric. Then {d(0,z)} is
bounded. Hence {z„) is also Cauchy in the Euclidean metric and tiza ll is
bounded away from 1. This completes the proof of the proposition.
IV.8.5. If D is any Lebesgue-measurable subset of d, then
1
Area D = ).(z) 2 1dz A dui
defines the non-Euclidean area of D.

The following technical proposition will be needed in the next section.
Proposition. The area of a non-Euclidean triangle (that is, a triangle whose

sides are geodesics) with angles a, fl, 7 is
— (a + fi + y).
PROOF. It is convenient to work with the upper half plane U instead of the
unit disk. We will allow "infinite triangles"—that is, triangles one or more of
whose sides are geodesics of infinite length (with a vertex on Ô U = 51 u
If a triangle has a vertexepn 5U, it must make a zero degree angle (because
the geodesics in U are semi-circles (including straight lines = semi-circle
through x,) perpendicular to FI). We call such a vertex a cusp.
Case I. The triangle has one cusp at (see Figure IV.1), and one right angle.
The angles of the triangle are hence: 0, it/2, a. (Note we are not excluding the
possibility that x = 0; that is, a cusp at B.) The area of the triangle is then
dy a dx
dx Jo -- arc sin
- = 7r —
.or — P
Case 11. The triangle has a cusp at co. (See Figure IV.2.) It has angles 0, a, )3.
We are not excluding the possibility that either a = 0 or /3 = 0 or both
= fi = 0. Choose any point D on the arc AB and draw a geodesic "through
-P a
Figure 1V.2
204 IV Uniform ization
D and co." The area of the triangle is the sum of the areas of two triangles:
2
The case in which A and B lie on the same side of D is treated similarly.
Case III. If the triangle has a cusp, then it is equivalent under Aut U to the
one treated in Case II.
Case IV. The triangle has no cusps. (See Figure IV.3.) Extend the geodesic
AB until it intersects at D. Join C to D by a non-Euclidean straight line.
The area in question is the difference between the areas of two triangles and
thus equals
Figure IV.3
IV.8.6. Theorem. Let M be an arbitrary Riemann surface. We can introduce

on M a complete Riemannian metric of constant curvature: the curvature is
positive for M=Cu }, zero if C is the holomorphic universal covering
space of M, and negative otherwise.
PROOF. Let IR be the holomorphic universal covering space of M and G the
corresponding group of cover transformations. We have seen that G is a
group of isometrics in the metric of constant curvature we have introduced.
Since the metric is invariant under G, it projects to a metric on M. Since
curvature is locally defined, it is again constant on M. (The reader should
verify that the curvature is well-defined on M; that is, that it transforms
correctly under change of local coordinates.) The (projected) Riemannian
metric on M (denoted in terms of the local coordinate z by )(z)Idzi) allows us
to define length of curves on M by formula (8.4.1) and hence a distance
function (again denoted by d) by (8.4.2). Let
n: M
be the canonical holomorphic projection. Let x, y E M. We claim that
d(x4) = inf {d(,n); 7r( ) = x, 11(n) = (8.6.1)
Note that we have shown that in g/-1 the infimum in (8.4.2) is always assumed
for some smooth curve c. Let d be the infimum in (8.6.1); that is, the right-hand
side. Let c be any curve joining to 71 in g/I- with it() = x, it(i) = y. Then
IV.9. Discontinuous Groups and Branched Coverings 205
n c is a curve in M joining x to y. Clearly, l(rr c) 1(c). Thus

d(x, y) :5_ 1(n c c) = 1(c),
and since c is arbitrary,
d(x,Y)
Finally, since q are arbitrary in the preimage of x, y,
d(x,y) 5_ d.
Next, if c is any curve in M joining x to y, it can be lifted to a curve "C" joining
to q (5,g) = x, n(q) = 4),of the same length (because rr is a local isometry).
Thus,
1(c) = 1(e) d(,ry) d.
Since c is arbitrary, we conclude
d(x,y) d.
It is now easy to show that the metric d on M is complete. We leave it as
an exercise to the reader.
Remarks
I. If a Riemann surface M carries a Riemannian metric, then the metric can
be used to define an element of area dA and a curvature K. The Gauss—
Bonnet formula gives
ff. K dA = 2742 — 2g),

if M is compact of genus g. Thus, in particular, the sign of the metric of
constant curvature is uniquely determined by the topology of the surface.
We will not prove the Gauss—Bonnet theorem in this book. The next
section will, however, contain similar results.
2. Let M be an arbitrary Riemann surface with holomorphic universal
covering space M. On gl
A(z) 2 dz (1-2
is a nowhere vanishing 2-form that is invariant under the covering group
of it-4 M. Thus the form projects to a nowhere vanishing smooth 2-form
on M. (Recall that in 1.3.7, we promised to produce such a form.)
IV.9. Discontinuous Groups and

Branched Coverings
In this section we discuss the elementary Kleinian groups and establish a
general uniformization theorem. We show that a Riemann surface with
ramification points can be uniformized by a unique (up to conjugation)
Fuchsian or elementary group. This establishes an equivalence between the

theory of Fuchsian (and elementary) groups and the thcory of Riemann
surfaces with ramification points. We have not always included the complete
arguments in this section. The reader should fill in the details where only
the outline has been supplied.
IV.9.1. Let M be a Riemann surface. We shall say that M is of finite
type if there exists a compact Riemann surface M such that M \III consists
of finitely many points. The genus of M is defined as the genus of M (it is
well defined). By a puncture on a Riemann surface M, we mean a domain
Do M with D o conformally equivalent to {Z E C; O < < 1} and such
that every sequence { z„} with z,, —■ 0 is discrete on M. We shall identify
z = 0 with the puncture D o .
Let D be a connected, open, G-invariant subset of Q(G), where G is a
Kleinian group. Let { x be the set of points that are either punctures
on DIG or points x E DIG with the canonical projection n:D DIG ramified
at it - '(x). Let vj = ramification index of ir -1 (xj) for such an xj, and let
vi = Do for punctures. The set {xi} is at most countable, since the punctures
and ramified points each form discrete sets.
Let us now assume that DIG is of finite type. If in addition, it is ramified
over only finitely many points, then we shall say that G is of finite type urer
D. In this latter case, we let p be the genus of DIG. We may arrange the
sequence xj so that
< v i < v2 < • < v„ < oo
(here n = cardinality of Ix 1 ,x2 , < oo), and we call
(P;v1,1'2, • • • ,v,)
the signature of G (with respect to D).
We also introduce the rational number, called the characteristic of G
(with respect to D),
1
- ,
j=1 )
v
where, as usual, 1/oo = 0, whenever G is of finite type over D and x = oo,

otherwise.
IV.9.2. Definition. Let G be a Kleinian group. Let D c Q(G) be a G-invariant

open set. By a fundamental domain for G with respect to D we mean an open
subset o) of D such that
i. no two points of to are equivalent under G,
ii. every point of D is G-equivalent to at least one point of Cl to,
iii. the relative boundary of to in D, 6w, consists of piecewise analytic arcs,
and
iv. for every arc c St.o, there is an arc c' c Sw and an element g e G such
that gc = c'.
By a fundamental domain for G we mean a fundamental domain for G

with respect to SAG).
The next proposition will only be needed to discuss examples. We will
hence only outline its proof.
Proposition. Every Kleinian group G has a fundamental domain.
PROOF. Let it: C2 --> Q/G = U ; S be the canonical projection. Let Q; be a

component of 7r - '(Si), and let G; be the stabilizer of Q./. If co; is a fundamental
domain for G. with respect to f2;, then U ; co; is a fundamental domain for
G. Thus it suffices to consider only the case where Q is connected.
We ci-n, therefore, asstme that-we are given a discontinuous group G
of automorphisms of a domain D c Cu {Do . We now introduce a con-
}
struction that is very useful in studying function groups. (These are groups
that have an invariant component.) Let
p:b *1)
be the holornorphic universal covering map of D and define
F {yeAutb;poy=gopforsomegeGI.
It is now easy to check that 5fr DIG (thus G is discontinuous if and only
if F is). Furthermore, define a homomorphism
p*:r --+ G
by
p 0 y = p *( 7) 0 p, y E F,
and let H = Kernel p*. Then
{1} —J1 F G -+ {1 }
is an exact sequence of groups and group homomorphisms. Now let iZ be

a fundamental domain for F with respect to f It is quite easy to show that
= p(c7. ) is a fundamental domain for G in D. Thus we need only establish
fundamental domains for groups acting discontinuously on C u {Do}, C, or
U. The first case (Cu cop is trivial (because the group is finite). The second
case (C) will be exhausted by listing all the examples. If b = u, then we choose
a point ze E U with trivial stabilizer and set
= {z e U; d(z,z 0) < d(gz,z 0) all g e G, g 0 1).
It must now be shown that co is indeed a fundamental domain. We omit
(the non-trivial) details. 0
Definition. The group F constructed above will be called the Fuchsian
equivalent of G (with respect to D).
We now take a slight detour and on the way encounter some interesting
special cases.
IV.9.3. Let us now classify the discontinuous groups G with 12(G) =

C Since C x} is compact, G is finite (let N = la!) and M =
(C u {co})/G is compact. Let
n:C {co} M
be the canonical projection. Let (7; y 1 ,. ,v„) be the signature of G. Clearly
2 < v; < N and each vi divides N. The Riemann-Hurwitz relation (Theorem
1.2.7; see also V.1.3) reads
1
— 2 = N(27 — 2) + N (1 - -). (9.3.1)
v 1•
In particular, the characteristic of G,

2
x= — <
is negative. Since (1 — 11v1) > 0 all j, we conclude that y = 0. Thus (9.3.1)
becomes
2— 1 —
Vj
.1=1
Assume N> 1 (discarding the trivial case). If N = 2, then vi = 2, all j

and n = 2. Assume now N> 2. Then
1
and (n > 0) since
1 1
- 5 1 — — < 1,
2 v
we conclude that
n > 1, n < 4.
Thus n = 2 or n = 3. If n = 2, then
21 1
= y1 ;72:
Now since 1/v; 1/N it must be that v i = v 2 = N. If n = 3, then

21 1 1
1+=—+—+ (9.3.2)
1/1 112 V3
Observe (again) that
25
1 <1 + —
N
Thus y 1 = 2 (recall that v 1 5 v2.5 v 3). We replace (9.3.2) by
121 1
2N v 2 v3
Now, N is even since v, = 2 and v, divides N (thus N > 4),
1 12
1.
2 2 N
If v 2 = 2, then v 3 is (apparently) arbitrary 2. If v 2 > 2, then v 2 = 3 and hence
121
Thus
11
— <— or 6. > v3.
6 1, 3"
Thus v 3 = 3,4 or 5.
We summarize below the signatures and cardinalities of the groups G
that could possibly act on Cu { x }.
Signature of G IG1
(O;—) 1
(0; v,v) y (25v<co)
t0;2.2,v) 2' (2 < x)
(0;2,3,3) 12
(0;2,3,4) 24
(0:2,3,5) 60
Remark. Existence and uniqueness of groups with x <0 will be established

in IV.9.12. We have also determined all possible negative characteristics of
Kleinian groups.
IV.9.4. Before proceeding to the next special case, we must establish the
following
Lemma. Let A and B be two non-parabolic transformations with exactly one

fixed point in common, then C = A 1 o B o A is parabolic.
PROOF. Without loss of generality (by conjugation) we may assume that A

fixes 0 and oo and B fixes land co. Thus A(z) = K i z and B(z) = K 2(z — 1) + 1,
K 1 0 1 0 K2. A computation shows that
(K — 1)(K2 — 1)
C(z) z +
K
which is parabolic.
Corollary. Let G be a group of M6bius transformations and zeCu {Do}. If

Gz , the stabilizer of z in G, is finite, it must be cyclic.
EXERCISE
Let M be a Riemann surface whose universal co% eriug space is the unit disk and let
P E M. Then the stabili7er of P in any subgroup of Aut A/ is finite. Is the assertion true
for other Riematin surfaces?
IV.9.5. Next we determine the groups G that can possibly act discon-
tinuously on C. Since G leaves C invariant, G c Aut C, and the elements g
of G are of the form
+ b. (9.5.1)
Observe that a, if 01, must be a root of unity, since a is the multiplier of
g and g must in this case be elliptic of finite order. Map the element g e G
of (9.5.1) onto a e 5'. This map is a homomorphism since
blr 131 r aa nI3 +
LO i][0 1 j = 1 j.
Let Go be the kernel of this homomorphism. Clearly G o is the unique maximal
fixed point free (normal) subgroup of G.
If Go is trivial, then by the preceding lemma, all elements of G must
fix a common point : 0 e C. We conclude that G is a finite cyclic group
acting discontinuously on C t.i {co}. We will not consider such groups to
be acting on C.
We consider now the case with Go non-trivial. It is then easily seen that
Go is a free group on 1 or 2 generators.
Assume that G o is cyclic. Then (without loss of generality G o is generated
by zi-+ z + 1) C, G0 is equivalent to the punctured plane C* (via the map
eriz), and G,'G o acts as a group of conformal automorphisms of C/G 0.
The automorphisms of C* are of the form zl-- ■ kz and k/z (see V.4.3).
The former lift to automorphisms of C of the form (zi—oz + (log k)/2ni) and
must therefore be in Go ; the latter, to automorphisms of the form zi-0 —z +
(log k)/2ni whose square must be in Go . Thus G/Go is trivial or isomorphic
to Z2. In the second case, G consists of mappings of the form zi— ■ ±z + n,
n e Z.
We "draw" fundamental domains for the groups encountered above.
G generated by zi— ■ z + 1 (Figure IV.4)
m z =0
Re z=0 Re z I
Figure IV.4. Signature (0;oo,co).
G generated by z - z, z z + 1 (Figure 1V.5)
/////
•
•/./ •
• z=0
z=
ReizO Re z=1
Figure 1V.5. Signature (0:2,2,x)) wheie the first two twos correspond to the points
z=0andz=1.
We now consider the case where G o has rank 2. Then we may assume
that G o is generated by the two translations z z + 1, z 1-• z + 2, 1m r > 0,
and C/G o is a torus. Without loss of generality, we may assume IT! 1.
Again G:Go acts as a group of automorphisms of C/Go .
Assume now that G/Go is non-trivial. Let z + 1 and h:zi- ■ az + b
be parabolic and elliptic elements of G. We conclude that
hog=11':z1-+:+a
is an element of G o , or that the multipliers of elements of G are periods of
Go. Since there are only finitely many periods on the unit circle, we can
find a "primitive" multiplier K = e24' " with p c Z, i> 1 and p maximal.
By conjugating G once again (by an element zi - + c) by a conjugation
that does not destroy the previous normalization, we may assume that G
contains the element z Kz. Hence, we see that G/G o is a finite cyclic group
4. The group G hence consists of motions of the form
zi-■ z + n + MT, V = 0, , - 1, n Z, e Z.
Now we let y be the genus of C/G(=(C/G0)/(G/G 0 )). Let x, = 0, x 2 , .. • ,
be the fixed points of G/Go on C/Go and let v l , , V,. be the orders of the
respective stability subgroups. We use Riemann-Hurwitz (see V(1.3.1))
1
0 = 2y - 2 + (1 - - ), (9.5.2)
vi
and conclude that if r > 0 (G/Go non-trivial) then y = O. Thus (9.5.2) becomes
2= - -1 ).
vi
Let N be the order of GIGO . Then
2 vi N.
Since 1 > (1 - 1/y;) r = 3 or 4. If r = 4, then y, = v 2 = v 3 = v 4 = 2,
and the ramification is completely accounted for by the element - z,
and G/Go
212 IV Uniformizatiou
Fundamental domain for G consi.qing of +n+ (Fisure 1V.6)
Im z - 0
Re Z=0
Figure 1V.6. Signature (1;—).
Fundamental domain for G consisting of {zi•—■ + z n mr} (Figure IV.7)
Z=T
,
T /
Z = ,
/ç -;
1m z =0
1 ' -2 z
Re z =0
Figure IV.7. Signature (02,2,2,2) where the twos correspond to the points z = 0, z =
Z = r/2, z = (T + 1) 72.
If r = 3, then the only possibilities are as follows (because 1 = 1/v 1 + 1/v 2 +

1/v 3 ):
V1 V2 V3 G/G0
2 3 6 16
2 4 4 14
3 3 3 13
The computation of the v; appearing in the above table is routine. The

description of GIG, requires some explanation (that is, the determination
of p). Let z 1—■ Kz be the generator of G/G o, which is also the generator of the
stability subgroup of O. Since K is a period, there are integers n, m such that
K = n + MT.
NowKI= 1, Iri 1, implies either n = 0 or m = O. If m = 0, then n = —1 =

K. Thus G is the group of signature (0;2,2,2,2) which we previously discussed.
If n = 0, then m = ±1.Sincelmr > 0 and Im K 0, we conclude that m = 1
and K = T (also p> 2). Since zi—■ Kz generates the stabilizer of 0, p = v3.
1V.9. Discontinuous Groups and Branched Coverings 213
Fundamental domain for {: -.+ K"z + n + mK}, K = e 2 "" (Figure IV.8)
Im z = 0
Re z=0
Figure IV.8. Signature (02,3.6) where the two Corresponds to the point z = the
three corresponds to the point z = (K + 1)/3 and the six corresponds to the point = 0.
Fundamental domain _An- {z 1—* K": + n + niK} K = e 2 ,a14 = i (Figure IV.9)
Im z =0
Re Z=0
Figure IV.9. Signature (0;2,4,4) where the two corresponds to z = I, one four corre-
sponds to z = (1 + 0/2 and the last four corresponds to z = 0.
Fundamental domain for {zi—+ + n + mK}, K = e2 ' 1" 3 (Figure IV.10)
Im z =0
Re Z =0
Figure IV.I0. Signature (0;3,3,3) where the threes correspond to the points z = 0,
z = (K + 2)/3, z = (2K + 1) 73. (Each of these three points is equivalent to a corre-
sponding point in the figure.)
Remark. We have established above the existence and uniqueness of all the
elementary groups with one limit point. We have also determined all pos-
sible signatures that yield zero characteristic.
IV.9.6. To classify the remaining elementary groups, we must study the

groups with two limit points; without loss of generality the limit points are
0 and oc. The elements of such a group G are of the form
zi--+kz and z k/z.-
By passing to the Fuchsian equivalent of the group G, it is easy to classify
these groups. The details arc left to the reader.
IV.9.7. Let G be a Kleinian group. We have seen that y <O (respectively,

x = 0) whenever 52(G) = C 1/4.) {DD} (respectively, S2(G) = C). We want to show
now that for Fuchsian groups y > O. In addition, we want to interpret the
characteristic in geometric terms. We need some preliminaries.
Lemma. Let G he a Fitehsian group operating on the upper half plane U. Assume
that P is a puncture on U/G, and that the natural projection it is unratnified
over a deleted neighborhood of P. Then there exists a deleted neighborhood
D of P in U/G, a disc b in U, and a parabolic element T e G such that D
.5/G 0 , where G o is the cyclic group generated by T, and two points in b are
equivalent under G if and only if they are equivalent under G o .
PROOF. Let D u PI he a simply connected neiphbovhood of the puncture

P such that it is unramified over D. Let b be a connected component of
it '(D) and let G o be the stabilizer of b in G;
G0 = G; = 151.
We must, of course, have that b/Go = D. Let B be the holomorphic universal

covering space of 15 and let & be the Fuchsian model of Go with respect to
D. Then do is infinite cyclic and hence Go (being a homomorphic image of
G- 0) is also cyclic. It cannot be generated by an elliptic element. If Go were
generated by an elliptic element, the fixed point of its generator would have
to be on the real axis. But an elliptic element with a fixed point on R u {co}
cannot fix U. Thus Go is generated by a parabolic or hyperbolic element T.
We clearly have an inclusion
B/G 0 c+ U/Go .
If T were hyperbolic, then U/G o would be an annulus that contains the
punctured disc b/G o. Thus the puncture P on ZS/G o would be a point in U/Go
and hence would be the image of a point z e U under the map no : U -+ U/Go .
We conclude that D must contain many punctured discs. But & contains
as a subgroup. This is an obvious contradiction. Thus T is parabolic.
By conjugating G in the group of real Möbius transformations, we may
assume that T(z)= z + 1. By shrinking D, we may assume that b =
tz E C; Z > 14 for some b > O.
Definition. We shall call , a disc (half plane) corresponding to the puncture P.
IV.9.8. To establish the converse of the above lemma, and to show that
D can always be chosen to be the half plane ft z e C; 1m:> I} we prove the
following
Lemma. Let A(z)=(az + b)(cz + d)' with a, b, c, d e C and ad — bc =1.

Let T(z)= z +1. Then the group generated by A and T is not discrete if
0 < lc! < 1.
PROOF. Let A o = A and for n e Z, n > 0, set
We show that if 0 < ici < 1, then

lim A„ = T.
n-• 3.3
We write as matrices in SL(2,C),

[an b„
c„ d„1,
and compute
[a„ b„][1 11[ d„ —17,1
An+1
c„ d„ 0 —c„ a,
[1 — anc„ a! ] = [a„, b„,. 1 1
2
—c, 1 + an Cni LCrt +i d.+
We conclude that
c„ = — c2" and lim c„= 0 (9.8.1)
(in particular, the sequence A„) is distinct). Now we choose 7 so that 0 <
(1 — < y and lai < y. By choice, la c)! =la! < y. Suppose Ian; <y for
some n, then also
+ = 11 — anc„I 1 + Ian' Ic 1 = I + I a . . I Icl'
< 1 ± ylc1 2" < 1 + yid < y.
Hence, by induction
la,,I < y for all n.
From the relation
an+ , = 1 — a„c„
and (9.8.1), we conclude that
lim a„ = 1.
Thus also
1 1 m b„= Jim = 1,
11 -.00
and
lira d = Ern (1 + a„_ l c._ 1 ) = 1.
,
n -4 co co
216 Iv uniformization
W.9.9. Lemma. Let G he a Fuchsian group operating on the upper half plane
U. Assume that G contains a parabolic element T with fixed point x E t'
Then G„, the stabilizer fx in G is infinite cyclic.
PROOF. We claim that every element A e Gx is parabolic. Without loss of
generality x = co. Assume that G œ contains an element A with another
fixed point which may be taken to be the point 1 (since it must be on the real
axis because A cannot be elliptic). Thus we have T(z) = z + a, a e tR, and
A(z) = Œ(z — 1) + 1, a e R, a > O. Without loss of generality we may take
0 < a < 1 (replace ,4 by A - 1 , if necessary). Now A(z) = a"(z — 1) + 1, and
hence
A„ o T o A; '(z) = z + aan.
Thus we hive cousu wied a distinct sequence in G approaching the identity.
We have shown that every element of G, is of the form z z + a. Taking,
the minimum of all such positive a's, we obtain a generator for G. 0
IV.9.10. Theorem. Let G be a Fuchsian group operating on the upper half

plane U. Let T = z+ 1 be an element of G. Assume that T is the generator
of the stabilizer of x, G If Ac G\,G„, then
n U1
where U, = lz e C; Im z> 11.
PRooF. Let A 1- ) = (az -4- b)/(cz + d) with a, b. e. de R such that ad — bc = 1.
Lemma IV.9.9 shows that c 0 and we may assume c > O. Lemma IV.9.8
yields that c > 1. Now AU, is a disc whose boundary is a circle tangent
to R at A(co) = a/c ao. It is clear that the diameter of this circle is the
maximum of
a(x+i)+b a
x e R,
c(x + - d c
which equals
1
c(cx + d + ci ) c ,j(cx + d)2 + c2
Thus the maximum occurs at x = — d/c, and the diameter of the circle is
1/c2 1. Hence AU, is contained in a disc bounded by a circle tangent to
R of diameter < 1.
Corollary 1. Let G be a Fuchsian group operating on U. If G contains a para-

bolic element, then U/G contains a puncture. Furthermore, the punctures on
U/G are in one-to-one correspondence with the conjugacy class of parabolic
elements in G.
Corollary 2. Let G be a Fuchsian group. If G is the covering group of a compact

Riemann surface of genus p > 2, then G contains only hyperbolic elements.
Remark. In the second part of Corollary 1, we must be a bit more careful in

defining punctures. The punctures on U/G, viewed as a "Riemann surface
with ramification points", are in one-to-one correspondence with the con-
jugacy classes of parabolic elements of G. By a puncture on such a surface,
we mean a puncture D on the abstract surface U/G such that it: U U/G
is unramified over D (that is, there are no elliptic fixed points in n'(D)).
We shall see (Theorem IV.9.12) that without this assumption we can have
punctures on the abstract surface U/G that are limits of points over which
it is ramified.
IV.9.11/ We consider nelw a Fuchsian group G operating on the upper half

plane U (or the unit disc Li). In IV.8, we introduced the Poincaré metric
i. u (z)idzi
iz — T.1
for U which is clearly invariant under G (since G c Aut U). Thus we may
project ).[; (z)idzi to U/G and obtain a metric with singularities at the images
of the elliptic fixed points. We want to show that these singularities are not
too bad in the sense that the Poincare metric on U/G is locally square inte-
grable at these points and that the same is true even in a deleted neighborhood
of a puncture. Let
n:U U/G
be the canonical projection. Denote the Poincaré metric on U G by ;.(Z)IdZI
in terms of the local coordinate Z. If Z can be expressed as a function of
z e U, then of course, the relation
I(Z)IdZi = 4(z)idzi
allows us to solve for A
- Z).
Let us assume that .70 e U is an elliptic fixed point. By conjugation we
may replace U by Li and assume that zo = O. The stabilizer G o is then gen-
erated by an element of the form z e21"1"z, for some v e Z, y > 2. Thus
Z = z' is a local coordinate at n(0). Since
2
A,(z) —
(1 —
we see that
21Z1(1/")-1
.T.(Z) =
v(1 —
Since (1/v) — 1 > —1, ;7(Z) 2 IdZ A d.ZI is integrable in a sufficiently small
neighborhood of Z = O.
It remains to investigate a neighborhood of a puncture. Here it is more
convenient to assume that G acts on U, and that the puncture corresponds
to the cyclic subgroup of G generated by zi-4z + 1. Thus Z = e 2rdz is a

local coordinate on U/G vanishing at the puncture, and
IZI log
which is readily seen to be square integrable.

We are thus able to define
dZ d.2
Area(U/G) = IfuiG (Z)
2
Theorem. Let G be a Fuchsian group operating on U. Assume that G is of

finite type orer U with characteristic x, then
Area(U/G) = 2xx.
PROOF. Consider the natural projection 7C: U U/G. Triangulate the compact
surface II, G so that
i. each ramified point is a vertex of the triangulation (however, there may
(and as a reFult of (ii) there must) be other vertices,
ii. every triangle of the triangulation contains at most one ramified point,
iii. if a triangle 4 contains no ramified points, then there exists a connected
neighborhood 4 in U so that n(d) 4 and nij is one-to-one,
iv. if a triangle 4 contains a finite ramified point with ramification number
v, then there exists a connected neighborhood 3- in U so that 7r(4-)
and nij is v-to-one, and
v. if a triangle J contains an infinite ramification point, then each com-
ponent of n'(A) is contained in a half plane corresponding to the
puncture.
Having constructed a triangulation as above, it is easy to replace it by
another triangulation in which each triangle is the image under it of a
non-Euclidean triangle in U. Let
(P; vi, • • • ,v)
be the signature of G with respect to U. Let us assume that in the above
triangulation we have ci j-simplices (j = 0,1,2). Let Mk, flu, yk be the three
angles of the kth triangle, k = 1, , c 2 . Then
C2
Area(UfG) = — yk)
k= 1
co
= nc 2 — E bk,
k= 1
where bk = sum of the angles at the kth vertex.

Now bk = 27r, if the kth vertex is an unramified point,

= 27r/v, if the kth vertex is a point of finite ramifi cation number v, and
= O. if the kth vertex is an infinite ramification point.
Hence
E = 27r(c 0 - n) + E 20k .
k= 1 k=1
Thus we see that
1
Area(U/G),F 27r( c 2 - co) + 127r E (1 - -).
Since each edge in the triangulation appears in exactly two triangles, we have
3c2 = 2c 1 ,
and hence (using the fact that for a compact surface of genus p, c, - c + c, =
2 - 2p)
Area(U/G) = 27r(2p - 2 +(1 - —1 )). 0
k=1 Vk
Corollary. Let G be a group of conformal automorphisms of a Riemann surface

D. If D is simply connected and G operates discontinuously on D, it is possible
to define the characteristic x of G with respect to D. Furthermore:
x <Of and only i f D Cu {oo},
z = 0 if and only if D C, and
x > 0 if and only if D A.
IV.9.12. Theorem. Let M be a Riemann surface and Ix 1,x 2 , .} a discrete

sequence on M. To each point xk we assign the symbol v k which is an integer 2
or co. If M = C u tool we exclude two cases:
j. {x 5 ,x 2 , .} consists of one point and v o oo, and
{x 1 ,x2 , ..} consists of two points and v o v 2 .
Let M' = M - fxkl, M" = M\U„ tx kl. Then there exists a simply
connected Riemann surface It-1, a Kleinian group G of self mappings of fa
such that
a. It-1/G M', 2i71,/G M", where ft-4G is lt-4 with the fixed points of the
elliptic elements of G deleted, and
b. the natural projection n:Ii71 M' is unramified except over the points x k
with v k < oo where bk(2)= v, - 1 for all 7t -1 ({x k }).
Further, G is uniquely determined up to conjugation in the full group of
automorphisms of 117. 1. The conformality type of ;VI is uniquely determined
by the characteristic of the data: that is, by the genus p of M and the sequence
220 IV UniCormi7ation
of integers v 1 .v, . 1. (If we set x = 2p — 2 + (1 — 1 '1,1). then

x < 0 if and only if M- C u fx}.
= 0 if and only if At E, and
x > 0 if and only if U.)
PROOF. Let fr i(M") = n i (M",b) be the fundamental group of M" with base
point b e M". Let [or ] denote the homotopy equivalence class of the closed
loop a on M" beginning at b. Let 4 denote a closed curve beginning at b
extending to a point x near xk, (by x being near to x, we mean that a closed
disc Dk around xk that contains x and does not contain any xl with 1 k)
winding around xk exactly y times in Dk , and then returning from x to 1,
along the original path.
Let ro be the smallest subgroup of n i(M") containing ", [41; vk < Lc}
and let F be the smallest normal subgroup of rr i(M") containing F. Observe
that for any k, [4] r for le Z with 0 < 1 < vk • The normal subgroup F
of tr j (M") defines, of course, an unbounded, unrarnified. regular (Galois)
covering (Si",fr) of M". We recall the (familiar) topological construction
of (.1.4".7r). Consider the set (6 of curves on M" beginning, at b. Two such
curves a, /3 are called equivalent ( ) provided both have the same end point
and [4 -1 ] e F. The surface ,1-4" is defined as (6i —, and the mapping it
sends a curve a into its end point. Choose g e SY" such that n(6) = b. 1 hen
r 1 (1t71",E). A closed curve a on M" beginning at b lifts to a closed curve
"i on M" beginning at i; if and only if x e F. The topology and complex
structure of "6/ — are defined so that the natural projection it:/-.'
is holomorphic
Choose a point xk with yk < x. Let Dk be a small deleted disc around X.
Consider a connected component bk of IC '(D„). Choose a point g e bk . We
may assume that :)7.- corresponds to a curve c from b to x e A,. Let d be a closed
loop around xk beginning and ending at x. Then tr(edv)= x, and [cdl,
= 0, , yk — 1, represent vk distinct points in the same component of
IT '(D,‘). Thus it ID,, is at least v,,-to-one. Since any closed path in Dk is homo-
topic to d' for some y, it is not too hard to see that by choosing Dk sufficiently
small is precisely v,,-to-one. In particular, the lift of as; consists of a
path from i? to a point 5c' with it() near x,, and then a homotopically non-
trivial loop beginning and ending at g, and finally a path from g back to g
(the original path in reverse direction). We want to show next that we can
fill in a puncture in /3k over xk .
Let G be the covering group of it; that is, G is the group of conformal
automorphisms g of 1-l;f" such that it o g = 7r. Since V is a normal subgroup
of It i(M"), G .1- tr,(M")/r, and 14 "/G M" (and G is transitive and acts
fixed point freely on /I-4"). Let G be the Fuchsian equivalent of G with respect
to gr. We assume that 6 acts on the upper half plane U (the cases where 0
acts on the plane or the sphere are left to the reader). Let
p:U i./1" and p*:'6 G
be the holomorphic covering map and the associated homornorphism of

IV.9.3. Then U/(Kernel 1)*) Si" and U/G. M". Every "puncture" xk on
M" with vk < cc is determined by a parabolic element of d by Lemma 1 V.9.6.
Recall the exact sequence
1 (Kernel p*)464G— ■ { 1}.
We may assume that the half plane U 1 = Iz e C; Im z > 11 gets mapped by
it o p onto the deleted neighborhood Dk of the puncture xk , and that the
corresponding parabolic subgroup of G is generated by z + 1. The
intersection of the subgtOup with the kernel .of p* is a cyclic subgroup. We
claim that it must be the cyclic subgroup generated by z + vk . It is clear
that p(U 1 ) is a component Bk of i( '(D1 ). Since p(U 1 ) is conformally equiv-
alent taU 1 modulo a parabolic subgroup, Dk is indeed a punctured disc.
Let Al be Si" together with all the punctures on the punctured discs 5„
corresponding to the punctured discs D,, corresponding to the punctures xk
with v„ <cc. We show now that Ai - is simply connected. Let be a closed
path on Si. We must show that is homotopic to a point. It clearly involves
no loss of generality to assume that begins at b and that 1. is actually a
closed path in Now a = 7r(5) is a closed path on M" beginning at h,
and La] E ï. Thus it suffices to show that for every closed path x on M"
that begins at b with [x] e F, the lift of a beginning at E can be contracted
to a point on Al. Now I' is the subgroup of rc,(M") generated by {;'Toy -i }
with y e it i(M"). Thus it suffices to show that every generator xk of To lifts
to a curve Eik in 11-4." that is contractible n Si. But this is entirely obvious.
The elements of G trivially extend to be conformal self maps of the simply
connected Riemann surface Al From now on we may assume that Si is
either the sphere, plane, or upper half plane and that G is a Kleinian group.
Thus the stabilizer of each puncture is a cyclic subgroup of finite order.
It remains to verify uniqueness. Let G and G 1 be two groups of conformal
mappings of the same simply connected Riemann surface U with canonical
projections it and 7r 1 onto the same Riemann surface M such that for each
C M, i(x), =IlG,.-1,.r then there exists a conformal mapping A; U
U such that
commutes. Let
M' = Ix e M; .(x) I = 1 }
= Ix e M; i ool = 11.
Let U' = ir-1(M) and LP, = 7r1-1 (M). Choose g e U', e such that
n(g) = niCg = b e M'. Let r = ir*(iri(U',E)) and ri= ri(ri(triSi)). It is
quite easy to see that F1 F (and hence F l = F). From this it follows that
it and ir i are equivalent coverings. El
Remark. The above theorems also establish the existence of finite Kleinian
groups.
EXERCISE
Prove that the theorem is not true for the two excluded cases.
IV. 10. Riemann—Roch: An Alternate Approach

The existence theorems of Chapters II and III were established under the
assumption that every Riemann surface is triangulable. Also, we used
differentials as a basis for constructing functions. The development in this
chapter did not require a priori knowledge that Riemann surfaces are
triangulable. In this section we show that the Riemann-Roch theorem can
be obtained in a different manner, using only results of this chapter. This
shows, among other things, that Chapter II can be completely dispensed
with and the proof of the Riemann-Roch theorem needs a lot less machinery
than was used to establish it in Chapter 111. However, the proof in this
section is much more ad-hoc than the one in 111.4.
IV.10.1. Let M be a compact Riemann surface of genus g. We have seen
(Remark 11.5.5) that the existence of meromorphic functions on M implies
the triangulability of M and thus Proposition 11.5.4. Clearly the Riemann-
Hurwitz relation (Theorem 1.2.7) required only the triangulability of compact
surfaces. (The knowledge how to compute the Euler characteristic was, of
course, also required. Note that the fact that the zeroth and second Betti
numbers for a compact surface agree follows, at once,- from any of the
usual duality theorems in algebraic topology.) Furthermore, the second
proof of Riemann-Hurwitz (111.4.12) can be turned around to establish
the following
Proposition. Let D be a q-canonical divisor on M, then

deg D = q(2g — 2).
PROOF. For q = 0, the result follows by Proposition 1.1.6. If oh 0 0 and
(02 0 0 are two g-differentials, then co 1/co 2 is a meromorphic function and
thus
0 = deg(co 1 /co 2) = deg(co i ) — deg(co 2).
Thus it suffices to establish the proposition for a single non-zero g-differential.
Let f be a non-constant meromorphic function on M. Then (df) is a mero-
morphic g-differential, and
deg((df )q) = q deg(df ).
1V.10. Riemann—Roch: An Alternate Approach 22 3
Hence, we must only show that

deg(df) = 2g - 2.
Recall that for f(P) 0 co
ordpdf b f (P), (10.1.1)
and if f(P) = cc, then
ordp df = ordpf - 1. (10.1.2)
By following f by a Mfibius transformation, we may assume f is unramified
over co, (Assume deg f IL Choose w, e C- such that card{ f (w 1 )} = n.
Replace f by
1
For such an f we have from (10.1.1) and (10.1.2)

deg(df ) = B - 2n.
Using Riemann -Hurwitz with y = 0 (Theorem 1.2.7), the result follows.
IV.19.2. We now prove one-half of the Riemann-Roch theorem in the
following
Lemma. Let D e Div(M), then

0 -1 ) deg D - g + 1.
PROOF. Write
D
with cr.; > 0, > 0.
QIPQ11 • • • Vs'
The dimension (over R) of the space H of harmonic functions on M with
"poles" of order cc.; at P1 is precisely
E + i)
2( J=
by Theorem IV.3.11. Not all the functions u e H have single valued harmonic
conjugates. Let c; be a small circle around P. Notice that
ICI *du = 0, j= 1, . , r, all u e H.

(To see this last equality, recall that the singularity of u at P.; is of the form
Re z' or Im z - m, with 1 < m < ai. Thus the meromorphic differential
du + i*du has no residues.) A necessary and sufficient condition for u to
have a harmonic conjugate is that
f. *du = 0
224 Iv Uniformization
for all closed curves a on M. Since Ii i(M) is generated by 2g elements, the

dimension over of the space of harmonic functions on M with "poles"
of orders < ai at Pi which have harmonic conjugates is
Ecxj + 1 — g].
2[ i =
Thus the dimension over C of the space of meromorphic functions on M
with poles of order <al at Pi is
ai + 1— g.
For such a function to ilelong to L(D'). it must vanish at Oi of order >fli.

This imposes at most E.3,=,,6, linear conditions. Hence
sj + 1— g
J=1
= deg D + 1 — g.
IV.10.3. We now establish the R iernman-R och theorem in t he form of

the following
Theorem. For D e Div(M),

r(D 1 ) = deg D — g + 1 + r(DZ'),
where Z is any canonical divisor on M.
PRooF. We break up the argument into a series of steps.
(1) If deg D < 0, then r(D - i) = O. This is Proposition 111.4.5.
(2) For all divisors D, r(D') deg D + 1 — g. This is the content of
Lemma IV.10.2.
(3) For Po e M, r(D -1 P(T 1 ) r(D 1) + 1. Write
D = fl ro(P).
Pem
Say fi and f2 e L(D - 1 )\L(D - 1 ), then

ordp, fi = — 1 D(Po) — 1 = 1u (j = 1,2).
Let z be a local coordinate vanishing at P o , then
fj(z)= E bi,„ 0 0 (j = 1,2).

n=n
Thus fi — (bi.,/b2.)f2 e L(D - 1 ), and (3) has been established.

IV.10. Riemann—Roch: An Alternate Approach 225
(4) Let Po e M, and assume r(D'Pc,- 1 ) = r(D- 1 ) + E and r(DZ') --

r(DZ -1 P0) + . Then 0 < E < 1.
Assume for contradiction & = 1 = t' (by (3) no other possibilities exist). let
Z = (1), with x an abelian differential on M. We have assumed the existence
of functions
e L(D' 1 )\L(D - i),
f2 e L(DZ -1 )\,L(DZ - 'Po).
Thus
(PDP0 1 and (fi)D 1,
and .--
(f2)ZD' 1 and (f2)ZD'PV 1.
Now
(A)D = B/P c, with B 1 and 2 B(P0)
and
(f2 2 )P I = C with C 1 and 7.c(P0) = O.
Combining the last two equalities, we get
(f1 f2) = BC/P o,
or J., Fa is an abelian differential holomorphic except at P o (BC > 1) with a
simple pole at P o (2 &-t(P0) = 0). This contradiction (of Proposition 11.5.4)
establishes (4).
Definition. 9(D) = r(D') — deg D — r(DZ').
(5) For all Po e M, (p(DP0) _5. 9(D).
We expand
OD!' 0) = r(D'P(7, 1 ) — deg(DP0) — r(DP0Z - 1 )
= r(D- 1 ) + E — deg D — 1— r(DZ') +
= 9(D) + e + — 1 OD).
(6) (p(D) 1 — g.
Choose k e Z large so that
deg(ZD'PV`) <
where P o e M is arbitrary. By (5) and (1)
9(D) q(DP) = r(D- P,r; k) — deg(DPt).
Hence, from (2) we get (6).
(7) 'p(D) 1 — g.
Choose k large so that deg(D/Pt) < O. Then by the argument which is
established in (5) and (1),
p(D) OD/Pt) = — deg(D/n) — r(D/PtZ).
We shall now use (2) and Proposition 1V.10.1 to obtain

r(1)1 Pko Z) deg(PtZ. 'D) + 1 — g
deg(It/D) + (2g — 2) + 1 — g
= dog(PD) — 1 + g,
establishing (7).
The Riemann-Roch theorem follows from (6) and (7). D
Remark. The above is certainly a shorter and more elegant proof of the
Riemann-Roch theorem than the one in 111.4. The earlier proof was, in our
opinion, more transparent than this one.
The reader should now re-establish (using the Riemann-Roch theorem)

the following:
(1) The dimension of the spec: of holomorphic abelian differentials is g.
(2) The dimension of the space of harmonic differentials is 2g.
(3) Let x i, , x„ be n distinct points of M and (c,, . . . ,c„) e C". A nec-
essary and sufficient condition that there exist an abelian differential a), with
a) regular on M \ {x i , ... ,x„1,
ordxi co = —1, Res„ = ci
is that
c. = o
i= I
(4) Let x t , , n 1 distinct points on M. Let zi be a local coordi-
nate vanishing at xi, and let
,a;,_
be complex numbers with ki —1, ki E Z, j = 1, . . . , n. If Erj= ai. _ = 0,
then there exists a meromorphic differential a) regular on M \ tx„ ,x„ }
such that
.,
w(z3) = ( E a.,,,.z;)dz i, j = 1, . . . , n.
v= k,
Furthermore, co is unique modulo differentials of the first kind.
IV. 11. Algebraic Function Fields in One Variable

In this section, we explore the algebraic nature of compact Riemann surfaces.
We show that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of
conformal equivalence classes of compact Riemann surfaces and the set of
birational equivalence classes of algebraic function fields in one variable.
We determine the structure of the field of meromorphic functions on com-
pact surfaces and describe all valuations on these fields.
IV.I I. Algebraic Function Fields in One Variable 227
1V.11.1. In 111.9 and 1V.4, we briefly considered the space of germs of

holomorphic functions. We gave a topology and complex structure to the
set . //Olt of germs of meromorphic functions over a Riemann surface M.
Let us change our point of view slightly. The elements of . 11(M) will now
merely represent convergent Laurent series with finitely many "negative
terms". Let us assume M=Cu{ oo }. Thus we are dealing only with con-
vergent series f of two forms
E a(z — .7 0), Zo E C, aN 0 0, (11.1.1)

n=N
Or
(e•
N 4-1 )n , aN O. (11.1.2)
n=
Recall the projection and evaluation functions introduced earlier. For f

given by (11.1.1), proj f = :,); while for f defined by (11.1.2), proj f =
Also, eval f = .:;o if N < O, eval f = ac, if N = 0, and eval f = 0 if N > O.
IV.11.2. Let us take a component F of . //IC which is "spread"

over a simply connected domain Dc Cu ; that is,
proj:
is surjective and every curve c in D can be lifted to F. Thus every germ in
can be continued analytically over D and the Monodromy theorem
shows that ..-9; is determined by a merornorphic function on D; that is,
proj is conformal and there exists an F e .f(D) such that for all : e D,
proj' z is the germ of the function F at :.
Let us now assume that D = d* is the punctured disc { 0 < Izi < 1 } . We
keep all the other assumptions on -.9-7 (surjectivity of proj and path lifting
property). Let us take an element f e F. It is represented by a convergent
series of the form (11.1.1) with 0 < izol < 1. (Without loss of generality we
assume izo i = z 0—this can be achieved by a rotation.) Since analytic conti-
nuation is possible over all paths, we may continue f along a generator c of
xi (d*) which we take to be the curve :0e, 0 < 0 < 2n. There are now
two possibilities: continuation of f along el' (k e Z) never returns to the
original f (in which case the singularity of Jr. at 0 is algebraically essential)
or there is a smallest positive k such that continuation of f around ck leads
back to the original function element f.
In this latter case, we consider a k-sheeted unramified covering of 4* by
4* given by the map ck. We define a function F on 4* as follows:
If Co e d*, we join 4,1k to 'c:c, by a smooth curve y in 4* and set F ) to be the
( o
evaluation of the germ obtained by continuing f along p(y). It is clear that

F is a locally well defined meromorphic function. We must show it is globally
well defined. Let y I be another path joining ze to C o . Then p(yyr 1 ) is homo-
topic to a power of c" and hence continuation off along this path leads back
to f. The function F is now represented by a convergent Laurent series
F( ) = E o<ici < E, e small.
If there are infinitely many negative integers n with a„ 0, then .97 has an
essential analytic singularity at O. Let us assume that the resulting F is
meromorphic.
Flo= E a„7, 0< < e, aN 0 0. (11.2.1)

n
We can now represent Sr- by a single series (known as a Puiseaux series)

of the form
./(:)= E
n= N
k. 01.2.2)
Without loss of generality we assume that the E appearing in (11.2.1) is 1.

How does f of (11.2.2) determine .-37- ? In a neighborhood of each point
:1E ,I*, -.:" yields k distinct analytic functions. Substituting these into f
gives k different function elements lying over z i . These function elements
determine all the germs in proj -l fz i l. These germs also define a neighbor-
hood of the Puiseaux series (11.2.2) in the expanded space . ii* (consisting
of Laurent and Puiseaux series).
Clearly we can extend the domains of the functions proj and eval to
include such Puiseaux series. We must be a little bit more careful than in
dealing with Laurent series only. We must introduce an equivalence relation
among Puiseaux series. The same germs in a neighborhood off would be
produced by the series
CO
E
n=N
anEn Znik
with s E C and Ek = 1. Two such series will henceforth be identified.

Note that proj and eval are still meromorphic functions on „if* and that
a deleted neighborhood of a Puiseaux series consists only of Laurent series.
We will now formally review all that we have done.
IV.11.3. Let .A* be the collection of convergent Puiseaux series co of the
form
CO
E ajz — zorm, aN 0, zo e C, (11.3.1)

n=N
( inlk
E a„ - , aN O. (11.3.2)
n=N Z)
We exclude the constant series (a) = a0) from ,-/1*. In the above, k E Z, k > 1.
If k> 1 we assume that there exists an n> 0 with a„ 0 and n/k Z (this
can always be achieved), and that k has been chosen as small as possible
with this property. We call such a k the ramification index of co, ram co.
IV.11. Algebraic Function Fields in One Variable 1 29
The space di* comes equipped with two functions (into C {co}):
..//* P" ■ C u{x}
eval
Cuf }
if co is given by (11.3.1),
proj co = 1:0
ao- co if co is given by (11.3.2),
oo if N < 0,
eval 0) —{tio if N =-. 0,
0 if N > O.
Before proceeding, we must introduce an equivalence relation on de. We
shall say that o 0 . //* is equivalent to (33 e de (given by (11.3.1) or (11.3.2)
with coefficients rin, Y o, provided
proj = proj Co, ram co = ram Co = k,
and there exists an E E C with ek = 1 such that
= n = N, N + 1, . .
From now on ../t* will stand for the previously defined object with the same
symbol modulo this equivalence relation. Note that ram, proj, and even
eval are well defined on de (the new di* !).
We topologize de as follows. Let co c, be given by (11.3.1). Assume that
the series coverges for If — Zol < a. Let 0 < r < a. We define a neighborhood
U(coo ,r) of coo . Let zi e C with 0 < Iz i — zol < r. The "multivalued" function
(Z — z 0) 1 3' determines k single valued analytic functions converging in
{lz — z i I < a — r}—thus k distinct Taylor series in (z — z 1 ). Substituting
these Taylor series into (11.3.1) we obtain k convergent Laurent series. The
collection of all such Laurent series (for all z 1 with 0 <1z, — zo l < r) plus
the original w o forms the neighborhood U(coo ,r) of coo . Next assume that
coo is given by (11.3.2) where the series converges for Izi > 1/e. Choose, again,
O < r < E. For Iz i l > 1/r, the "multivalued" function z -13` determines k
convergent Taylor series in (z — z 1 ) with radius of convergence tir — Va.
Substitute these functions into (11.3.2) and proceed as before.
We see that with this "topology" (we will show next that the sets we have
introduced do form a basis for a topology), a deleted neighborhood of any
point coo E de can be chosen to consist only of (.0 E .,/i * with proj w 0 00,
eval ai co, and ram w = 1.
Let CO E U(ai 1 ,r 1 ) n U(w 2 ,r2). Assume that proj w = zo, proj w 1 = z 1 , and
proj co 2 = z2 all belong to C, and that co is given by (11.3.1). We must find
an r> 0 such that U(ca,r) c U(ah,r,) n U(w 2 ,r2). Let us first assume that
w Thus ram w ----- I. Let s, he the radii of convergence of w. o.) ; (j = 1,2).

Then 0 lz; — :01 < ri and Ci — rj (% = 1,2). Choose r > 0 such that
— zol < r; flz — z,1<r i l n I — : 2 1 < r2 1. Then L:(w,r) c 1.,r(w 1 ,r 1 ) n
U(w,.r2).
We are then left with the case that co = w = w 2 . Here we merely choose
r = min(r1 ,r2). If proj w or proj w = co (j 1,2), analogous arguments
apply. Hence, the sets U(o),r) are a basis for the topology.
The topology is actually Hausdorff. Let wi e .4* with co l w 2 . If
proj w, proj (0 2 , it is trivial to produce neighborhoods li(co l .r,) and
U(co 2 ,r2) such that ii(w,,r,) n 1.1(co 2 ,r,) is empty. So we assume zo =
proj w, = proj w 2 E C. If ram N I = 1 = ram (0 2 , then the wi determine
meromorphic functions f; in some disk of radius r>0 about z o . Since
fi f2 (otherwise (0 1 = 0) 2), U(o) 1 r) n LT Ico 2,0= 0. (Otherwise, choose (0
in the intersection anti obtain that in some open subset of lz — z o l < r both
f, and f2 agree with the function defined by (.0.) We are left to consider the
case ram (0 1 > 1. Let 0, be given by (11.3.1), and (0 2 similarly with coefficients
= zo. 17. We have seen that w i determines a single valued function
F. on a punctured disc which covers the given punctured disk k(k) times.
If F 1 * F,, then clearly we can choose non-intersecting neighborhoods of
(0 1 and (0 2 by the above method. So let us assume that F 1 = F2. Since
w 1 w2 we must have ram w, o ram w,. It is now easy once again to
choose non-intersecting neighborhoods of w, and w 2 . (The case with
proj w 1 E C u {CO} is treated similarly.)
We have shown that 4* is a Hausdorff space. Now we introduce local
coordinates in 4*. Let w be given by (11.3.1) we introduce a local coordinate
t vanishing at w by
(z — z o) = tram w .
If w is given by (11.3.2), t is defined by

z- t ram a) .
It is clear that we have introduced a conformal structure on ,,f1*• Proj and

eval are meromorphic functions in 4* (note that proj is no longer locally
univalent.) Each component of 4* is a Riemann surface known as an
analytic configuration.
An analytic configuration S is determined by a single w o E S. Look at
all (0 E S with ram w -- 1. Two points in 4* belong to the same component S
if and only if they can be joined by a curve in 4*. If the initial and terminal
points of the curve are unramified, we may assume that the entire curve
consists of unramified points. We thus see that an analytic configuration S
can be described as follows:
1. Take a fixed germ (0 0 of a meromorphic function (= Laurent series).
2. Continue this germ ()Jo in all possible ways to obtain a Riemann surface
So
3. Take the closure S of So in 4*.
IV. !. Algebraic Function Fields in One Variable 231
EXERCISE
Let f be a "multivalued merornorphic function". Then f -1 (the inverse function) is

again a "multivalued rneromorphic function". Show that the map f f defines a " 1
conformal involution on JP'. lise this fact to prove that the analytic configuration of a
function and its inverse are conformally equivalent.
IV.11.4. Theorem. Let S be an analytic configuration. The Riemann surface

S is compact if and only if there exists an irreducible polynomial P in two vari-
ables such that P(proj a), a)) = 0, all co E S.
PROOF. 'Ass urne S is a cbmpact analytic configuration. Let . , Co,. be
the collection of points with either proj 5i = oo or ram (.5; > 1. (Since f =
proj is a meromorphic function on the compact Riemann surface S, f is a
finite sheeted covering. The points CO E S with ram a) > 1 correspond to
points co with bf (co)> O.) Let n be the degree of the function proj. Let zi =
proj (Jrj and call z 1 , , z,. (co is one of these points) the excluded points.
,
If 7.0 e C is a non-excluded point, then there exist n distinct function elements

oh, • • • , COn E S with proj a); zo . Form the elementary symmetric functions
a0 , , a„ of w 1 ,. , con. Note that a); is a Laurent series in (z — z 0). Thus
a0(:) = 1
a t (z.) = — co i (z) — • • — co.(z)
a2 (z) = (01(492(z) + co1(403(z) +••+ 0),,-1(40.(z)
= E como.) ;(z)
‘,/:;
a(z) = (— E (0„,(440,,2(z) ••• co„„(z)
re, nv = 1
n i < n2 <• • •<nv
an(z) (— 1)"co i (z) • • • co„(z).

The functions a l, , a„ are meromorphic functions on C u {x}\ fz i ,...,z,}.
These functions are independent of the point z o . Near the excluded point
z,, they grow like a power of z — z Thus the functions a,, are rational
functions of z ( e C(z) = ./f(C u {co})). Clearly at the non-excluded points
the functions elements a) satisfy the equation
P(z,w) = + a i(z)wn - + • • + a„(z) =0. (11.4.1)
Equation (11.4.1) may be viewed as an equation over C(z) for the elements
CO E S, or as an equation satisfied by two meromorphic functions z = proj,
w = eval on S. Thus (11.4.1) also holds at the excluded points. We claim that
every Puiseaux series a) that satisfies (11.4.1) is a point of S. Over every non-
excluded point, we have exhibited n solutions of (11.4.1). These are all the
solutions over such points, since the equation (11.4.1) has only n formal
13 2 IV Uniformization
(not necessarily convergent) power or Puiseaux series solutions at every

point. Let z; be an excluded point. Over z„, we have certain series, say
Let n; = ram e5i. Then XI,: n; = n and recall that such equi-
valence classes of Puiseaux series represent n; distinct formal series.
We postpone the proof of the irreducibility of P until after we have
established the converse. To establish the converse, let P(z,w) be an irreducible
polynomial in two variables. Assume that
P(z,w) = a0(z)w + a 1 (:)w" -1 + • • + a(z)
with a, e C[z]. Let R be the discriminant of P. Then R is a polynomial in
z of lowest degree with (here p and g are polynomials) such that
ap
R =-- pP + g
est.,
Furthermore, for :0 e
R(z 0) = O P(z0 ,w) = 0 has multiple roots.
We again exclude the point and the zeros of R and the zeros of a 0 . By the
implicit function theorem, for any non-excluded z0, there are n distinct
function elements (Taylor series)
co„ . , con
such that
P(z,o);(z)) = 0. (11.4.2)
If we continue one of these function elements co; to another non-excluded
point z 1 , we get another function element (over z 1 ) that satisfies (11.4.2).
Let us start with a fixed function element, say co, (that satisfies (11.4.2))
over a non-excluded point z 0 e C. It is clear that co, can be continued along
any path that avoids excluded points. Let z, be an excluded point. Without
loss of generality we may assume that z, = 0 and that the unit disc A contains
no other excluded points. It is also obvious that continuing any function
elements co (with proj w E 4 *) around the origin will eventually lead back to
co. Thus we are in the situation discussed in IV.11.2. The Laurent series co
about zero obtained in this way clearly satisfies (11.4.2). By including all
the functions elements over the excluded points obtained in the above man-
ner, we get a compact Riemann surface S (since it is a finite sheeted covering
of C u {po}). The elements of S satisfy a polynomial equation Pi (z,w) =
by the first part of the theorem. Since they also satisfy the irreducible equation
P(z,w)= 0, P must divide P, and we have shown that all solutions of (11.4.2)
are in S. The above also shows that the equation (11.4.1) is irreducible. Write
(11.4.1) as
p= pc;r 5 (11.4.3)
with pi irreducible and Pk 0 Pi for k j. Note that P is not a power of an
irreducible polynomial, since the n function elements lying over most points
are distinct. Furthermore, each pi in (11.4.3) clearly determines a compact
Riemann surface S; c S. Thus, S. = S and j = 1.
1V.11. Algebraic Function Fields in One Variable 233
Definition. We shall say that S is the analytic configuration corresponding

to the irreducible polynomial P.
Corollary (of Proof). For every irreducible polynomial P, there is an analytic
configuration corresponding to P.
IV.11.5. Theorem. Let M be any Riemann surface. Let w, z E ir(M)\C. There
exists a canonical holomorphic mapping
ço: M -÷ di*
such that for all P e M,
w(P) = eval(cp(P)),
z(P) prokp(P1).
PRooF. Let t be a local coordinate vanishing at P. Without loss of generality
we may assume that for some n e 2, n > 1,
z(t) = r" or z(t) = z(P) + t", near P. (11.5.1)
If
w(o= E
then we set tp(P) to be either
xiz - J " or E 1,1z —
depending on which case applied in (11.5.1). 0

IV.11.6. Proposition. If M is compact and w, z e .f(M)\0, then there exists
a polynomial P such that P(z,w) O.
PROOF. Let (p be the map of the previous theorem. Since the image of tp
is a compact component of .*(C u { xp}), z, w satisfy an algebraic equation
by Theorem IV.11.4. 0
Remark. The mapping 4, of Theorem IV.11.5 is one-to-one if, for example,
the pair z, w separate points on M. The converse is not true. We begin with a
Definition. We say that z, w E X(M)\C form a primitive pair provided the
map cp of Theorem IV. 11.5 is one-to-one.
IV.11.7. Proposition. If M is a compact Riemann surface and z E JC(MK,
then there exists w E ,r(M)\C such that z, w form a primitive pair.
PROOF. Let n = deg z. Choose a e C such that z -1 (a) consists of n distinct
points x l , , x„. By the Riemann inequality, there exists a non-constant
meromorphic function wi on M such that
w; has a pole of order v; 1 at xi, and
w; is holomorphic on Mqx;}.
Choo;:e positive inte.,7.ers k t , k„ such that

< k2v2 < • • <
and set
W= +••+
Then w E ii-(111) and the polar divisor of w is xki'" • • xk„^v"• Let tp be the
mapping of Theorem IV.11.5 determined by z and w. We obtain this way
n function elements (9 1 , . , con with proj co; = a. These elements are distinct
since the Laurent series for the different co; have different order poles at
the point z = a. Let S = Image cp. Then
m 4 s22:24 Cutxi.
Since deg proj (r) = n -= deg deg proj, and

deg proj q, (deg prop (deg (p),
we conclude that deg (p = 1.
IV.11.8. Corollary. If M is a compact Riemann surface and z E .(M)\C, then
there exists an irreducible polynomial P in two variables z and w such that M
is conformally equivalent to the analytic configuration corresponding to P
with z being the prof function.
IV.11.9. Proposition. Let M be a compact Riemann surface and z, w a primitive
pair. Assume n = deg z, m = deg w. Let P be an irreducible polynomial satis-
fied by the pair z, w. Then n = deg P, and m = degz P.
PROOF.We have
P(z,w)= 0.
Let x o E M be such that z -1 (w(x 0)) consists of precisely n points. Thus the
degree of P in w is precisely n. 0
IV.11.10. Proposition. Let M be a compact Riemann surface and z, w a primi-

tive pair. Assume deg z = n. Let f E Y(M). Then there exist rational func-
tions = 0, , n — 1, such that
n—
(11.10.1)
i=o
PROOF. Let ç E C be such that z -1 (C) consists of n distinct points x 1 . .....'t,,
and such that w(x ,), ,w(x„) consists of n distinct complex values (é cc).
Let ao( ), , a„_ i() be the unique solutions of the linear system
n—1
fiXk) = E
;=o
aiMw(xk)i, k = 1, . , n.
Note that
det W.
j = 0, , n — 1,
ajg) = det W'
IV.11. Algebraic Function Fields in One Variable 235
where
w(x ••
w(x•,) •••
w(x) w(x„r 1
is the Vandermonde determ*nant (and thus det W = 11„ i (w(.x;)— w(xk))
and 1,17; is the matrix obtained by substituting the column
for the (j + 1)-st column of W. The functions ai(C) are independent of the
ordering of the x1. They are defined except for finitely many e C. It is clear
that thy extend to nterornorphic functions of :- -thus rational functions.
Equation (11.10.1) holds now for all but a finite number of points. Hence,
everywhere by continuity.
Corollary. If 11 is a compact suffice and z , w is a primitire pair as above,
satisfying the irreducible equation P, then
11M) C(rgivl/P(Z.Iv).
PROOF. The last equality means that f(M) is isomorphic (as a field) to an
algebraic extension of the field of rational functions. The isomorphism is

the obvious one given by the previous proposition. Iff e C(z)[w], then clearly
f=
o
Thus f defines an element of ,if(m). Since P(z,w) goes to the zero element,
of AIM), this mapping factors to a mapping from C(z)[w] into AIM). This
mapping is surjective by the proposition, and injective because the domain
is a field and the mapping is non-trivial. (:3
IV.11.11. Example. Consider a hyperelliptic surface M of genus g > 0. Let
z E X(M) with deg z = 2. We have seen (1 11.7) that z has 2g + 2 branch
points. Now Proposition IV.11.7 shows that there exists a w such that the
pair z and w are primitive. By Proposition IV.11.6, z and w satisfy a poly-
nomial equation
w2 — 2aw + c = 0,
where a, c E C(Z). Completing the square in the usual manner, we rewrite
the above as
(w — a)2 + c — a2 = 0.
We make now a birational transformation
(w — a) = w,, z = z1,
and obtain
WI2 = a2 — c.
Now a2 — e e C(:) and thus can bc written as
a2 - C b2 n (: - 0,
1=1
with distinct ei e C and b E C(z). We now define one more birational
transformation
11,7, =
b
and obtain the equation (dropping the subscript 2)
w2 - 1-1 (:: -
j= 1
Since all our birational transformations kept = fixed, the complex numbers
ej can, of course, be identified. They are the finite branch values of Thus
r = 2g +1 f J.:, is a branch value, and r 2g + 2 if Y.: is not a branch value.
We have now reproven Proposition 111.7.4 without the use of "paste
and scissors".
IV.11.12. Definition. Let K be a field. By a (discrete) valuation (of rank 1)

v on K, we mean a surjective homomorphism
v:K* Z
(here K* is the multiplicative group of non-zero elements of K, and Z is the
additive group of integers), such that
v(f + g) min {v( f),v(g)}, f, g E K*. (11.12.1)
Remark. By setting v(0) = + co, we see that for all f, g E K

v( fg)= v(f) + v(g),
and that (11.12.1) holds provided we use the usual conventions regarding
+ CO.
IV.11.13. Lemma. If y is a valuation on the field K, then for f and g E K

v(f + g) = min { v(f ),v(g)}
provided v(f) & v(g).
PROOF. We may, without loss of generality, assume f 0 g and v(f) < v(g).
Note that v(1) = 0 = v(— 1). Since for every odd integer n, we have
v(1) --= v(1") = nv(1),
and
v(— 1) = v((— 1 ) ) = ny( —1).
IV.11. Algebraic Function Fields in One Variable 237
Also, u( f)= v(—f ) for all f e K since

vI —f) = 4 -1 ) + kn.
Now we compute
v(f) = v(f + g — g) min {v( f + g),v(— g)}
min {mint e(f),v(g)},u(g)} = min tr(f),v(g)} = v( f).
Hence all the inequalities must be equalities, and in particular
14f) = min + g).r(g)} = v(f + g).
_
IV.11.14. To classify all valuations on flM) we need the following
Lemma. Lot {P o , . .P„, he n + 1 distinct points on a compact Riemann

surface M. Then there exists an f e yaw that separates these points (f(p i)
)
f(Pk ), j k) with (df )(Pi) 0 0, cc, ] = 0, n.

PROOF. It suffices to show that for k = 0 n, there exists an fk e YON!),
such that
ft Pk) = 1,
( 44(Pk) 0 0, oc,
and
fk (Pi)= 0 = dfk (Pi), j k.
Having established the existence of the fk , we may set f = (j + 1)L. E3= 0 It

suffices to show existence of fo . Let P e M with P Pi, all j. Set
P"'
D = pi . . .
An
with me Z so large that deg D> max{g,2g — 1 } . Then
1 — g > 1,
D
and
- = deg D — g > O.
r (P
We choose ho E L(D 1 )\L(P0D - 1 ); that is,

P; • • • P! • • • P,1Po
(ho) (ho)
Thus ordpi h o ?_; 2, j = 1, . . . , n, and ord o ho = O. If ord o dh o = 0, we are

done (fo h0/h0(P 0)). Otherwise, construct h l such that
PoP • • P! PP2 ...P2
(hi) pm+1 9 4 pm+I n (h1)
238 IV liniformintion
and set
ho
fo = + h i.
ho(Po)
IV.11.15. Theorem. Let M be a compact Riemann surface. Then v is a valuation

on ir(M) if and only if there exists (a unique) x E M such that
v(f) = ordx f , all f e .Yr(M). (11.15.1)
PROOF. It is clear that (11.15.1) defines a valuation on iron, so we need only
prove the converse. Let y be given. Choose f E ..K(M) such that v( f) = 1.
Clearly f C. (IfA E C, then v(A) = nr(A"), all n e Z. Thus v().) = O.) Let r
be a rational function, then
v(r( f)) = ord o r. (11.15.2)
To establish (11.15.2), recall (that up to a non-zero constant multiple)
rf= fl of
f -- 1, ,Y ; E C,
f - 13;
atui thus.
v(r o f) = > v(f
;=o
E vcr —
j0
By Lemma IV.11.13, v(f — A) = 0 unless ). = 0, in which case v(f — =
v(f ) = 1. This establishes (11.15.2). Let 13 1 , , P. be the zeros of f listed
according to their multiplicities. Let F E It(M) be arbitrary. By Propositions
1V.11.6 and IV.11.9, F satisfies an equation
n-
F" + E ri( f)Fi = 0, with r; rational functions.
;=o
Thus, by (11.15.2)
nv(F) min tordo r; + jv(F), j = 0, , n — 1).
If v(F) <O, then ordo r; <O for some j = 0, , n — 1. Since r;(0) is a sym-
metric function of the values of F at the points P1 , , P„, we see that F
must have a pole at one of these points. Similarly, if v(F) > 0, then v(F -1 ) < 0
and F must vanish at one of these points. We conclude that v(F) = 0 when-
ever 0 0 F(P;) 0 co, j = 1, . . . , n. From now on we assume (without loss of
generality) that (P 1 , ,P} are the distinct zeros of f. (We are changing the
meaning of the symbol n.) Let h be a function holomorphic and non-zero
at P 1 ,. , P„. Further, choose an h that separates these points with dh not
zero at these points. We have v(h) = O. Consider the function
D. (h — h (p))°rdp, f
IV.11. Algebraic Function Fidds in One Variable 239
that is holomorphic and non-zero at P„ , P,„ Thus
1 = r(f ) = (ordpj f)v(h —

j=1
Since v(h — 0, there is a unique k such that
v(11 — h(P))= 1 = ordp f.
(and r(h — h(Pi)) = 0,j k). Now take an arbitrary F e Y(M), and consider
the function
FIT= (h _
so-
)j (pordp; F
whose value under y is zero. Hence
v(F) = E (ordp, F)r(h — h(/);)) = ordpk

i=
1V.11.16. Theorem. Let M and N be compact Riemann surfaces. Let

F:dr(N)— ■ Ye(M) (11.16.1)
be a 47,-algebra homomorphism (thus infective). Then there exists a unique
holonwrphic mop
F*:A N (11.16.2)
such that
(Ff)(x)= f(F*(x)), aflf e YON), all x e M. (11.16.3)
PROOF. Let x E M. Define a valuation vx on K(N) by
v(f) = ord„ Ff, fE
By Theorem IV.11.15, there exists a unique point Px e N such that
ordx Ff = vx(f)= ordF•x f, IE r(N). (11.16.4)
This defines our mapping F* of (11.16.2). We claim that F* has the property
(11.16.3). This is clear for those x with f(F*(x)) -=- 0 or oe, and is clear in
general from the following argument. Let A e C. Then by (11.16.4)
f(F*(x))= ordp,(„)(f — > 0
<4. ord x F(J. — = ordx (Ff — 4> 0
.=-(Ff)(x) = A.
We claim that F* is a continuous mapping. Let { x„} be a sequence on
M, with lim„ x„ = x. If F*x„ does not converge to F*x, then (since N is
compact) there must be a subsequence that converges to y 0 F*x. We may
assume that the entire sequence {F*x„} converges to y. Now there is an
J e (N) with f(y) = 0 and f(F*x)= 1. Thus
f(F*x„)= (Ff)(x„)— ■ (Ff)(x)= f(F*x) = 1,
and
= 0.
This contradiction establishes the continuity of F*.
We show next that F* is holoinorphic. Let x e M be arbitrary. Choose
an f E .f(N) such that f is univalent in a disc U about F*(x). Clearly Ff C.
There is thus a disc V about x such that
F*(V) c U and (Ff)(V) c f(U).
Thus F* =f1 oFf in V.

Uniqueness of F* follows from the fact that Y(N) separates points. 0
IV.11.17. The map F F-■ F* is a functor, since we have
Corolla, y 1
a. Let F:.-K(M)-- ■ 11M) be the identity, then F*:M 114 is also the identity.
b. If dr(M i ) 11: .Y((:t 2)L: A/(M 3 ) are C-algebra homomorphisms, then
(F2 o F 1 )* = F o F.
Corollary 2. If F is an isomorphism (surjective), then F* is a homeomorphism.
Since the holomorphic mapping (11.16.2) between compact Riemann

surfaces induces the homomorphism (11.16.1) between their function fields
that is defined by (11.16.3), the functor under discussion establishes an
equivalence between two categories.
CHAPTER V
Automorphisms of Compact Surfaces—
Elementary Theory
In this chapter we develop the basic results on the automorphism group of a

compact Riemann surface. continuing the study began in 111.7. Some of the
deeper results will have to await the creation of more powerful machinery.
Using quite elementary methods, we study the action of the group of
automorphisms on various spaces of differentials.
VA. Hurwitz's Theorem

Throughout this section, M is a compact Riemann surface of genus g usually
(but not always) 2, and Aut M denotes the group (under composition) of
conformal automorphisms of M.
The most important result of this section is the theorem referred to in
the title (Theorem V.1.3). We also obtain various bounds on the order of
an automorphism of a compact Riemann surface of genus 2 in terms of
the number of fixed points of the automorphism. We also generalize the
concept of hyperellipticity. The methods of proof in this section are mostly
combinatorial and involve the examining of many special cases.
V.1.1. The next result will be strengthened considerably in V.1.5.
Proposition. If 1 T e Aut M, then T has at most 2g + 2 fixed points.

PROOF. Since M is compact and the fixed point set of T is discrete, the fixed
point set is finite. Choose a PEM that is not a fixed point of T. There is a
meromorphic function f on M whose polar divisor is I" with 1 r 5 g + 1
(r = g + 1 if g 2 and P is not a Weierstrass point or g 5 1, r < g, otherwise).
242 V Automorphisms of Compact Surfaces—Elementary Theory
Consider the function h= f — fo T. Its polar divisor is Pr(T -1 P)r. The

ft:netion h thus has 2r 2g + 2 zeros. Each fixed point of T is a zero of h.
Thus T has at most 2g + 2 fixed points.
V.1.2. We assume now that g >_ 2. Let W(M) be the (finite) set of Weier-
strass points on M. Recall that W(M) consists of at least 2g + 2 points and
precisely 2g + 2 points if and only if M is hyperelliptic.
Proposition. If T e Aut M, then T(W(M))-= W(M).

PROOF. As a matter of fact the gap sequences (with respect to q-differentials,
q> 1) at P e M and at TP are the same.
We define Perrn(14'(.14)) as the permutation group of the Weierstrass

points on M.
Corollary 1. There is a homomorphism

Aut M —■ Perm( W(M)).
Furthermore, 2 is inject ire unless M is hyperelliptic, in which case Kernel A =
<J>, where J is the hyperelliptic inuulutiun.
PROOF. The existence of A follows from the proposition. If M is not hyper-
elliptic, then there are more than 2g + 2 Weierstrass points. By Proposition
V.1.1, only the identity fixes all the Weierstrass points and thus A is injective.
If M is hyperelliptic, then by Proposition 111.7.11, an element T <J>
has at most 4( <2g + 2) fixed points. Of course, J fixes all the Weierstrass
points.
Corollary 2 (Schwarz). If M is a surface of genus g > 2, then Aut M is a

finite group.
PROOF. We have produced a homomorphism of Aut M into a finite group (the
permutation group of a finite set), and the homomorphism has a finite
kernel.
V.1.3. Having seen that Aut M is a finite group, we naturally want to get
a bound on its order.
Theorem (Hurwitz). Let N be the order of Aut M, where M is compact

Riemann surface of genus g 2, then
N 84(g — 1).
PROOF. Consider (recall the discussion in 111.7.8) the holomorphic projection
(abbreviate Aut M by G)
-+ M/G.
V. t. Hurwitz's Theorem 243
We know that it is of degree N, and M/G is a compact Riemann surface of

genus y. The mapping rt is branched only at the fixed points of G and
b,c(P)= ord G p — 1, all P M.
Let /3 1 , , P. be a maximal set of inequivalent (that is, Pi 0 h(Pk ), all

h e G, all ) k) fixed points of elements of G\ (1}.
Let v; = ord G,»1. Then (using either group theory or covering space
theory) there are div
i distinct points on M equivalent under G to Pr—each
with a stability subgroup of order v; (if h takes P to Q, then GQ = hGph -1 ).
Thus the total branch nuber of it is given by
N , 1
L — (v i — 1) = N E ( i B=
,.1
The Riemann-Hurwtiz relation now reads
1
2g — 2 = N(27 — 2) + N E (i v• (1.3.1)
Note that v; > 2 and thus < 1 — 1/v; < 1. The rest of the proof consists of
an analysis of (1.3.4 It is clear (since we may assume that N > 1) that g > y.
We consider possibilities:
Case I: y 2.
In this case we obtain from (1.3.1) that
2g — 2 > 2N or N g — 1.
Case II: y = 1.
In this case (1.3.1) becomes
1
2g — 2 = N E (i - - ). (1.3.2)
If r = 0, then also g = 1 (we assumed g > 1). This is the basic fact (the left
hand side of (1.3.1) is 2) that will be used repeatedly. Thus (1.3.2) implies
2g — 2 IN or N 4(g — 1).
Case III: y = 0.
We rewrite (1.3.1) as
1
2(g — 1) = N( E (i _-_)_
vi
2 (1.3.3)
and conclude that

r> 3
(since 2(g — 1) > 0, N> 1, and (1 — 1/v;) < 1 for each j).
1f r> 5, then (1.3.1) gives

2(g — 1) or N 4(g — 1).
IN
If r = 4, then it cannot be that all the v; are equal to 2. Thus, at least one
is 3, and (1.3.3) gives
2(g — 1) N( + — 2) or N 12(g — 1).
It remains to consider the case r = 3. Without loss of generality we assume
2 v1 v2 v3. (1.3.4)
Clearly v 3 > 3 (otherwise the right hand side of (1.3.3) is negative). Further-
more, v 2 3. 11v3 7, then (1.3.3) yields
2(g — 1) + + 2) or N 84(g — 1).
If v 3 = 6 and v i — 2, then v 2 > 4 and

N 24(g — 1).
If v 3 = 6 and v l ..=L- 3 (recall (1.3.4)), then
N 5 12(g — 1).
If v 3 = 5 and v 1 — 2, then v 2 > 4 and
N 40(g — 1).
If v 3 -- 5 and v 1 > 3, then
N 15(g — 1).
If v 3 = 4, then v, > 3 and
N 24(g — 1).
This exhaustion (of cases) completes the proof.
EXERCISE
We outline below an alternate proof of Hurwitz's theorem.
(1) Represent M as U/F where U is the upper half plane and F is a fixed point free
Fuchsian group.
(2) Show that N(F)=-- normalizer of F in A ut U is Fuchsian and that A ut M N(F)/F.
(3) Use the fact that it: u/r U/N(F) is holomorphic to conclude that N(F) is of
finite type over U.
(4) Observe that
deg it = [N(r):1],
where deg it = degree of 7C, and [N(F): = the index of F in N(T).
(5) Show that
Area(U/T)
— [N(T):F].
Area(U/N(F))
V.I. Hurwitz's Theorem 245
(6) Prove that for any Fuchsian group F of finite type over U, we have
Area(U/F) H
it .
(7) Since Area(G7T) = 4n(g — 1), conclude Hurwitz's theorem.
V.1.4. To simplify the statement of results, we introduce the following

notation. For f a non-constant meromorphic function on a compact
Riemann surface M(f e Y(M)\C), let deg f be the degree of f, then (of
course)
deg f = deg D,._
where D = f '(œ ). For T e Ant M, ord T will denote the order of T and
T) the number of fixed points of T. Our next result is similar to Proposi-
tion V.1.1.
Proposition. Let f E .if(M)\ C and 1 T e Aut M. Assume that v(T)> 2 deg f.

Then f=foT and deg f is a multiple of ord T. If in addition, deg f is prime,
then ord T is prime and M/<T>:45 C u {X }.
PROOF. Consider h=f—fo T. If h C, then deg h 5 2 deg f — r, where

0 < r deg f and r is the number of poles of f fixed by T. Each fixed point
of T that is not a pole off is a zero of h. Thus, h has v(T) — r> 2 deg f — r
zeros. This contradiction shows that h e C, and since T fixes points which
are not poles of f, h = O. Thus, f projects to a well-defined function f on
M /<T>. In particular,
deg f = (deg j)(ord T).
If deg f is prime, then deg je = 1 and thus Al /<T>1-
15 Cu {co}. CI
Remark. The fact that f is invariant under T shows that T has finite order.
V.1.5. In this section, M is a compact surface of genus g 2.
Proposition. For 1 Te Aut M,

2g
V(T) 2+ (1.5.1)
ord T — l •
PROOF. Apply the Riemann-Hurwitz relation to the natural projection
M Mi<T>. If the range has genus 7, then
ord T — I
(2g — 2) = (ord T)(27 — 2) + E v(Ti). (1.5.2)
1= 1
We must explain the evaluation of the total branch number B of the pro-
jection appearing in the above formula. Clearly B is the weighted sum of
the fixed points of <T>; each fixed point appearing one less time than the
order of its stability subgroup. This is exactly the contribution for B in
246 V Automorphisms of Compact Surfaces— Elementary Theory
(1.5.2). We use now the obvious inequality v(T) v(Ti),j = 1, , ord T — 1,

and conclude
( 241 — 2) (ord T)(27 — 2) + v(T)(ord T — 1),
Or
2g (27)(ord T)
v(T) 2+
ord T — 1 ord T — 1
from which (1.5.1) follows. El
Corollary 1. If ord T is prime, then

2g — 27(ord T)
v(T) = 2 +
ord T — 1
where y is the geilits of M/(T). In this case, equality holds in (1.5.1) if and
only if = O.
PROOF. If ord T is prime, then v(T) = v(T-1 ), j = 1, , ord T 1.
Remark. In general, (even if ord T is not prime) if equality holds in (1.5.1),

then y = O.
Corollary 2. In general, r(T)s- 2g — 1 if M is not hyperelliptie.
Remark. For hyperelliptic surfaces we have, in general, better bounds

(provided g -2: 3). See Proposition 111.7.11.
PROOF OF COROLLARY. From Corollary 1, an automorphism of order 2
has precisely 2g + 2 — 47 fixed points. Since M is not hyperelliptic, y
Hence for such an automorphism v(T) < 2g — 2. If ord T > 3, then v(T)
2 + g. Now 2g — 1 2 + g unless g = 2. But in genus 2, every surface is
hyperelliptic. 0
V.1.6. We now give two examples to show that our results are sharp.
EXAMPLE I. Consider the hyperelliptic Riemann surface of genus g 2,

iv2 = (z — e 1) • • • (z — e29 +2),
here e l , , e 2g+2 are 2g + 2 distinct complex numbers. The hyperelliptic
involution is described by
(z,w)i—■ (z,—w).
It clearly has 2g + 2 fixed points: 7. -1 (0, j = 1, . . . , 2g + 2; and the points
over infinity (that is, the two points in 7. - x7)) cannot be fixed. We introduce
some symmetry now by setting eg÷iti = j=1,...,g +1.(Hence we
are assuming also ei 0, for every j.) Thus the hyperelliptic surface is
represented by
w2 = (2 - • • (z 2 -
V.1. Hurwitz's Theorem 247
Here we have the additional automorphism T of period 2 given by

z,w).
How many fixed points does this automorphism T have? Clearly the
quotient surface is
W 2 = (Z 2 • • (z — e 2 + 1)
e) 9 h
which is of genus (g — 1)/2 if g is odd, and of genus g11 2 if g is even. In the
former case, v(T) = 4 and in the latter v(T) = 2. What are these fixed points?
They clearly must be the two points over 0 in the later case, and the four
points 'yips over 0 and ocein the former case.
We now introduce hyperelliptic surface's i7vith another symmetry: Let
s = exp(2rri/(2g + 2)) and let e; = j = 1, . . . , 2g + 2 and define an auto-
morphisrn T of order 2g + 2 by
(:,w)1— ■
The only possible fixed points are over 0 and oo. We will now examine
the Taylor series of w at the origin and at co to show that T has 2 fixed
points (lying over zero). Note that the Riemann surface is represented by
the equation w 2 = z 2g+ 2
The two function elements lying over zero are then
w(z) = +i( ajz"g + 24) with ao = 1.

o
Clearly these two are fixed under T. At infinity (7, = 1/z is a good local
coordinate, and the function elements over oo are
V bi(2g +2)i) with bc, = 1.

= -g( o
Thus T interchanges these two function elements. Similarly, Tk fixes the
two points lying over 0, and Tk sends a function element lying over oo
onto the element times s k(g +1). Thus Tk has 4 fixed points if and only if
k 0 mod 2, and r has only 2 fixed points otherwise.
EXAMPLE 2. Consider the Riemann surface defined by the equation

W 3 = (Z - e 1)2(z — e2) • • • (z —
with r 2 and e l , , e, distinct complex numbers. We first compute its

genus. The surface is a 3-sheeted covering of the sphere. It is branched
(with each branch point of order 2) over the points e l, . , e,. It is branched
over co if and only if r + 1 # 0 mod 3. Thus, the genus of the surface is
r — 2, if r 2 mod 3,
and
r — 1, if r # 2 mod 3.
An automorphism T of this surface :liven by
(z,w) 1—> (z,sw), with s = exp(-

21 .
3
For r = 5 (thus g = 3) it has 5( = 2g — 1) fixed points. More generally, for
r a.-- 2 mod 3, the surface has genus r — 2 and the automorphism has r fixed
points (=g + 2). Similarly, if r # 2 mod 3 the surface has genus r — 1 and
the automorphism has r + 1 fixed points (=g + 2).
V.1.7. Theorem. Let M be a compact surface of genus g 2. Let 1 Te Aut M.

If v(T) > 4, then every fixed point of T is a Weierstrass point.
PROOF. We may assume that n = ord T is prime (if not, there is a j such that
Ti is of prime order, and clearly every fixed point of T is a fixed point of
Ti). Let
be the canonical projection, and let y be the genus of .11 The Riemann—
Hurwitz formula yields
2g — 2 = n(27 — 2) + (n — 1 )v.(T). (1.7.1)
Let PE M be a fixed point of T and is it(P) E /171. There is anon-constant
function f Ar(k) such that fis holomorphic on :1-4- \ {P } and Jhas a pole
at P of order Sy + 1. Let f = f o IC f is the lift of Ito Af). Then f e
(
f is holomorphic on M\ `A, and ordp f n(y + 1). We now use (1.7.1) and
the hypothesis v(T) > 4 to conclude
2g — 2 -= n(2y — 2) + (n — 1)v(T) > n(2y — 2) + 4(n — 1),
Or
g + 1 > n(y + 1).
It follows that P is a Weierstrass point on M.
V.1.8. Theorem. Let M be a compact surface of genus g 2. Let 1 T e Aut M

with n = ord T, a prime. Let be the genus of fa = M/<T> (thus, v(T)=
2 + 2(g — nj)/(n — 1)). Suppose that g > n2g + (n — 1) 2, and that there is a
1 T E Aut M with v(T) > 2n('+ 1). Then:
Each fixed point of T is a fixed point of T and ord T ord f = n. (1.8.1)
If ord T = n, then T E <T>. (1.8.2)
<f > is a normal subgroup of Aut M. (1.8.3)
If n = 2, f is in the center of Aut M. (1.8.4)
PROOF. Let P 1 , , P„(f) be the fixed points of T. As in the proof of the last
theorem, for each j, there is a non-constant fi holomorphic on M\ {Pi}
with a pole at Pi of order < n(g + 1). It therefore follows from Proposition
V.1.4 that f; = fi o T for each j and thus T(Pi) = P. We have thus verified
the first part of (1.8.1). In particular, v(T) > v(T). We rewrite
g> n26. + (n — 1)2
in the form (add (n — 1)g to both sides and simplify)
g — ng g + n — 1
(1.8.5)
n— 1 > n
We continue with
n—1
20 n— 1 2g
= 2 +-- +-2-- > 2 +—.
n
(The first strict inequality being a consequence of (1.8.5).) By Proposition
V.1.5,
2g
v(T) 2+
ord T —
and hence ord T n, finishing the proof of (1.8.1).
Assume (ird T = ord T. 13kith T and 1' are in the stability subgroup (of
Aut M) of P 1 . Since this stability subgroup is a cyclic rotation group
(Corollary to Propoition 111.7.7), it is clear that <T> = <D>.
Next, let B e Aut M and set C = To B. Then ord C = ord T; and,
by the inequality on g, v(C) = v(D) = 2 + 2(g — n),/(n — 1) > 2n(j + 1).
Thus by (1.8.2) C e <t> or < t> is normal in Aut M. We have established
(1.8.3) and hence also (1.8.4).
Remark. The above generalizes the fact that on a hyperelliptic surface M

(of genus 2) any automorphism with more than 4( = 2 2(0 + 1)) fixed
points must (be the hyperelliptic involution and hence must) commute with
every element of Aut M.
V.1.9. We wish to generalize slightly the concept of hyperellipticity. A

compact Riemann surface M will be called y-hyperelliptic (y e Z, y 0)
provided there is a compact Riemann surface fa of genus y and a holomorphic
mapping of degree 2
7r:M
Thus, a y-hyperelliptic surface is a two sheeted covering of a compact surface
of genus y, with "0-hyperelliptic" corresponding to our previous notion of
"hyperelliptic".
It is immediately obvious that on every y-hyperelliptic surface M, there
is a y-hyperelliptic involution; that is, a .1, e Aut M with
ord = 2, v(.1,)= 2g + 2 — 4y.
Theorem. Let M be a y-hyperelliptic surface of genus g> 4y + 1. We have:

If! 0 Te Aut M with v(T) > 4(y + 1), then T = (1.9.1)
.1 7 is in the center of Aut M. (1.9.2)
If f eY(M)\C, and deg f < g + 1 — 2y, then deg f is even. (1.9.3)
PROOF. Statements (1.9.1) and (1.9.2) are immediate consequences of the
preceding theorem. Note that 2 deg f < 2g + 2 — 4y = v(J,), thus by Propo-
sition V.1.4, f = f o J., and deg f is a multiple of ord J ., = 2.
Corollary 1. The y-hyperelliptic involution on a surface of genus g is unique

(if it exists) provided g > 4y + 1.
PROOF. The 7-hyperelliptic involution has 2g + 2 — 47 fixed points, and
2g + 2 — 4y > 4y + 4 if and only if g> 47 + 1. The uniqueness now follows
from (1.9.1).
Corollary 2. If 7, r are non-negative integers with r> 0 and g > 4 7 + 1 + 2r,

then a surface of genus g cannot be both y-hyperelliptic and (y + r)-hyperelliptic.
In particular for g>3, a surface of genus g cannot be both hyperelliptic and
Remark. In V.1.6 we have seen examples of surfaces of genus 2 and 3 that

are both hyperelliptic and 1-hyperelliptic
PROOF OF COROLLARY 2. Suppose M is both (y + r)- and y-hyperelliptic, then
J., + , has
2g + 2 — 4(7 + r) > 4(y + 1)
fixed points. Thus Jy+, = .1 7 , which is only possible if r = 0. 0
V.1.10. Proposition (Accola). Let M be a compact surface of genus g 2.

Let G, G he subgroups of Aut M such that G = U.1 =1 G. and Gi n G = {1}
far i j. Assume ord G = n,, ord G = n, and let y = genus of M /G,y i = genus
of MIG i. Then
(k — 1)g + fly = E (1.10.1)
J=1
PROOF. Let us denote by B and Bi the total branch number of the canonical
projections
M M/G, M M/G i.
Obviously
B= E (ord Gp 1)
(with Gp, the stability subgroup of G at P e M), with a similar formula for
Bi. Now if Gp is nontrivial, it is cyclic and generated by some T e G. Clearly
Te (G)p for some j. It follows easily from these observations that
B = X B.
We now use Rieniann-Hurwitz

2g - 2 = n(2y - 2) + B,
2g - 2 = ni(2yi - 2) + B.
Summing the last expressions over ], subtracting the first, and using the fact
that n = tti - (k - 1), we get (1.10.1). El
Corollary. Let M be a surface of genus 3. Assume there is a subgroup G of

Aut M with G Z, Z,. and AVG of genus zero. If one element of G\{1}
operates fixed point freely, then M is hyperelliptic.
PROOF. The group G can be decomposed as in the theorem with k = 3 and

n, = n 2 = n 3 = 2. Hence
3 = yi + + 73*
Since one of the elements of G operates fixed point freely, one of the yi
must be equal to 2. The other two cannot both be positive.
V.1.11. We record for future use the following simple
Proposition. Let M be con ;pact Rieniannstuface of genus g 5 2. If T e Aut M

is of prime order n, then n 52g + 1.
PROOF. Let y = y(T) and use Riemann-Hurwitz with respect to the projec-
tion 7r:M = 114/<T> onto a surface of genus g
2g - 2 = n(24 -2) + v(n - 1). (1.11.1)
Assume n > 2g.
If g 2, then n(2g - 2) 2n 4g; a contradiction.
If g= 1, then v 0 0 and v(n - 1) 2g -1: again a contradiction.
If g = 0, then v > 3. Assume first that v > 4, then -2n + v(n - 1) >
2n - 4 > 4g - 4; a contradiction.
If y = 3, then (1.11.1) reads 2g - 2 = n - 3 or n = 2g + 1.
Remark. Proposition V.1.11 has shown that the maximal prime order of
an automorphism is 2g + 1 and that in this case the automorphism T has
3 fixed points and Mg T> is the Riemann sphere. Examples of such Riemann
surfaces are those defined by the equations
w29+ 1 = (Z — e i )(z - e 2)22(z - e3)2',
where e l, e2 , e3 are distinct complex numbers and a,, a 2, 2 3 are positive
integers such that a, + a2 + a, 0 mod(2g + 1), and 2g + 1 is a prime
252 V Autornorphisms of Compact Surfaces--Elementary Thcory
number. The automorphism T sends w into exp(2/ri/(20 + 1))w and fixes :.

A natural question to ask is what are some other possible pri;,e orders. w e
in the next section that the only prime order >g other than 2g + 1 shale
is g + I. In this case 7 . will turn out to have 4 fixed points and once again
.11/<T> will be the Riemann sphere.
V.2. Representations of the Automorphism Group

on Spaces of Differentials
Let M be a compact Riemann surface of genus g > 2 and Aut M the group
of conformal autotnorphisms of M. In this section we study ihe representa-
tion of Aut M on the space of holomoi- phic ..1-dilTeretnials on M, J 4(M),
g > O. With the aid of the representations, we will improve man results of
the previous section.
V.2.1. Let us begin by observing that a product of a holonlorpllic q 1
a holomorphic g 2-differential is a holomorphic (q t + TO--diferntialwth
differential. Thus the direct sum
(M) = ..rfq(M)
q=o
is a commutative graded algebra.
Let T e Aut M and 9 e )t‘g(M), then T acts on 9 to produce
Tp = 9 0 T -1 .
(Say that 9 in terms of the local coordinate z vanishing at P e M is given by
p(z)dz. Choose a local coordinate vanishing at TP. Assume that in terms
of these local coordinates T . ' is given by z = f( . Then Ty) in terms of the
)
local coordinate is given by p(f())f '(C)q cgq.) We note several properties

of this action of T on differentials:
a. For T 1 , T2 e Aut M, yo e Yeq(M),
(T, 0 T 2)9 = T 2 (T 2 9).
b. For each T e Aut M,
T:..Y0(M) Yfq(M)
is a C-linear isomorphism.
c. For T e Aut M, (pi e Yfq ,(M), j = 1, 2,
T(TIY)2)= (T(PI)(T<P2).
d. For 0 9 e Yeq(M), Te Aut M, P e M,
ord Tp T9 = ordp <p.
V.2. Representations of the Automorphism Group on Spaces of Differentials 253
Proposition. We have defined a representation of Aut M cn •.it"(M) (that is,

a hotnornorplzism of Ant M into Aut(.t -4(.11))) as well as a graded representa-
tion of Aut M on ft(M). For g > 1, the representation on .Y0(M) is faithful,
except for g = 2 = q in which case the kernel of the representation is precisely
<J>,J = hyperelliptic involution.
PROOF. Assume T 1, T e Aut M. Exclude for a moment the case where
T = J (in particular M is hyperelliptic in the excluded cases). There is thus
a Weierstrass point P e M with TPOP. Therefore, there is a 0 g) e
such that ord, 9 > g. If Tcpq = 9g, then 9g has at least gq zeros at P and gq
zeros at TP. Hence q"' as 2gg > g(2g — . 2) -zeros and we have that 9 = O.
Hence T 1 cannot induce the identity in Aut(rfg(M)), and the representa-
tion is faithful.
We examine now the action of J on :V(.11). In this case M is hyper-
elliptic and we may assume that M is represented by
= (z e t ) • (z — e 2g , 2 ),
with {e 1 . .... e1 9+2 } a set of 2g + 2 distinct complex numbers. Recall the

basis for ge l (M) introduced in 111.7.5:
dz
j = 1, , g.
The autornorphism J can be represented by
(z,w) (z,— w).

It is thus clear that J does not act as the identity on Yeg(M) for odd q. (Note
that Jdz = dz, and thus J9i = --9i and J91 = (-11q91.) For g = 2, a basis
for .r2(M) is given by
dz 2 zdz 2 z2 dz 2
w2 w 2 wz
from which it follows clearly that J9 = 9 for all g, e .1( 2(M). For g 2 and
g > 2 even, we consider
(de )=
wq -t wq -t•
We must only verify that dza/wq -1 is holomorphic. Use the notation of

111.7.4 and 111.7.5,
dz." 1)(g 1)-2g

( w4 _ 1 )= P1' " P2„2V1g 4- 1)4-1)- 24Q4I+ -
Thus the differential is not holomorphic if and only if (g + 1)(g — 1) < 2q

if and only if q = 2 and g = 2 (as was to be expected from the exclusion we
already made). El
V.2.2. Let G be a subgroup of Aut M. Let ço E Jrq(M), we shall say that

9 is G-invariant provided To. -=- 9 for all TE G. The vector space of G-
invariant holomorphic g-differentials on M will be denoted by a(M). For
the moment let us ignore the fact that g > 1 (assume q is arbitrary) and the
fact that (p is holomorphic (merely assume that (p is meromorphic). Let it
denote the natural projection
ir: M = 114/G.
Recall that we have shown in 111.4.12 how to lift an arbitrary g-differential
45 on 117/ to a g-differential 9 on M. It is clear that 9 is, in this case, G-
invariant. Conversely, every G-invariant q-differential 9 on M projects to a
g-differential on M.
We let for P e M, v(P) = ord Gp, then as we saw (111(4.12.2))
ordp v(P) ord,c( p) q(v(P)— 1).
Thus, we see that
1
ord, 0 .c.> ordit( p) —q(1 —
v(P)
Since ord , (-15 e 2, we sec chat
1
ordp 9 0 <r>on:17,w) "(fi —[q(1 —
v(P)
where [x] is the greatest integer x.
Since the projection it is defined by a group, v(P) depends only on the
orbit of P under G. Thus, for P e .171. we can define v(P) = v(ir - '()), and it
is thus convenient to introduce a q-canonical ramification divisor of it by
z on= p-wo- liv(P»1 . (2.2.1)
Pe
If, for an arbitrary divisor D on M, we define

AIM; D) = {9; 9 is a meromorphic g-differential and (9)/D is integral),
then we have established the following
Proposition. For q 1
Yft(M) Yeq(A 71.,Z (q)). (2.2.2)
Corollary. Let g be the genus of = M/G, then

dim .t°(M) = (2.2.3)
and for q 2
1
dim Ift(M) = (2q — 1)(g — 1) + E [q(1 — -)1. (2.2.4)
PEn71 v(P)
PROOF'. The proof is analogous to the one given in 111.5.2. We use the iso-
morphism of the proposition and the Riemann-Roch theorem. Let Z he a
canonical divisor on 11-4-. It is easy to see that
ZN )
L(
The isomorphism is given by

ZN )
) f e Yfq(k,ZNI),
where is a q-differentfal and (9) = Zq. Now for g = 1, Z11) = 1 and thus
Jr'oa,z"))= ye9'(171)= the g-dimensional space of abelian differentials of
the first kind on M. For g > 2, we compute using Riemann-Roch
= deg( g + 1 + t --
Po) Z (q'
1 Zq
= g(2ff — 2) + E [g(1 — — — 1) +
PE sf v(P)
Thus to complete the proof of the corollary, it suffices to show that
i(Zq/ZN )) = 0 which follows from the inequality deg(11,,Z 41) > 2g — 2. We
have already used the fact that
1
deg(-K g—) = q(24 — 2) ± E [41 —
Z(q ) PE
Thus the desired inequality clearly holds for g 2. For g 1, we must

examine
z. -
If g = 1, then we saw in the proof of Hurwitz's theorem that for some P e
(2.2.5)
v(P) 2, thus the sum in (2.2.5) is greater than or equal to [q/2] I. For
g = 0, we must show that the sum in (2.2.5) exceeds 2(q — 1). Now
z Fq ( i i1 z fq q
PER L v(P)A p la 1 v(P) v(P)
1
= (q l) PL (1 — ; j) .
But we saw in the proof of Hurwitz's theorem (equation (1.3.3)) that
Ep Esr, — (1/v(P))) > 2.
Remark. Let g = 2 and let n = the number of points 1 e la with v(P) > 1,
then
dim yew = 3g — 3 +n 0).
256 Y Automorphisms of Compact Surfaces—Elementary Theory
V.2.3. We start now a more detailed investigation of the action of T e Aut M

on YO(114), g 1.
Proposition. There exists a basis for ..)(4 (M ) such that the action of T on
.Yt'l(M) is represented by a diagonal matrix.
PROOF. Since Aut M is a finite group, there is an integer n such that T" = 1.
Thus (because Aut M is represented on Yeq(M)) T" = 1 as a matrix with
respect to any basis for g'q(M). In particular, A." — 1 is an annihilating
polynomial for T and the minimal polynomial (a factor of A" — 1) has distinct
roots. Thus, by a well known result of linear algebra, T can be diagonalized.
We can say something more. Each entry on the diagonal must be an n-th
root of unity. We will continue with this analysis in the next section.
Remark. We shall actu:.!ly be able (in most cases) to exhibit a basis for
,Yt'q( M) with respect to which T is diagonal.
V.2.4. We continue with the problem introduced in the last section. We

wish to determine the eigenvalues (and their multiplicities) of T.
Assume that T e Aut M, ord T =.n > 1, and (T> operates fixed point
freely on M. (If n is prime, then <T> operates fixed point freely if and only if
T is fixed point free. If n is not prime, the backwards implication need not
hold.) Let us recall that the eigenvalues must be of the form ci where e. =
exp(2ni/n) with j = 0, , n — 1. The eigenspace of 1 is precisely „A"1 7.) (M)
and thus has dimension equal to (2q — 1)(g — 1) for q> 1 and equal to g
for g = 1, where as usual g = genus of Si = M/< T>. Next assume that A is
any eigenvalue. Then for ça e .o(M) with Tcp = ;.(p, we have that (9) is
invariant under T (and hence also under <T>). Let us denote by EA the
eigenspace of A. If we now choose any non-trivial 90 e EA we see that for
ça e EA, (PAP° is a < T »invariant meromorphic function on M whose divisor
is a multiple of (90) -1 . The divisor ((p o) projects (because it is < T »invariant)
to an integral divisor D on M. It is thus easy to see that EA L(1/D). Now
deg D = 2q(g — 1)/n and Riemann—Hurwitz (or elementary arithmetic) shows
that (2g — 2) = n(2g. — 2), and thus deg D = 2g(g — 1). Hence by Riemann—
Roch (recall that g 2)
(1 fdeg D — (g - 1) + i (D) = (2q — 1) ( - 1), for q > 1,
r = — 1 + i(D), for q = 1.
For g = 1, i(D) = 1 if D is canonical and i(D)= 0 otherwise. Now the divisor

D is canonical if and only if (po projects to a holomorphic differential on M;
that is, if and only if (p o is G-invariant (if and only if A = 1). We conclude
(2q — 1)(g- 1), q> 1, A" = 1,
dim EA ={g, g = 1, A = 1,
- 1, g = 1, A 1, A" = 1.
V.2. Representations of the A utomorphism Group on Spaces of Differentials 257
Since EAa dim EA= dim AIM) and (g — 1) = n(g — 1), we see that all the
n-th roots of unity must be eieenvalues and that their multiplicities are
given by the above formulae.
V.2.5. We extend next the considerations of the previous section to the
general case (G = is assumed to have fixed points). The development
given below is due to I. Guerrero.
To fix notation (in addition to what was introduced in V.2.4), we let
ni = dim Eo , j = 0, , n — 1.
Formulae (2.2.3) and (2.2.4) compute n,. To compute n j for 1 j — 1,
we partition the branch vet X of 7r.; M M/G into a disjoint union
n-1
X = U X i,
1=1
where
X, = {P e M; = P and Tk P P for 0 < k 51— 1}.
We claim that if Xi 0 0, then /In (1 divides n). Suppose P e X, and 2 5 1
n — 1. Write n = pl + k, 0 < k < 1 — 1. Then VT = P, and thus k = O.
Hence we see 11n. Furthermore, the orbit of each point P e X, consists of
the 1 points P, TP. . , T''P and are also in Xi. It is thus clear that if for
non-empty X i , we set
n(X I ) = {Q.1; 1 x i}, 1 < 1 < n — 1,
then n(X,) consists of x, distinct points and X, consists of lx, points. We
define x, to be zero for empty X,. We can choose a local coordinate z for
each point in it -1 (Q„„) such that is given by
where 1, is a primitive nfi-root of unity (note that n,,,, depends only on Q„,,
and not on the choice of P E
Suppose now that 0 o (po e E„, I <j n — 1. As before, in this case we
also have
n = r(-
1 ),
Di
where Di is a certain integral divisor on M/G.

To find what Di is, let us consider the equation for 0 0 go e
T9 = gig).
Thus we also have
749 = zfi(p. (2.5.1)
Let us look at the Taylor series expansion of cp, at a point in it -1 (Qii):
9= E safki)dzq.
k=0
258 y Automorphisrns of Compact Surfaces—Elementary Theory
Thus equation (2.5.1) reads
.511,111.i = X .144-7k .
k= 0 k o
In particular, for each k = 0, 1, 2, ... ,
sik1nti q - = 0.
Choose the unique integer such that
1 < 41j < n11 and q1 , =
Note that /1„,1(n ,1) = n/I (this defines ).„,i„) and we set (for further use) ;.„,to = 0.
We conclude that
=0 unless k + q ).„„.*mod - .
I
n)
Let xm, be the order of rp o at ir -1 (Q„,,) (this integer only depends on Q„,,
and not on the point P we choose in its preimage). By our previous remarks
there is an integer /3„,,i such that
n
ml = /3?NU• - +-
.n q 0
(note that /3„,u 0).
Let Q 1 , .. , Q, be the projections to M/G of the zeros of cp o not in X. Let
= ord„, (00 ço o . We note that a function _re /G) is such that fcp c, e
drq(M), where f = o rr, if and only if
j. / is holomorphic except at the points Qk, Q„,,,
ordok -xk, and
iii. ord/ + (q - )..01014
Now we know how to define the divisor Di (which depends on To):
D = n 421,k Fl 11
k= I m= 1
QAmi . +Lams' — 9110/11]
ml •
Remark. With our convention for ] = 0, the formula for D valid for all j,
0 < j < n - 1.
Note that deg(rp o) = 2q(g - 1), and hence
n E ;+E E /1„„ = 2q(g - 1). (2.5.2)

k=1 lin m= I
Now from the definition of Di,

•-
deg 1); = E +EE 13 )
+[
n/I
mi (2.5.3
k= I m= 1
V.2. Representations of the Autornorphism Group on Spaces of Differentials 259
Next we use Riemann-Hurwitz in the form

x,
2g — 2 = n(2g — 2) + E — 1)
lin m= 1 I
= n(2g — 2) + x,(n — I).

l in
We return to (2.5.3) and continue our calculation (using (2.5.2) and Riemanti-
Hurwitz)
xi „ q])
deeD; = E + E n/1 n11
k= 1 lin m= 1
v. " —1
(n 2k + ) L
n s =t lin m=1 lin m=1 nit
1 1 1
= ;i 2q(g ;77 1, -r-1 (20
lin
1
+ (2g — 2)(q — 1) = 2g— 2 + !(2 — 2)(q — 1)
>. 14. — 2.
We have also shown that for q> 1

deg Di > 29 - 2.
We claim that even if q = land even if deg D = 2g — 2, i(DJ) = 0 for j > O.
Otherwise Di is canonical. In this case, there exists an abelian differential
on M/G such that (0) = D. Note that the only way for deg 1) = 2 - 2
is to have equality all along the way in our previous calculation. In particular,
{(0) — }l(A„, u — 1), and since 1 (n11), we conclude that /L I; = n11.
Thus
X
D= fl 01/4 H
k=1
II
lin m= 1
The lift (p of gi will have a zero of order ak at each preimage of Qk, and a
zero of order
a n (n
P .a.; + - = 1 2,21
1 /
at each point of 7t -1 (Q.). Thus 9 will have the same divisor as </Jo. But this
means that (p is a constant multiple of (po . Since 9 is G-invariant, q, e E 1 .
Thiscontradicts the fact that T o e Ed, 1 < n — 1.
We have concluded that if Ed is non-trivial, then it has dimension
r(1/D;) = deg I) + 1 — g, except for the case q = 1,j = 0, and no fixed points.
Let us turn to the case q = 1. Note that for j > 0, [().„,u — 1)1(n11)] = O.
260 v A utomorphistns of Compact Surfaces--Elementary Theory
Thus for j > 0,

2 ffi l +1—
deg Di = 17, +y
k=1 lin m 1 n11
and from (2.5.2)
2g - 2 1 Xi
deg Di - E E 1 (Anii - 1 ).
n lin m=1
Hence we conclude that (using Riemann-Hurwitz)

1 1 Xi
r(-)= deg Di + 1 - g= 4 - 1 + - E (n -
Di n lin rn ,-1
XI
=g- i
—
E
Iii, m=1
1 ;•ntlj• (2.5.4)
We compute next
Recall that n, is a primitive (n//)-root of unity and that ii,trj efi. For
j = 1, 2, ... , (n11), WI is the set of all (n//)-roots of unity. We thus conclude
that
1-'4 1 mtj
is a permutation of 11, ... ,(n/01 with o-(nI1) = (n/1). Further for j = k(n11) +
r, Amu = Therefore
E A„,1; = /(1 + 2 + • • + -n\ -n ( 1 + LI\

1) 2 1)
i=
Thus
n- 1 n-1 (1)
j=0 ii
1 x, (1 1
= n(4 - 1) + 1 + (n - 1) E x, - - y E - ni + - n2
tin n lin m=1 2 2
1
= n(g - 1) + 1 +(n-1):Ci
L
= 9.
We finally conclude that once again for each j, ei is an eigenvalue (and we
have computed its multiplicity). Note that some of the multiplicities may be
zero (for example, if g= 0). It involves no loss of generality to consider these
as eigenvalues with zero multiplicity.
V.2.6. Let us now consider the case q> 1. We calculate for 0 j n — 1,
= deg Di + 1 —
Di
Xi 2 +
=E2k+EE(mi
k=1 Iln m=1 n/I
mu+[na'
n/1
41)+1 —
x,„ ;
2q(g — 1)
+E E ( 1- - mu +rmun/I- 1+1 -
fin m=1 n/I
x,
n
) [ n/1
+1—g.
il,, Iln m = 1 nil
Next we compute
n— 1 (
E r = (2q Ong — 1) + q E x i(n — I) — Ext (n- I).

J= uj tin fin
To explain the last term, we write
q = - + 011 e v(1) e Z, p > 0, 1 < v(1)

1 '
(We will write y for y" ).) Thus we have
x' l V') — ).„,„ [-A mu voi
E
lin
E
m=1
P+ n/I ± L 0 - P - n/ _I)
x' /vw— 2 A.l + .1„,,i — val
=E 1=i ti n m n/I
P
nI 1 _
Recall now that {).„,u ; j = 1, . ,n/i} is a permutation of {1, ... ,n/1}. Thus
the above summed from j = 1 to j = n/I yields
E (o) - 2 + I - (o) - 1)) x, = E (1 - (1+ Xi.

lin Iln 2 /
Thus the sum from j = 0 to n — 1 yields
E (i - ( 1 + ix, = E 1 1)/x,--2
- 1
In iln lin
In conclusion (using Riemann-Hurwitz once again)
= (2q — 1)n(— 1) + (q — -1)E xi(n— I)

i =o D• 2
1
2
= (2q — 1)(g — 1).
262 V Automorphisms of Compact Surfaces--Elementary Theory
We have just proved that in all cases

(1)
r — = ni.
Di
V.2.7. We now want to compute the trace of T(=tr T). Note that for q =1
n-1
tr T = g + E njsi.
J=1
First observe that
E d= - 1,
1=1
and thus using (2.5.4)
trT=g+1 F
fin n lin m=1 j=1
1 xi n-1
E (2.7.1)
!in n lin m=1 j=1
As before, we fix m and f and compute Dr= Calculate for ! > 1
Amii6i=j„,“&+;.,„,2& 2 + • • • +
l= 1
20/1)
▪ 1. mi 1E 1+ 1 + • • • ± A rni(nI0e
± ).. ,, e -i)(P0)+1 . • • + j1.1(0 )En
l-1
=EE& k=0
k(n[1)-i-
E ckm/i)
nil I— I
=E
.11 k=o
(sinceEll', s4"in = 0). Hence for 1 > 1

n—
E 1
Amusi= —2 m1(nlI) =
i=
Finally, for 1=1,

n- 1 n—
E
.i=1
E
i=1
Àrniinntti
(and because filmii ; j = 1, ,n — 11 is a permutation of 11, ,n — 1))

n— I
— n
•
.J=1 —nmi
V.2. Representations of the Autoniorphism Group on Spaces of Differentials 263
We now return to (2.7.1) and continue with our computation after changing
notation: x1 = t = number of fixed points of T and nrni
x, - -1 E E n - -1 E'1 —n
tr T = 1 —E
lin n in m=1 I nm 1 1—
= 1 - E x, + E x, + E 1
tin lin m=1 1 —
1 #1
1
=I—t+ m=1 _ ev„,
ev-
= E
m = 1 1 - by-
V.2.8. As usual, we proceed to the case q> 1. Here we compute

n-1
tr T = E
J0
n1 -
= ((2q — 1)( — 1) +
11 II.
xi(n — E
J j= 0
+E liz
-. i (q 2, mi . q' .
i i j±
n/I
e.
I li .= 1 j= 0 n/L
The first sum, as before, is equal to zero. Thus we conclude (simplying further
as in V.2.6)
xr n- 1 zi n-1 v (I)
1
tr T= -- E/ + n/I
n lin m=1 j0 m=1 j= 0
1 x' — n v v
x' n v
-1 — vo) .
= — 1 E 1(--f) x, E
n tin
1#1
n 1— 0 m n/I f.
As we remarked before,
[ 2m"ti va) 0 WO) <

Y.1; = n/I
—1 if 0 <
We proceed essentially as before for 1> 1
E
j= 1
ymud = mIlE Ym12 62 ymi(n/I) 0
+ Yrnzien")+1 + • • • + Y.10/1)E 2(n/i)
Iwo+ . . • ± y rnione
= y(1 + ell + 8 2(n/l) + • • • + 0 - 1)(n/1)) = 0,
264 v A utomorphisms of Compact Surfaces—Elementary Theory
where y = y„,ii s + 7,7,120 ± • ' y„,10,mend. Therefore for / > 1,

n-1
E
j=0
ymuci= 7,m0— ym,„= —1•
For 1. 1
n-1 n-
E Yrni.,e1 =E
j= 1 j= 1
= E1 [11 ""
I Vi
=E
1= 1
m-1
[
J
•
—
n
1 ,..,1
v- I
q;',. 1
--
i= 1 — 1— qm ,
We can finally complete the calculation:
xi 1
tr T -- E x, + E
II. m. 1 1 — riml /in m=1 1 — nm1
1* 1 1* 1
e V,V
=E
m=1 1 — em .
V.2.9. We summarize our results in the following
Theorem (Eichler Trace Formula). Let T be an automorphism of order n > 1
of a compact Riemann surface M of genus g> 1. Represent T by a matrix via
its action on .Yeq(M). Let t be the number offixed points of T. Let s = exp(2ni/n).
Let P„ . . . , Pt be the fixed points of T. For each m --= 1, . . . , t choose a local
coordinate z at P. and an integer v„, such that 1 < v. n — 1 and such that
T -1 is given near P. by
T -1 :z
(note that v m must be relatively prime to n). Then
t Ev.
E _ sv„, for q = 1,
tr T = 1 + m=11
and en v
tr T = E for q> 1,
m=1 1 — s v."
where 0 < y n is chosen as the unique integer such that q = pn + v with
p e Z. In each case the sum is taken to be zero whenever t = O.
Note that only the fixed points of T contribute to tr T (not the points that
are fixed by a power of T but not T itself).
Corollary (Lefsehetz Fixed Point Formula). For g = 1,

tr T + i T = 2 — t.
PROOF. We merely note that for E C, 0 0 1,101= 1, 2 Re(0,11 — 0)) = —1.
0
Remark. For g = 1, tr T+ tr T is the trace of the matrix representing T on

the space of harmonic differentials—which is, of course, by duality related to
the representation of T on H i(M).
V.2.10. We now turn to the case where T has prime order n and at least
one fixeSpoint. Say P E su is the fixed point of-T. Choose a basis {q, . ,q)d}
of .Yel(,1 ,1) adapted to P(d = dim Yfq(M)); that is, in terms of some local
coordinate z vanishing at P, we have
(pi =(z' + 0(1z171)de, j=1, . . . , d,
where 1 = y i <Y2 < • • < yd < 2g(g — 1) + 2 is the "g-gap" sequence at P
(111.5.8). Furthermore, we may assume without loss of generality that the
automorphism T`' is given by
Z EZ, e = e 2x11n .
It is of course clear that T' is given in the above form for some 1,
1 1 < n — 1. If we are interested only in fixed points (because n is prime),
T can be replaced by Note also that 9 is an eigenvector for the eigenvalue
d of T if and only if 4, is an eigenvector of the eigen value d' for Ti. Thus T' and
T have the same eigenvalues and the same traces.
It follows that
Tço = ((ez)7j -1 + 0(1z1Y1))sq
and in fact
Toi = j=1, ,d.
On the basis of the above development, we can strengthen (slightly) a
previous result (Theorem V.1.7).
Theorem. Let T e Aut M be of prime order n, and assume that T fixes a non
point P. Then 2 < v(T) 4. Further, the genus g of MI<T>-Weirsta
is given by g = [0], and writing g = 4n + r(0 < r n — 1), there are only
three possibilities:
a. r = 0, g = gn, v(T) = 2,
b. r = i(n — 1), g = ('+ 5)n —4, v(T) = 3, or
c. r = n — 1, g = (4 + 1)n — 1, v(T) = 4.
PROOF. Since T fixes a non Weierstrass point, we have 7i = j, j = 1, . . . , g
and the action of T on .r1 (M) is given by the diagonal matrix
diag(e, e2, ,89)
with e = exp(27riln). The genus g of Al/<T> is the multiplicity of the eigen-

value 1, and thus g = [0]. Now we write
g= + 11, r E Z, 0 < r < n — 1.
We use the Riemann-Hurwitz formula (Corollary 1 to Proposition V.1.5)

g = n(g — 1) + 1(n — 1)v(T) + 1, (2.10.1)
and conclude that
v(T) — 2 + 2.
n— 1
We conclude that v(T) > 2. Further, since 0 < v(T) e Z we see that there
are only three possible cases: r = 0, r = i(n — 1), or r = n — 1. D
V.2.11. We have seen that if an automorphism of prime order fixes a
non-Weierstrass point, it must fix at least two points (and at most 4 points).
What happens if all the fixed points are Weierstrass points?
Theorem. Let T E Aut M be of prime order n. If T has a fixed point, it must

have at least two.
PROOF. Assume T has precisely one fixed point P. The Riemann-Hurwitz
relation yields
2g — 2 = (2q - 2)n + (n — 1) or
If (p• e .Ye i (ill) and T9 = 9, then ordp 9 > 0. Since it is not the case that for
all 9 E .f l (M) ord, q, > 0, we can find a 9 e Yfl(M) with T9 = e9, e 0 1,
e" = 1, ordp 9 = 0. Since 9 does not vanish at P (the unique fixed point of T)
and (y)) is invariant under T, 2g — 2 = kn for some positive integer k. Thus
we see that
1 = (2g — 1) — (2g — 2) = n(2:4 — 1) — nk = n(2:41 — 1 — k).
In particular, n cannot be > 1, and this contradiction establishes the theorem. _
Remark. The Riemann-Hurwitz formula that we applied used the fact that
n is prime. This is essential; for the theorem is not true if n is not a prime.
V.212. We consider now the representation of an automorphism T of
prime order n on oveq(M), q> 1. We assume that P is a fixed point of T and
that P is not a g-Weierstrass point. Then the representation of T on drq(M) is
diag(eq, ,8(2q-1)(9-1)+" ).
Let us take g 1 mod n, g = kn + 1, k 1, then the multiplicity of the

eigenvalue 1 is
1 1
(2kn 1)(g — 1)] = [(2k + (g — 1)] = 2k(g — 1) + [ - (g — 1)].
n
Abbreviate y(T) by y and use the Corollary to Proposition V. 2.2,
dim .r „(M) = (2kn + l g — 1) + v[(kn + 1)(1 —

)(
= (2kn + 1)( g- — 1) + vk(n - 1),
where OE is the genus of MX T>. Combining these results with the Riemann-
Hurwitz formula (2.10.1) we see that
(2kn + 1){1( - 1) + Iv(n - 1)1 = f(2kn + 1)(4 - 1) + vk(n + r,
with 0 < n - 1. Thus's.
2r
v =— -
n-1
and there is just one possibility (recall v(T) 0 1) r = n - 1 and y = 2, and we
have established the following
Theorem. Let T e Aut M be of prime order n with v(T) > 2. Then every fixed
point of T is a q- Weierstrass point for every q> 1, q 1 mod n.
Corollary. Let 1 T E Aut M. If v(T)> 2, then every fixed point of T is a

q- Weierstrass point for some q.
An alternate proof of the theorem is obtained by equating 2k(g - 1) +

[(11n)(g - 1)] to dim 01 7)(M). This leads to the inequality v < 2 + 2/(n - 1).
If n> 3, we find y = 2. If n = 2, we find v <4. Since an involution has an even
number of fixed points y = 2, also in this case.
v.2.13. We can now reprove and generalize slightly some of the results on
automorphisms of hyperelliptic surfaces (compare with 111.7.11).
Theorem. Let M be a hyperelliptic surface of genus g > 2. A conformal in-

volution on M has either no fixed points, only non-Weierstrass fixed points, or is
the hyperelliptic involution J.
Let T be an automorphism of prime order n with 2 < n <2g that fixes a
Weierstrass point. Let M/< T> have genus g. Then there are two possibilities:
a. g = jn, v(T) = 2, and both fixed points are Weierstrass points, or

b. n = (2g + 1)/(2j+ 1) (ff 1), v(T) = 3, and the other fixed points are P
and J(P) with P not a Weierstrass point.
PROOF. Let T be of order 2. Assume T fixes a Weierstrass point. Represent

T on .01 (M). The action is given by (see V.2.10)
diag( -1, . 1).
g-times
This is, however, the representation off on ye' (AI). Since the representation
of Aut M on Je l (M) is faithful T = J.
Next we consider an automorphism T of prime order n, 2 <n < 2g, that
fixes a Weierstrass point. Its action on .X"(M) is given by (e = exp(21ti/n))
diag(s, ,e 4- 1 ).
Write 2g — 1 = In + r, 0 < r < n — 1. Then (since g is the multiplicity of the
eigenvalue 1) 1 even implies œ= 1/2 and 1 odd implies that œ = 1(1 + 1).
Using Riemann-Hurwitz (in a by now familiar way) we see that
r+1 2g+ 1
!even v(T) =2+ =3 (r = n 2).=
rt ,
n—1 2g- + 1
1 odd v(T) = 1 + n r 1 = 2 (r = n 1) n =
Assume T fixes three points. We view the action of T on the 2g + 2

Weierstrass points. Clearly Tis a permutation of prime order n, and can be
written as a product of r, cycles of length n and r 2 singletons (cycles of length
one). Thus
r,n + r2 = 2g + 2.
From the above and 2g + 2 = (2œ + 1)n + 1, we see that
(2œ + 1 — r = r2 —1.
Since n> 2, the last equation implies r2 = 1 or r2 > 3. Since r2 < v(T), we
see that r2 = 1. Thus T has a fixed point P that is not a Weierstrass point.
Since, J is central in Aut M,
T(J(P)) = J(T(P))= J(P),
and J(P) (0 P) is also a fixed point.
If T fixes two points, both must be Weierstrass points by an argument
similar to the one given above. 1:1
Corollary. If 1 96 T E Aut M fixes a Weierstrass point on the hyperelliptic

surface M of genus g 2 and ord T is prime and < 2g, then ord T g.
Remark. It is possible for ord T= 2g + 1 (recall Proposition V.1.11 and its

corollary).
V.2.14. Proposition. If TE Aut M is of prime order n > g, then n = g + 1 or

n = 2g + 1. In each of these cases M/ <T> is of genus O. In the first case,
v(T) = 4 and in the second case, v(T) = 3.
PROOF. We start with (1.11.1), and assume that 'k 2. Then n(2Œ— 2)
2n> 2g. Thus the only possibilities are œ- = 1 or g = O. If Œ = 1, then
V.3. Representation of Aut M on Ii i (M) 269
2g — 2 = v(n — 1), and v > O. Thus 2 < v and

2q — 2
n— +1.
Now (with v 2, g 2) (2g — 2)/v + 1 < g, and is thus impossible.

It remains to consider = O. Here
2g — 2 = — 2n + v(n — 1) = (v — 2)n — v,
Or
2q — 2 + v 2g
n = +1.
v — 2 v—2
._
We must have v > 3. If v > 6, then
n +1 g.
If I, = 5, then
n= + 1 g for g 3,
and is impossible for g = 2 (n = j). If y = 4, then n = g + 1; and if y = 3,
then n = 2g + 1.
V.3. Representation of Aut M on I-11 (M)

In this section we study the action of Aut M on 11 1 (M) = H i (M,Z), the
first homology group (with integral coefficients), where M, as usual, is a
compact Riemann surface of genus g 1. Let 'tic} =
(al , ,b9) = ita,b1 he a canonical homology basis for M.
The main result is that the action of Aut M on 11 1 (M) is faithful. This result
is generalized in two directions. If T E Aut M fixes enough homology classes,
then T = 1. Also, in most cases, the action of Aut M on the finite group of
homology classes mod n is already faithful.
V.3.1. If T e Aut M, then = TK is again a canonical homology basis
for M. If we denote this basis by ita',1•1, we immediately see that there exists
a 2g x 2g matrix X with integer entries x„,„ whose inverse is also an integer
matrix (thus det X = +1) such that
K' = XK; (3.1.1)
that is
2g
= E J.= 1, , 2g. (3.1.1)'
We now write X = 2 in g x g blocks, and hence

Bi (3.1.2)
[abl = [AC D [ald
270 v Automorphisms of Compact Surfaces--Elementary Theory
Recall (III.1.2) that the statement lc is a canonical homology basis means

that the intersection matrix for h- is Jo = 1.7 = (K , • K i). We can now ask:
what are the conditions on X so that K' also be a canonical basis? The
condition is simply that (h:'.; • Ki) = XJ 09( = Jo . Hence we see that in addition
to det X --= +1, it is also necessary that X satisfy the equation XJ0tX = Jo .
Matrices X with integer entries satisfying det X = + 1 are called unimodular
matrices. The set of n x n unimodular matrices forms the group SL(n,Z).
The remarks we have made lead us to make the following
Definition. The set of 2g x 2g unimodular matrices X which satisfy
XJ 0`X -=- Jo (3.1.3)

is called the symplectic group of genus g and is denoted by Sp(g,1).
Remark. The definition is meaningful and the set is indeed a group. All
that we need verify is that if X G Sp(g,Z) so is It is easy to check that
if X =[ ] and Xe Sp(g.Z) then =[ This last statement
].
is equivalent to (3.1.3). Hence Sp(g,Z) is a subgroup of SL(2g,Z).
Theorem. There is a natural hotnomorphism h:Aut M Sp(g,Z). For g 2,

h is a monomorphism.
PROOF. The homomorphism h has already been described in the remarks
preceding the statement of the theorem. We shall therefore assume that
g 2 and T e Aut M. Suppose now that h(T)= I. Let {C i , „),"} be a basis
of yel w) dual to 'fa,* that is jak C.; = 5A• Since Ta, is assumed to be
(
homologous to ar we have fa, T .k f T:k . Now for any smooth differential

.( = j Tai
co it is clear that
S
r, T w= w. (3.1.4)
Hence, in particular, we have ha., k = ja j .k = kj• It follows that f .
bki. We therefore conclude that fr1, • • • , TC 91 is also a basis of °'(M) dual

to tta,b1. Recall however (Proposition 111.2.8) that the dual basis is unique;
so that it necessarily is the case that TZ ; = j = 1, . ,g.
We have already seen that the representation of Aut M on Ye l (M) is
faithful. Hence we conclude that T = 1. 1:1
Corollary. If T(a,) = ai in H,(M) for j = 1, , g, then T= 1.
V.3.2. There is a very simple relation between the action of an automor-

phism on H i(M) and the representation of the automorphism on the space
of harmonic differentials on M. (Recall 11.3.6.)
Let `{K} be a canonical homology basis for M and let t{a} = fa i , ,2291
be the basis of the complex valued harmonic differentials on M which is
V.3. Representation of Aut M on H i (M) 271
dual to ' {x} ; that is, .f„, ock = bkj , k, j = 1, . , 2g. It is clear that this basis
is unique and we have, as before, jr.• = 1„, = bu . Let the 2g x 2g
matrix X = (xik) represent the action of T on `{K}. We then have
2g
I = (61) = (fT., Tat) = (fat xjk.k Tai)= (El xik f Kk Tai).
Let us denote by T the matrix whose (I,k) entry is f,,„ Tat . Thus the above
equation reads
I = 7-1X,
Or
T=
Since Tzi is determined by its periods we have established the following
Theorem. Let X be an element of Sp(g,Z) which represents the automorphism

T on H ,(M,Z) with respect to the canonical homology basis `{K}. Let '{a} =
{a l , , 29} be a basis of the harmonic differentials on M dual to {K}, in the
sense that f„, ak = bki, k, j = 1, . . . , 2g. Then the matrix which represents T 01:1
the vector space of harmonic differentials with respect to the basis' {x} is f(X -1 ).
Remark. If T is represented in g x g blocks by ['1, fl, then '(X" 1 ) is

represented by [_2
V.3.3. In this section we wish to strengthen Theorem V.3.1 and its corollary.
We prove the following
Theorem. Let M be of genus (I > 2 and assume Te Aut M satisfies T(a i)= a„,
T(a2) a2 , T(b,)= b, and '7'(b 2) = 6 2 in H ,(M). Then T = 1.
In order to prove this theorem it is convenient to first derive some pre-

liminary results concerning SL(n,Z) and Sp(g,Z).
Lemma. Let a be a vector in Z. A necessary and sufficient condition for 'a

to be the first row of an element of SL(n,Z) is that the components of a be
relatively prime.
PROOF. Let, as usual, eu) be the jth column of the n x n identity matrix.
It suffices to prove that the orbit of the vector e" ) under SL(n,Z) consists
of all vectors a with relatively prime components or equivalently that for
any a with relatively prime components there is an X E SL(n,Z) such that
Xa = e" ).
We consider the following problem: Find
Min Xal,
X eSL(n.Z)
where a is a fixed vector in Z" with relatively prime components, and 1— l is

the usual (Euclidean) norm. We wish to show that the minimum is precisely 1,
and therefore that there is an X e SL(n,Z) such that Xa = eu) for some j.
Without loss of generality we can then assume ] = 1.
Note first that the lemma is obviously true for n = 2, since the condition
i[a 6 1 1
det = +1
a2 U2
is equivalent to the condition that al and a2 be relatively prime. Furthermore
if (in general) the components of a e Z" have a common divisor y> 1, then
Min IXal v.
xeSL(n,Z)
Thus in particular for n = 2, the above minimum is 1 if and only if a has
relatively prime components. We have also established necessity in general.
Now assume that n> 2, and that a has relatively prime components.
Suppose X is a solution to the minimum problem. Let b = Xa. Clearly b
has relatively prime components. (Otherwise a = Xb would not have
relatively prime components.) Assume that b has two non-zero components.
We may assume that these are the first two components 6 1 , b,. Let y > 1
be the greatest common divisor of b 1 , b2 . Choose X E SL(2,Z) such that
46 1 ,1) 2) = 11(1,0).
Let X' = ?„_J. Then X' E SL(n,Z) and IX'Xal
n
Fx 0 t(b III
i,b2 , ,b„) = + b<lbl=

j= 3 j= 1
Thus we see that b must be an integral multiple of some eu). Since the
components of b are relatively prime, b = ± e°, for some j. 0
Lemma. Let a and b be elements of Z". A necessary and sufficient condition

for (ta,'1)) to be the first row of an element of Sp(n,Z) is that its components
be relatively prime.
PROOF. Just as in the case of the previous lemma, it suffices to show that
there is an element X in Sp(n,Z) such that X[11 =
We fix [I] with relatively prime components and for X e Sp(n,Z), let
X[:]= []. Let u 0 be the greatest common divisor of the components
of (5 and y 0 the greatest common divisor of the components of 6' (u = 0
if and only if ô = 0; y = 0 if and only if 6' = 0). We now consider the problem
of finding
Min u v.
X e Sp(n,Z)
We can assume without loss of generality that u v. (Let X' = JoX. Then
X' e Sp(n,Z) and X1';,] = [4'].) We shall now show that y = O.
V.3. Representation of Aut Mon 111 (M) 273
Assume y O. Then (57y has relatively prime components and thus by

the previous lemma, is the first row of an element T of SL(n,Z). Choose
now an integral vector A such that each component of the vector — TS + vx
has absolute value less than y and thus less than u. Consider now
O 'T-1
X' =
[- T —tT 1 j'
where T is any n x n symmetric matrix, with first column —x, and observe
that X' is an element of Sp(n,Z).
Let X,...be a solution to the minimization problem, and suppose X[1,] =
Then XrX[n = [21-',,".:„J, and thiscontradicts the minimality of X. Hence
= O. It thus follows that u = 1. We can therefore conclude that any solution
X to the minimization problem satisfies X[7,] = [t] with the components
of (5 relatively prime. By the previous lemma we can always find a ti E SL(n,Z)
such that US = e(11, thus we have [g p][g] [r].
We now proceed with the proof of the theorem. Let {a,, ,a2.} be the
basis of the harmonic differentials dual to the given homology basis. It follows
from Theorem V.3.2 (and the remark immediately following) that T(c 1 ) = „
T(a2) = Œ2, T(1, ... 1 ) = ,, and T(cc, ... 2) = ot g + 2.
Furthermore, for any harmonic differential cu on M (see 111(2.3.1)),
fbi co, j = 1, , g,
(o),* ai) = Sim GTi A = (3.3.1)
g + 1, . . . , 2g.
faj CL) ,
=
Let us for the moment assume that T has a fixed point say P. Let Q E M
be arbitrary, then we conclude from (3.1.4) that
j = 1, 2, g + 1, g + 2.
It therefore follows that

ST (Q) ai = f a• + f T (Q)
Œj EZ, for j = 1, 2, g + 1, g + 2. (3.3.2)
We consider the surface i = M/< T> and the natural projection it: M
Let j = 1, 2, g + 1, or g + 2. Because of T(Œ) = cti, the differentials a; project
to harmonic differentials itai on M. (This assertion is not quite obvious.
Its verification is left to the reader.) If Zr is a closed curve on gr, then we
lift it to a curve c on M beginning at some Q E M and ending at TIV. By
(3.3.2) we see that
fe 7rŒi e Z, j 1, 2, g + 1, g + 2.
(Note that since we are only interested in the homology classes of the curves,
we may assume that c does not pass through any fixed points of T.) Let us
construct a canonical homology basis {di , on M and a
basis (ff,, ,32 4. 1 of harmonic differentials on dual to the given homology

basis. Since act, has integral periods over every cycle on M.- , there are integers
nil, such that
2§
nai = E nikak, j= 1,2,g+ 1,g+ 2.
k1
It follows from (3.3.1) (viewed on /171) that

Orap*nagi. e Z, j = 1, 2.
It is also quite obvious that (for j =- 1,2)
(ord T)(7r1;,*nct 9 , ;) = (cci,*29+ j) = — 1.
Note that the second equality follows from (3.3.1). Thus we conclude that
for the hypothesis of the theorem to hold, T must be fixed point free (if it
is not the identity).
To finish the proof, we must study fixed point free automorphisms. By
our previous considerations no power of T(01) can have fixed points. Hence
by Riemann-Hurwitz
2g — 2 = n(2g — 2),
with g > 2 and g > 2. Thus we are studying smooth n-sheeted cyclic coverings
of a surface :VI. of genus g > 2. A smooth n-sheeted covering is described by
the selection of a normal subgroup G of ,(k) such that n 1 (,171)1G - z- Z.
( = integers mod n). Thus G appears in a short exact sequence of groups and
group homomorphisms
(1} --■ G --o n i(k)-r*Z„—• {0}.
Without loss of generality we assume that the canonical homology basis
on gt comes from a set of generators for it 1 (A7/) denoted by the same symbols.
The homomorphism 9 is described by its action on the generators. Setting
9(a) = c and p(b) = e"i, we see that 9 is described by the 2 x q matrix
,
X = [e C]=[ b • '"]
of integers mod n.
Since 9 is surjective the vector (s,e') has relatively prime components.
We review the above situation in the language of multiplicative functions.
Construct on Sa a multiplicative function f belonging to the n-characteristic
x. This function lifts to a single valued function on the cover corresponding
to the homomorphism
By a change of homology basis (since Z„ is commutative we may work
with 1-1 1 (1N) instead of It i (k)) we may assume that x is of the form [I; 8:::
This follows immediately from our second lemma. More precisely, if x is
then we can consider the change of homology basis effected by a matrix
V.3. Representation of Aut M on Ii i (M) 275
`X E Sp(j,l) such that

te r euri
X
[ e'l = LO
Such an X exists by the lemma and the x for this new basis is [1:, Sj.
The last assertion follows from the fact that X has integral entries. lie H 1 0)
is written as nA + mjb , then
X(c) = (EM [ n ].
(As usual n = t(n,, ,n4,2n = t(m,, ,m4-).) Thus

('Xe) =
and in particular for k'i = Xi
= (6,0( jth column of 'X)
= jth entry of X[88,]
[e 1)]
= jth entry of
0
It is now a simple matter to complete the proof. We examine the cover
corresponding to X = .:: g]. It is clear that if di, ... ,
is the homology basis for :V/ such that X = B g ::: 8], then di , 2, ,
(n — WTI lift to open curves on M and nil, lifts to a closed curve on M.
Further b 1 has n disjoint lifts all of which are homologous on M. Each of
the other cycles also have n disjoint lifts on M; however, these are all
homologously independent. The action of T on M fixes the lift of na, and
permutes the lifts of ; however, since the lifts are all homologous we can
say that (as far as the induced action on homology) T fixes the lift of b 1 . No
other cycles are fixed. Hence we finally conclude that T must be the identity
and this concludes the proof of the theorem.
V.3.4. In this paragraph we strengthen (in another direction) Theorem
V.3.1. The group Aut M acts not only on H 1 (M) but also on H i(M,4),
the first homology group on M with coefficients in the integers mod n.
Choose T E Aut M. We have seen that T acts on H ,(M) by a square integral
matrix A E Sp(g,Z) and A has finite order m. We first prove the following
Lemma (Serre). Let A E SL(k,Z) have finite order in> 1. If A I mod n,

then in = n = 2.
PROOF. (Due to C. J. Earle). Let p be a prime factor of n. Then A I mod IA
where ! 1. If we show that p = m = 2 and I = 1, then the lemma will follow
easily. We break the argument down into a series of steps.
a. If A I mod p', then ! = 1.
PROOF. Let q be a prime factor of m. So m = qr. Then B = A' has order q,

and B -a I mod pl. So B = (I + psX), where X is integral, with each element
of X prime to p, and s _>_ 1> 1. Now
I = (I + p')09 = 1+ tip s x + p 2 3 y.
Thus
qX = —psY,
and so
q =p and X = — p' Y .
Again, since p does not divide X, s = 1 and since s 1 > 1, also 1 = 1.
b. A has order p.
PROOF. Since p is prime, we need only show AP = 1. Clearly AP has finite
order, and by (a)
I p2x + p 2 y = I
AP = (I + pX)P =+ + p2 y ,
so AP a. I mod p2. This contradicts (a) unless AP = I.
c. p = 2.
PROOF. Otherwise p is an odd prime, and p ?._. 3, and
I = (I + pX)P = I + ppX + P(P — ')2y2 + p3y.

2
Thus
—x = p (1)--- ) X 2 + p Y.
2
But p is odd, and so p divides the right hand side. This is the final
contradiction. D
The above has as an immediate consequence the following
Theorem. There is a natural homomorphism

h:Aut M — ■ Sp(g,Z.).
For g > 2, n 3, h is injective. For g 2 and n = 2 only automorphisms
of order 2 are in the kernel of h.
V.4. The Exceptional Riemann Surfaces

We have seen in 1V.6, that there are a few Riemann surfaces with commuta-
tive fundamental groups—the so called "exceptional surfaces". We shall
now encounter the same surfaces in a slightly different context.
V.4.1. We want to describe all Riemann surfaces M for which Aut M is
not discrete. We shall not bother defining what we mean by Aut M not being
discrete. We will establish a result which will hold with any reasonable
concept of discreteness for Aut M. We state it as a
Theorem. A ut M is not a discrete group if and only if M is conformally equiva-

lent to one of the following Riemann surfaces:
1. C fœl,
2. C,
3. 4 = {z E C, iZi < 1 } ,
4. C* = (01,
5. A* ..4\{O},
6. = {z E C, r < Izi < 1), 0 < r < 1,
7. a torus, C/G, where G is the free group generated by the two translations
7.1.—oz+
V.4.2. In any standard book on complex analysis, the reader will find a
description of the automorphism groups of the three simply connected
Riemann surfaces. We have used this information already in IV.5.2. We
repeat it here:
Aut(C {x}) PL(2,C)
Aut C P4(2,C)
Aut 4 Aut U PL(2,1/).
The above are clearly not discrete subgroups of PL(2,C). As a matter of fact
they are Lie groups. The first two are complex Lie groups (of complex
dimensions 3 and 2, respectively). The last is a real Lie group (of real di-
mension 3).
V.4.3. It is clear that every automorphism A of C* extends to one of
C {CO}. Furthermore, A must either fix 0 and oo or interchange these
points. Thus the automorphism group of C* consists of Möbius transforma-
tions of the form
z kz or
Hence Aut C* is isomorphic to a 74 -extension of C*.

V.4.4. Every automorphism of 4* extends to an automorphism of 4 that
fixes O. Thus Aut 4* is the rotation group
z eiez
which is isomorphic to the circle group .51 .

V.4.5. Let M be a Riemann surface with holomorphic universal covering
map it: i17/ -+ M. Let G be the covering group of it. We claim that
Aut M N(G)/G,
where N(G) is the normalizer of G in Aut k. The verification is easy and

straightforward—and left to the reader. We shall show that in the non-
exceptional cases N(G) is already a discrete subgroup of Aut M.
V.4.6. Let us consider the surface A,. Its holomorphic universal covering
space is U and its covering group G is generated by C:z 1—* Az for some
A> 1 (the relation between A and r was given by IV(6.8.1)). Let A E N(G).
Thus
A Co = CI I ,
since conjugation by A is an automorphism of G. Note that A o Cod' =C
implies (by Lemma IV.6.6) that A is hyperbolic with 0 and x as fixed points;
that is, a mapping of the form
kz, k> 0. (4.6.1)
We are left with the case A 0 C = C". Since A o C' = C, we
conclude that A' commutes with C and is of the form (4.6.1). Thus N(G) is
trivial or a 12-extension of the hyperbolic subgroup of Aut U fixing 0 and
rx: (this group is isomorphic to the multiplicative positive numbers). To show
we have a 1 2-extension, we must find just one Möbius transformation that
conjugates C into C. Clearly, z 1-0 —(11z) will do this. We wish to see what
N(G)/G looks like as a group of motions of 4„ First let us consider the
mapping (4.6.1). Recall the holomorphic universal covering
p:U —* A,
is given by
log
p(z) = exp( 2ni
log;,) •
Thus a (multivalued) inverse of p is given by
1
z )—* exp (- log A log z),
2ni
From this it follows that z 1—* kz induces the automorphism (a rotation)
z e acciz of d„ where ko = (2n log k)/log A. Note that these automorphisms
are extendable to 5 4 , and fix each boundary component (as a set). The
automorphism corresponding to z )—• — (11 z) is z rlz. This map also has
a continuous extension to 54, and switches the boundary components. We
see that Aut A, is isomorphic to a 12-extension of the circle group.
V.4.7. We examine next the torus. Let the covering group G of the torus
T be generated by z 1-0 z + 1 and zi—• z + t 1m t > O. It is quite easy to see
,
that A(z) = az + to (A e Aut C) is in N(G) if and only if a and at are generators

for the lattice G. In particular, all the translations (a = 1) are in N(G). Thus,
Aut T contains T(^.--t' C/G) as a commutative subgroup. (We have thus shown
that Aut T is never discrete.)
When is Aut T a proper extension of T? First, since a and at are two

linearly independent (over Z) periods that generate the group G we have
= 2 + f3T, LIT = 2T + fh 2 = + St, (4.7.1)
with X =[; ,Pd E SL (2 2 ). In particular, we see that for (Aut T)IT to be
non-trivial, T must satisfy the quadratic algebraic equation with integral
coefficients
pT 2 + (c( — syr — 7 = 0. (4.7.2)
If /3 = 0, then y = 0 and a = ô = +1 and the equation (4.7.2) reduces to
the trivial equation. Since a = 1 corresponds to a translation, the only new
automo,rphism (a = — ljnin this case is the one corresponding to z 1— ■ —z.
Thus Aut T always contains a 12-extension of T. If fi 0, the question
becomes more complicated. We have of course shown that for most T (in
particular for all transcendental t), Aut T is a 1 2-extension of T.
Assume that # 0 0. Equation (4.7.2) asserts that the Meibius transforma-
tion corresponding to X E SL(2,Z)has a fixed point T in the upper half plane.
Thus X must be an elliptic element.
If A E Aut T, then we can write A uniquely as
A = A 1 0 A2,
where .9, fixes 0 and A2 E T. To show that (Aut T)/T is finite we have to
show that the stability subgroup of the origin is finite. We may assume that
A E (Aut T) 0 is given by z at:. The number a E C * is, of course, subject
to the restriction (4.7.1). Simple calculations show that
a = 1 X ± NI X 2 — 4
2 2
with x the trace of the elliptic element X e SL(2,7L)/+I.
Since SL(2,1) has only finitely many conjugacy classes of elliptic elements,
the number of a's is finite. (Since 0 < x2 G 4, we must have al = 1. As an
exercise prove this another way.)
V.4.8. It remains to show that we have exhausted all M with Aut M not
discrete. We may restrict our attention to those surfaces whose universal
covering space is the unit disc (or the upper half plane U).
Let G be the covering group of M. Suppose there exists a distinct sequence
fn e N(G) such that lim„ f„-= 1. Choose 1 0 A E G and observe that
lim„f„.Aof„-1 .21 -1 = 1. Since f, o A o f, o A'eG, there exists an N
such that f„o A o f1 o A 1 = 1 for n > N. Thus f,, commutes with A for
large n. If A is parabolic, then by Lemma IV.6.6 so is f„ for large n; and A
and f„ have a common fixed point. Since 1 0 A E G was arbitrary, G is a
commutative parabolic group and by Theorem IV.6.1, M is the punctured
disc.
Similarly, if A is hyperbolic, every element of G is hyperbolic and com-
mutes with A. Appealing to the same earlier theorem, we see that M is an
annulus.
CHAPTER vi
Theta Functions
We have seen in Chapters III and IV how to construct meromorphic func-

tions on Riemann surfaces. In this chapter, we construct holomorphic
functions on the Jacobian variety of a compact surface, and via the embedding
of the Riemann surface into its Jacobian variety, multivalued holomorphic
functions on the surface. The high point of our present development is the
Riemann vanishing theorem (Theorem VI.3.5). Along the way, we will re-
prove the Jacobi inversion theorem.
VIA. The Riemann Theta Function
In this section we develop the basic properties of Riemann's theta function.

VL1.1. We fix an integer g > 1. Let eg denote the space of complex
symmetric g x g matrices with positive definite imaginary part. Clearly,
ag is a subset of the 1/2g(g + 1)-dimensional manifold X of symmetric
g x g matrices. To show that Z, is a manifold, it suffies to show that it is
an open subset of X. But a real symmetric matrix is positive if and only if all
its eigenvalues are positive. Thus if r o E Ice r o has positive eigenvalues.
Since this also holds for all r e X sufficiently close to r o, S9 is an open
subset of X. The space CS g is known as the Siegel upper half space of genus g.
(Note that E i is the upper half plane, U.) We define Riemann's theta func-
tion by
1
o(z,i) = E exp 2 14- iNTN +Wz),
2
Nag
VI.I. The Riemann Theta Function 281
where z E Cg (viewed as a column vector) and r E Z 9, and the sum extends

over all integer vectors in Cg. To show that 0 converges absolutely and
uniformly on compact subsets of Cg x ag, we review some algebraic and
analytic concepts.
First of all, as we already observed, every (real) symmetric matrix has
real eigenvalues. Next, every real symmetric positive definite matrix has
positive eigenvalues. Furthermore, for a real symmetric matrix T, the
smallest eigenvalue is given as the minimum of the quadratic form (here ( , )
is the usual inner product in Rg)
(TX,X), X E. Rg, Ilxii = 1
(we use to denote the Euclidean norm).

For z e we let A(T) = minimum eigenvalue of 1m T. Then A(r) > 0,
and if K is a compact subset of Eg we also have
min {A(T)} A o > 0,
r ER
because
ag X R9 9 (T,X)1--). r)x,x) e R
is a continuous function.
To show convergence of 0 on compact subsets of Cg x Zg, it suffices to
show convergence in a region
K = {(z,T)E C X eg ; M and ;(T) > 0).
We note that
lexp 2ni(itNTN + 1Nz)1= exp Im(--R`NrN — 27eNz).
Now by the characterization of minimum eigenvalues:
/ N N \
Im(-7eNTN)= —n((lm r)N,N) = u11N11 2 Vim 1. ) --
, )
IINII IINII
--/r1INPA(r)
and by the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality
1m( — 270 s z) 24Nzi = 2n1(z,N)I 2nMliNli.
Thus an upper estimate for the absolute value of the general term of (1.1.1) is
exp( + = exp( — nlIN11 2.1.0 (1 IIN

2A110 )).
Now only finitely many terms N e Zg satisfy the equation

2M 1
IINIP-0 2
282 VI Theta Functions
(because N is an integer vector). Thus for all but finitely many terms, the
general term of (1.1.1) is bounded in absolute value by
exp( — lir). 011N11 2),
and our series is majorized by
E exp(--21 70.01!NI1 2) = E exp(--,..1120 E ni)

N EZ0 Neill 4 J=1
g 1
E exp(
2
10. 04
J=1 nj=
which converges since each factor converges (by the Cauchy root test, for
example).
We have shown that a is a holomorphic function on C9 x We shall
be mostly interested in this function with fixed "C E In this case, we will
abbreviate 0(:,r) by 0(4
Remark. The one variable theta function

1
= E exp n't + nz], Z C, E U, (1.1.2)
n=— 2
already has a non-trivial theory.
VI.1.2. We now proceed to study the periodicity of the theta function.

Let I. = I denote the g x g identity matrix.
Proposition. Let p, p' E Z. Then

0(z + IA' + rp,z) = exp —`pz — 4jrri.d0(z,r), (1.2.1)
for all z E Cg, all r E
PROOF. We start with the definition (1.1.1)
0(z + + -cp,t)
1
=E exp bar'NrN + tiV(z + I p' + Ty)]
2
Nezg
1 1
=E exp 2.7ti[- '(N + p)-c(N + p)+ t(N + p)z — — `ptp +
2 2
— 527.1
Ne In
(to obtain the above identity use the fact that t t =
= exp lni[—raz — pap] exp 27ri[i t(N + p)T(N + p)+`(N + p)z]

Ne Zg
(because 'N E Z)
= exp 2ni[—` /Az — 4tyrid0(z,r)
(because (N + p) is just as good a summation index as N).
VI. I. The Riemann Theta Function 283
Corollary 1. Let eu ) be the j-th column of I. Then

0(z + eu),r)= 0(.7.T.), : e C9, all T
PROOF. Take It' = eu),t = O.
Corollary 2. Let t the k-th column of s, and Tkk the (k,k)-entry of T. Then
rkk
0(z + r(k),r)= exp 2ni[ - z - —]0(:,r), all : e tg, all r E S9, (1.2.3)
k 2
where z k is the k-th component of:.
..- -
PROOF. Take y' = 0, y = e(". 0
Remark. It is also easy to verify that 0 is an even function of z. Thus in addi-
tion to our basic formula (1.2.1), we also have
0( - z,r) = 0(:,t), all z e Cg, all TE ag. (1.2.4)

VI.I.3. Formula (1.2.1) suggests that we should regard the 2g vectors
eU ), j = 1, . . . , g, ru), j = 1, . . . , g, as periods of 0(:,r). Of course, only the
first g vectors are actually periods; however, if we consider the g x 2g
matrix, Q = (/,,T), we can rewrite (1.2.1) as
1
0(z + S2[11 ] r) = exp 2niRA[11 ])z - - 'pry] 0(:,t), (1.3.1)
2
where A is the g x 2g matrix (0, - If we now denote by e , k = 1, . , 2g,
the 2g columns of the 2g x 2g identity matrix we can rewrite (1.2.2) and
(1.2.3) as
0(z + Qe(k) ,r) = exp 2/ti[t(Ae (k) )z + yk]0(z,r), (1.3.2)
where yk is the kth component of the vector y in C29 defined by
... ...
A holomorphic function, f, on C9 which satisfies the conditions
fiz + Qe(k))= exp 27ri['(2ek) )z + 7k] f(z), k =-- 1, . . . , 2g,
all z E C9, with Q and A g x 2g matrices and 7 E C 2g, is called a multiplica-

tive function of type (52,A,y). What we have seen here is that 0(z,$) is a
multiplicative function of type (Q,),,y) on C9 with Q = (LT), A = (0,- I),
y = - Y(0, . ,O,r i 1 , ... ,T99). Given Q, A, and 7, we can ask whether there
exist multiplicative functions of this type. We shall, however, not pursue
this question any further. There is, of course, an intimate connection between
these questions and function theory on complex tori (recall III.11).
VI.1.4. More generally, we shall consider in place of 0(z) the function
obtained by taking a translate of z namely 0(z + e) for some e e C. It is
clear that
0(z + e + et")) = 0(z + e), (1.4.1)
and that
Tkk
0(z + e + T( ) = exp 2n[
i - z k - ek - — 10(z + e). (1.4.2)
2
The connection between theta functions and the theory of multiply periodic
functions on Cg is seen rather clearly when one considers two distinct points,
d and e E Cg, and sets
0(z + e)0(7 - e)
= f(z). (1.4.3)
d)
It is clear from (1.4.1) and (1.4.2) that f(z) in (1.4.3) is a periodic meromorphic
function on Cg with periods eti), rtn, j = 1, . . . , g.
Recall that the columns of the g x 2g matrix (I,r) are linearly independent
over R. Hence, every e e Cg can be uniquely expressed as e = le' + TE with
e, e' points in R9. Hence 0(z + e) = 0(z + + TO. This suggests that for any
e, e' E R9 we define a function on Cg xC.A. by
2s 1
1(z,r) = yexp 274- t(N + c)r(N + e) + `(N + e)(: +
2
(1.4.4)
0[2s' NeZe
We observe at once that
=
and in general
26 I 1
0[ 1(z r) = exp 276[- :A/TN + ' N(z + — 'et& + tez +
2er N is 2 2
, 1,
= exp .ari[- 'STE t EZ t E816(Z + + TE,T). (1.4.5)
2
From the last equality it follows that for integral p, p' e Zg, we have (because
of (1.2.1))
1
0[28 1(Z + lie T/4, = exp 27ri[- ETE t EZ t EE' t EGI '
2s' 2
x 0(z + le' + te + + TA, i)
1
exp 21rik'sre + + tee'] exp 21i[e(ii + Ty)
1
- '1(z + le' + Te) - - '114(1 0(z + le' + se, T)
2
1 2e
= exp 24--
'tap- f izz + tp's - tpte1[ 1
2 2e'
(1.4.6)
V1.1. The Ricmann Theta Function 285
In particular, we have
26
0 [ 1(z + e(*),T) = exp 27ri[ek] Or] (1.4.7)
2e
and
E
0[26 ](z + z (k),T) = exp 4 0 2-- e, (Z,T). (1.4.8)
2e' zk
VI.1.5. For us the most important case is when 24 and 24 E Z. Let e, e' e Z9.
Then OM (z,t) is called the first order theta- function with integer characteristic
D.1
Proposition. The first order theta function with integer characteristic [e] has
the following properties:
6 ](z + e(*),T)= exp 2niNO[ E,](z,T), (1.5.1)

0[c' 2 e
9[6 1(z + r( , = exp "'Tit — k — — ]0[e ](z,-r), (1.5.2)

2 2 s'
0 (_z,T)= exp 276[--

10[8e ' (z,r), ]
(1.5.3)
[:]
and
or+ 2v 1 (zr) = ex p 2 7t i —
tcv' 0 (z (1.5.4)
E' 2 [e
(Here y and y' are integer vectors in Z9.)
PROOF. Equations (1.5.1) and (1.5.2) are simply the restatements of (1.4.7)
and (1.4.8). Equations (1.5.3) and (1.5.4) are derived in the same way as (1.4.5),
(1.2.4), and (1.2.1). LI
The importance of the statements (1.5.3) and (1.5.4) is that we immediately
have the following
Corollary. Up to sign there are exactly 229 different first order theta functions
with integer characteristics. Of these 29- '(29 + 1) are even functions, while
29- '(29 — 1) are odd. These 229 functions can be thought to correspond to the
229 points of order 2 in Cg/<1,0, where at> means the group of translations
of C9 generated by the columns of (./,T).
PROOF. The only part needing some comment is the number of even and
odd functions. This is established by an easy induction argument. LI
EXAMPLE. When g -- 1 the three even functions arc: O[g](z,r), 0[?](:.-r), and
OW(z,r). The odd function is 0[1](z,r). When g 2 the six odd functions are:
[i o i
](:t)
0,,
o[ o[i ].7A (
o r0 1,i (z,r), 1 ](-7,0, o[ 1
Remarks
1. For the first order theta functions with integer characteristic, 0[:.](::,r),
the even ones are precisely those for which t e.E' 0 (mod 2) and the odd
ones those for which iCe' -Z4 1 (mod 2).
[ ]( ,T) + — t+
= exp 2ni [—
re
— —Z
re
--
1,(
2. Formula (1.4.5) applied to the case of integer characteristic yields
1 re
Z+ / — +T—
e
In particular, if 0[:,](z,r) is an odd function, we have 0 = 0[](0,r) =

exp 2riRee/2)T(e/2) + (tel2)(672)]0(I(e72)+ r(e/2),r). The points 1(672) +
r(e/2) are points of order 2 in Cyl,r> and will be called even or odd
depending on whether Oraz,r) is an even or odd function. Hence we
immediately see that the Riemann theta function 0(z,t) = 0[8](z,z) always
vanishes at the odd points of order two or at what we shall call odd
half-periods.
VI.2. The Theta Functions Associated with

a Riemann Surface
In the preceding section we have defined and derived some of the basic
properties of first order theta functions with characteristics. In this section
we show how to associate with a compact Riemann surface a collection
of first order theta functions and study the behavior of these functions as
"functions" on the Riemann surface. The basic result of this section is the
following: A first order theta function either vanishes identically on the
Riemann surface or else has precisely g zeros (g = genus of the surface).
In the latter case, we can evaluate the zero divisor of the theta function
(more precisely, we can determine the image of the divisor in the Jacobian
variety of the surface).
VI.2.1. Let M be a compact Riemann surface of genus g > 1. Let t{a,b}
,691 be a canonical homology basis on M, and let
= be a basis for dri(m) dual to the canonical homology
basis (recall 111.6.1).
We thus obtain a g x 2g matrix (1,17) with ell) = C, nu) = jb, C, where

as usual eland 1t1» are the jth columns of the matrices 1 and 17 respectively.
We have already seen that the matrix 17 is a complex symmetric matrix
with positive definite imaginary part. It follows therefore, from VI.1.1, that
we can define first order theta functions with characteristics using the matrix
17. We therefore obtain, as in VI.1.5, 229 theta functions 9 [e](z,17).
VI.2.2. There are, of course, many ways to choose a canonical homology

basis on M. If {a'1 , ,k) = 1 {a',6'} is another canonical homol-
ogy basis, and ttr,',, ... 4,1 = t: is the basis for if i(M) dual to this new basis,
we obtain a new g x 2g matrix (I, 11'), and can define first order theta func-
tions with characteristics using the matrix II'. We have seen in Chapter V
that
rdi F AB ird]
Lid =Lc D. jLb
with t] e Sp(g,Z). Thus using obvious vector notation
a' = Aa + Bb,
S . ; = S4a, Bb A + Bll,
and hence
C' = (A + B17) -1 C,
and
17' = C' =Sc. Db (A + BI7) -1 C = (A + B17) -1 (C + D17).
Thus II and 17' are related by an element of the symplectic modular group
of degree g. The relation among the corresponding theta functions involves
then the study of modular forms for the symplectic modular group (which
will not be pursued here).
VI.2.3. We shall for the remainder of this chapter assume that the
Riemann surface M has on it a fixed canonical homology basis ' {a,b} =
{a 1 , . ,b9}, and we will study the theta functions associated with
M and qa,b1 as functions on M. We do this by recalling that we have intro-
duced in 111.6 a map 9:M J(M) = Cg/L(M), where L(M) is the lattice
(over Z) generated by the 2g columns of the matrix (1,17). Recall that q was
defined by choosing a point Po e M and setting 9(P) = C, where C =
t (C i , ,C9) is the basis of OW) dual to ' {a,b}. We now consider 0 0 9 and
in this way view 0 or 0[ ] , where [ e ] is an integer characteristic, as a func-
tion on M. The reader is, of course, aware that 0 0 9 is not single valued on
M, since 9 is not single valued (as a function into C9) on M, but depends on
the path of integration. We have seen (Proposition 111.6.1) that the map 9
is well defined into J(M), and therefore the function 0 o q has a very simple
multiplicative behavior. The behavior of this function is not quite as simple
as the behavior of the functions considered in 111.9, since here the multiplier
x acquired by continuation over a cycle depends on the variable z as well as

the cycle. At any rate, it is immediate from Proposition V1.1.5, that con-
tinuation of O [ .] c (p along the closed curve a, (respectively, b,) beginning at
a point P e M, multiplies it by
x(a,) = exp 246,/2], (2.3.1)
X(bi) = exp 2iti[ —4/2 — it,,/2 — (PAN, (2.3.2)

or we may say more simply that analytic continuation of Oft] o (p over the
curve a, (respectively, b,) beginning at P carries OM o y) into
exp 2ni[el/2]O[,] o (r)
(respectively, exp 2iti[—s;/2 — 7r 11/2 — y),(P)]0[] o cp), where q), is the /th
component of the map ça. It therefore follows that Oft] 0 ça is a holomorphic
multiplicative function on M with multipliers given by (2.3.1) and (2.3.2).
VI.2.4. We now wish to study the zeros of O[] o q) on M. We observe

that even though Oftaz,/7) is not a single valued function on J(M) =
Cg/L(M), the set of zeros of O [ .](:.11) is a well defined set on J(M) (Prop-
osition VI.1.5). The set of zeros of Oftl(z,z), for any symmetric s with
1m r > 0, is an analytic set in Cg of codimension one and in particular for
T = 17, the zeros of Ofti(z./7) form an analytic set of codimension one in
J(M). The map (p, by Proposition 111.6.1, is a holomorphic mapping of
maximal rank of M into J(M). The study of the zeros of O [ .] o q) on M is
thus the study of the intersection of the image of M in J(M) under (f) and
the analytic set consisting of the zeros of û[l(z,/7). Since M is compact
there are only two possibilities. Either Oftl 0 q; vanishes identically on M
or else Oft] o y) has only a finite number of zeros on M. Neglecting for the
moment the former possibility, can we determine how many zeros does
Oft] o y) have on M?
It involves no loss of generality to assume that no zero of O [z .] o (p lies
on any curve chosen as a representative for the canonical homology basis.
In order to count the number of zeros, we need to evaluate
1
d log OM o (p,
where If is the polygon associated with M whose boundary consists of

representatives for the canonical homology basis OM = [ljO I aibia7 '1); 1 ).
In order to further simplify notation we shall denote O[] 0 q) by f.
We now compute
df
27E1 h-a f 27ri Jak+bo + f
1 r df r (cif df
= + ibk
where f - denotes the value of f on the cycle ak-1 or bk-1 . It follows imme-
diately from (2.3.1) and (2.3.2) that if P is a point on ak
Ck _.... -n kk
f - (P) = exp 2n[
i --- —.
2 2
while if P is a point on 6,,
f(P) = exp 2701f (P).
Thus for P a point of b - df /f )(P) = 0, while for P a point of ak,

(df/f df /f )(P) = Ini9(P). It therefore -follows that (1/2ni) J (df/ f) =
(1/2710 Ef.„ , fak 27Ci9;,(z)dz = g. We are here exploiting the fact that 91(z)dz
is the kth element of the basis of ,r)(M) dual to the homology basis
(a l , ,b9 }. At any rate, we have shown that if O[] o q, is not
identically zero it has precisely g zeros on M (counting multiplicities).
The next natural question which arises in regard to the zeros is: can we
find the divisor of zeros? What we shall do is find the image of the divisor
of zeros of OM o go under the induced map on integral divisors of degree g,
9: Mg J(M). To this end we consider (1/2ni) J,4 9(df/f), where 9 is the
column vector `(9 ,q,) and f = Orj yo. We immediately find that
= f _df = r 41*
27ri f 27ri k= 1 Jak+ bk+a + DA' 97
."
= 1 [ r (4) df_ _ df -) r df _ df
27ri kL
:
=1 Jak f 9 ibk 9 f -
where (p - plays the same role for 9 as f - served for f. We once again use
the relation between f - and f and the fact that for P a point on a,,, 9 - =
9 n(k), while for P a point on bk, 9 = (p - e ). Thus
1 Fr df
= Liak 9 y— fd - 27d9' (z)
+ n (k))(i k dz)
fbk Op - e- df
- 9 _ df -]-
n(k) dff + 2nin(k) 9(z)dz + 27ci99;,(z)dz
,‘L= ' a k L
1 g f 00 df -
+—
27ri =
e Ef-•
We now need to evaluate integrals of the form f,,k (df/f) and fbk (df/f).
Since df/f = d log f, the integral in question is simply log f(P 1 ) - log
where P 1 = P2 are the initial and terminal points of the cycle a„ (or kJ.
(The difference is not zero, since we must use different "branches" of f.) We
now once again use (2.3.1) and (2.3.2) to obtain for P i and P2 initial and
terminal points of a„, f(P2)= exp[2ni(sk/2)]f(P,), and for P, and P2 initial

and terminal points of b,./.(P2) = exp 2iti[ -(412 ) - Orkki 2 ) - (Pk(P fiP 1).
This shows that
= 1 g
- it 2ni + 2nink + n(k)2ni + f ahcp(p(z)dz
t
k, bri
1 9
4ni
E k= 1
Ek
e0127,i(--
2
nkk - pk) + 2itim k],
-—
2
where mk and nk are integers. It therefore follows that
1 df
=—
27r1 Li 9 f
g E ek) s'
n(k) (1 — nk )
2 2
2kk (pet)
+ I (pcp'k dz - e( 5--
or finally
E
= - TI - - / - + lin + lm - K,
2 2
where
9
K=-
k
E [f ak
7rkk
cpcpkdz - em(-- + (p k(P,))].
2
(2.4.1)
Remark and Definition. The vector K depends, of course, on the choice of the
canonical homology basis and the choice of the base point P o of the map (p.
(There is an illusory dependence on the base point P, of n 1(M) which can
be dispensed with by choosing P, = Po in the above.) The vector K is
known as the vector of Riemann constants. We have proved the following
Theorem. Let M be a compact Riemann surface of genus g 1 with canonical

homology basis tfa,b1. Let O[e](z,17) be the first order theta function associated
with (M,({a,b}) and let cp be the map M J(M). Then 0[:.] o p is either
identically zero as a function on M or else has precisely g zeros on M. In
this case let P, • • • Pg be the divisor of zeros. We then have (p(P, • • • Pd =
- lit/2 - Is72 + lin +1m - K, where n and m are integer vectors and K is
a vector which depends on the canonical homology basis `{a,b} and the base
point of the map (p:M -* J(M). In particular, since fin + Im is the zero point
of J(M), we have (P1 • • • Pg) + K = Ilc/2 - 1872.
Remark Consider the "function" on M

P 1-* 0((P) - e),
with e E Cg. If this "function" does not vanish identically on M, it has g

zeros P,, , Pg. The theorem asserts (sec (1.4.5)), that
y(P i • Pg) + K = e
(where in the last equation we understand by e not the point in C 9, but its
projection in Cg/L(M)). Our remark is valid because in the proof of the
theorem € and e' were arbitrary points in tRg (we never used the fact that the
characteristics were integral).
VI.2.5. We wish next to characterize the zero set of 0r,1(z,11) as a subset
of J(M). In view of (1.4.540nd (1.4.6) it suffices to consider only the functions
. -
of the form
zi-■ 0(z - e),
with fixed e e Cg. It is now convenient to review some concepts that we
studied in 111.1 1. Recall that for every integer n > 1, M,, denotes the integral
divisors of degree n on M (or equivalently the n-fold symmetric product of
M). Using the mapping 9: 211„ J(M), we can view 0 as a locally defined
holomorphic function on M„. Also, W„ denotes the image in J(M) of M„
under the mapping (p. Recall that for De M„ (Proposition III.11.11(a)),
the Jacobian of the mapping cp has rank n + 1 - r(D - I), which by Riemann-
Roch equals g - i(D). Taking n = g and a non-special divisor D e M., we
conclude that
J(M)
is a local homeomorphism at D. Thus since 0 # 0, 0 does not vanish iden-
tically on any open subset of Mg.
VI.3. The Theta Divisor

In this section we begin a study of the divisor of zeros of the theta function,
culminating in the Riemann vanishing theorem (Theorem VI.3.5), which
prescribes in a rather detailed manner the zero set of the 0-function on V.
We also obtain necessary and sufficient conditions for the 0-function to
vanish identically on the Riemann surface (Theorem VI.3.3) and as a by-
product, an alternate proof of the Jacobi inversion theorem.
VI.3.1. Theorem. Let e e C°. Then 0(e) = 0 if and only if e e U'_ 1 + K,

where K is the vector of constants of Theorem VI.2.4.
PROOF. We first show that if e e Wg _ + K, then 0(e) = O. To this end, choose
a point = P 1 • • • Pg in Mg with P, 0 pi for k éj such that i() = O. If' is
any other point in Mg sufficiently close to then since 40 = i(P " ' Pp) =
g - rank(CaP)), i(Ç) = 0 as well. Set e = to( ) + K and consider OP) =
0(9(P) - e) as a function of P e M.
There are now two possibilities to consider. Either i/c is identically zero
or not. In the former case, we have for each k = 1, . , g,
0((p(P,) — (OP, • • • P9) + K)) = O(—(P 1 • • • P„ • • • Pg)- K)
= 0((P(P • • • Pk • • P g) + K)= 0
(where we have used symbol P 1 • • Pk • • • P9 to mean Pk does not appear in

the divisor) because (by (1.2.4)) 0 is an even function. In the latter case,
we have from Theorem VI.2.4 that ik has precisely g zeros on M, say,
Q1, , Q9 , and that (p(Q, • • Q9) + K = e. Since ,`," = P, • • P9 was chosen
so that i(P i P9) = 0, it follows from the Riemann-Roch theorem and
Abel's theorem that Q, • • • Q9 P, • • • Pg. Therefore, even in this case we
have 0((p(P2 ' • ' Pk • • P9) + K) = 0 for each k = 1, . , g. The remark at
the beginning of this proof showed that the divisors of the form under
consideration, = P, • • • P9, with Pi 0 P, for j o k and i(;)=-- 0, form a
dense subset of M9 . Thus divisors of the form P, - • Pk • • • P9 form a dense
subset of M9 _ Hence 0 vanishes identically on W9 _ 1 + K.
Conversely, suppose 0(e) = O. Let s be the least integer such that
— — e) 0 but 0( W, — W, — e) # O. Here W, — W, has the
obvious meaning (e e W, — W, <=> e = f — h with f,heiV,.). Our remarks
at the end of VI.2.5 immediately give 1 s g. The hypothesis we have
thus far made assures us of the existence of two points in M, say 4. = P1 • • •
co = Q, • • • Qs such that 0((p(P 1 • • • Ps) — cp(Q, • • • Q 3)— e) O. We can
assume without loss of generality that P1 0 Pi for k j, Q„ Q. for k é j,
and P,, é Qi for all k, j.
Consider now the function P 1—* 0((p(P)+ 4 (P2 • • • P,)— cp(Q, • - • Qs) — e).
This function does not vanish identically as a function on M, since P = P,
is not a zero. On the other hand, it is immediately clear that P = Qi,
j = 1, . , s, is a zero of this function. It therefore follows from Theorem
VI.2.4 that for some T, • • • 7"9 _, e M9 _,
(AQI• • • Q.) - (P(P2 . • • PJ) + e = (P( 421 • • 42.Ti 9 „) + K (3.1.1)

or that
e = cp(T, • • - T9 _,P2 • Ps) + K, (3.1.2)
which is obviously a point of W9 _ 1 + K. (Note that the above arguments

work also for s = 1.) El
VI.3.2. We now observe that we can really prove a bit more than we have
claimed in VI.3.1. The points = P, • • Ps and co Q, • • • Q, utilized in
the above proof, were fairly arbitrary in the sense that any other points
t;', co' e M, which are sufficiently close to and w would have worked as
well. We also found that e = cp(T • • T 9 ,P2 • • • Ps) e M 9 _ 1 has at least
s — 1 "arbitrary" points P2 , , Ps in it. Let D' = ' • • Ps be arbitrary but
V1.3. The Theta Divisor 293
close to P2 • • ' P,. The argument of VI.3.1 shows

e = (p(T, • • • T. s P2 • • • PJ+ K
ça(T', • • • T'9 _,P, • • • P's) + K.
Thus T, T._ sP, • • • Ps — T',- • • T._ 5 1Y2 - • • P', by Abel's theorem.
Lemma 111.8.15 now implies that r(1/7- 1 • • T9 -5P2 ' P3) s and thus
(by Riemann-Roch) that i(T, • - T 9 _ 5P2 • • • P5) s.
On the other hand, suppose that e = (WO+ K with d e M9 _ 1 and
i(d) = s. Then d has precisely s — 1 "arbitrary" points. Any point X of
Ws _ — Ws _ — e is of the form cp(P 1 - • P„,) (p(Q, • • Q 3 _ 1 )— e, with
e = 9(41+ K = (p(P, • .....P s _ 1 3) + K and e Mg ,. Therefore, we have
-
X = (P(Pi ' • ' — (1)(421 • Q5-1) -(P 1 P.--16) — K
• • •
= — 4) (Q1 • • Os--1 6) — K;
and X e —(14/9 _ + K): and 0(X) = O.

We can therefore now strengthen slightly Theorem VI.3.1 to the following
Theorem. For e e C9, 0(e) = 0 if and only if e e + K. /f e e 1479 _, + K,

and e = (P(;) + K with i: e M 9 _ 1 and i() = s 1), then 0(Ws -- — W,_ — e)
O. Conversely, if s is the least integer such that 0(W,, — Ws _ — 0 but
0(1K — W — e)# 0, then e = 9(;)+ K with e 9 _ 1 and i() = s.
PROOF. All but the last remark is contained in the discussion preceding the
statement of the theorem. In the discussion we only showed i(C) s; however,
the statement i(;) = s is an immediate consequence of the one preceding it.
If i(C)> s, we would have O( W3 — W5 — e) 0 contrary to the hypothesis.
VI.3.3. In the above analysis we have several times encountered the

multivalued holomorphic function on M
:P 0(cp(P) e),
with fixed e e J(M). (Recall that since cp depends on the choice of base point
Po e M, so does the above function.) We have observed that ti/ either van-
ishes identically or else has precisely g zeros. When does each of these
possibilities occur? The answer is contained in the following
Theorem
a. If e e J(M) and -L=. 0, then e = cp(D) + K for some D e M. with i(D)=
s > 1, and s is the least integer such that
0 1 4 s+i — — O.
b. If e = cp(D)+ K, D e M9, then tk # 0 if and only if i(D)= 0 and D is the
=. 0 if and only if i(D)> 0.
divisor of zeros of O. In particular, III 7..
PROOF. Let s be the least integer such that 0( Ws , — W, — e) O. Then

0 s 5 g — 1. Choose P 1, ... P,, i, Q 1 , , Q, such that
019(P1 • i) — (DWI • • Q.) — O.
Consider the function
P 0(49(P) + (P(P 2 • ' ' Ps+ 1) — (1)(Q1 • Qs) —
which does not vanish identically (it is non-zero at P1 ). It then has (by the
minimality of s) g zeros
Q i, • • • QS , Ti, • • • , Tu-s•
Thus, again by Theorem VI.2.4, we conclude that
60(Qi • • 12,T • • T g -,)+ K = (t)(421 • • Qs) — (P(P2' • Ps+0+ e;

or that
e = 9(T i - • T g -sP2 • • " Ps4-1)+KeWg +K.
As before, the divisor D = T1 - • T g ...,P2 • • P„1 has s free points. Thus
r(D -1 ) s + 1 and (by Riemann-Roch) i(D) s. We have established part
(a), since ik a 0 implies s 1.
To establish part (b), note that by (a) if i(D) = 0, then tp 0 O. Conversely,
suppose i(D) > 0 and ik 0 O. Choose Q e M such that iii(Q) o O. Lemma
111.8.15, implies that there exists a D' e Mg _, such that 9(D) = 9(QD'). We
now use Theorem VI.3.1 to conclude that
1,0(Q) = 0(9(Q) — e) = 0(9(D) — 9(D') — e)
= 0( — 9(D') — K) = 0(9(D') + K)= O.
This contradiction shows that tfr O.
To conclude the proof of part (b) we must verify that whenever e =
9(D) + K, D e Mg, and i(D) = 0, then D is indeed the divisor of zeros of
Let D' be the divisor of zeros of then p(D) = 9(D'). Since i(D) = 0, this
implies that D = D'.
VI.3.4. As a consequence of Theorems VI.3.1 and V1.3.3, we obtain an

alternate proof of the Jacobi inversion
Theorem. Given a e J(M), there exists a D e Mg such that 9(D) = a.
PROOF. View a as a point in C. Let e = a + K. Consider the function
P 1-0 0(9(P) — e). If this function does not vanish identically, it has as its
zero set a divisor I) e M g with 9(D)+K=e=a+K,by Theorem VI.2.4. If
the function does vanish identically, then the last equation follows from
Theorem V1.3.3. 0
VI.3.5. Lemma. The condition 0(W, — W, — e) 0 implies that all partial

derivatives of 0 of order <r vanish at e.
V1.3. The Theta Divisor 295
PROOF. Since the lemma clearly holds for r = 0, we take r> O. We have
0(p(P 1 ' • • P.) — (P(Q, • " Q,)— e)= 0 for all D = Pi • • • Pr M„ all D' =
Q i • • Q, e M,. Thus
0(40(P) + 402 • • • Pd — (.0 (Qt • ' e)
vanishes identically on M as a function of P. If we now expand this function
in a Taylor series about the point Q, and set P = Q1, we find the coefficient
of a local coordinate at Q i to be
(130/az)((aP2 • • • Pr) — (1)022* • • Qd — e)C;( 121),

i=
which must vanish. Moreover, since Q 1 on M is arbitrary, we find that
Carezi)((p(P2 • • • P,)— (p(Q 2 - • Q,)— e) = 0 (by the linear independence of
the Ci's for j = 1, . , g), and this holds for all points P2 ' • P 0 - Qr 6• • •
M,_ 1 . We conclude that (00/0:•;)( W,_ i — — e) 0, for j = 1, . . . , g.

We now simply repeat the argument for each of these functions and continue
until we find all partial derivatives of 0 of order vanish at — e, and
therefore also at e. D
This lemma together with Theorem VI.3.2 gives us a substantial portion
of Riemann's theorem. We have seen that any zero, e, of 0 is of the form
e = cp(C)+ K with C e M9 _ 1 . Furthermore, we have seen that if = s,
then O(Ws _ — Ws _ 1 — e) Es. 0, and therefore all partial derivatives of 0 of
order less than s vanish at e. We can thus say that in this case û vanishes to
order at least s at e. The Riemann vanishing theorem asserts that s is the
precise order of vanishing at e; that is, at least one partial derivative of order
s does not vanish at e.
We now return to the hypothesis of the last part of Theorem VI.3.2
and observe that this hypothesis allows us to conclude the existence of three
distinct points C, w, r e M,, with the additional property that the points in
these divisors are all distinct, and
0((pg)— (p(co)— e) 0, (3.5.1)
6VP() (P(r) — e) 0, (3.5.2)
0(9(w)— 9(0 — e) 0. (3.5.3)
Equation (3.5.1) is a consequence of the hypothesis 0(W3 — W, — e) # 0,
while (3.5.2) follows by continuity from (3.5.1) for all T near a). Finally, if
for all r' near co, 0(cp(co)— (p(f)— e)= 0, then by varying co we would
conclude once again that 9(W, — Ws — e) 0, contrary to hypothesis.
Consider now
0 (9(P • • P.) — (P ( D)
0 (4)(PI' • P.) — (P(T) —
as a function on Ms in a neighborhood of. By (3.5.1) and (3.5.2) this function
is not identically zero on M„ since neither numerator nor denominator
vanish at ‘;'. We would rather view this for the moment as a function on M,
and in order to do so we consider
LP 0(4)(P) + (I)(P 2 ' • • PJ - -

014)(P) + go(P2 ' • • P.) - - e)
and observe that as a function of P on M it is also not identically zero.
The same arguments which were used in V1.3.1 give that the divisor of
zeros of the numerator is coy with y e M. 3, and the divisor of zeros of the
denominator is r 6. Furthermore, Theorem V1.2.4 when applied to numerator
and denominator separately gives
e = cp(P2 • • • Ps) + (p(y) + K = cp(P2 • • • Ps) + (p(b) + K;
from which we conclude q(y) =

We now claim y = & If y 0 ô then Abel's theorem gives us the existence
of a non-constant function in L(y - 1 ). The Riemann-Roch theorem gives
r(7 = g - s - g + 1 + i(y) = i(y) + 1 - s. Now r(y - I) 2 yields i(y)
s + 1; which then yields i(wy) 1 (since i(wy) i(y) - deg co). We will obtain
a contradiction by showing that i(coy) > 0 implies 0(4(P)+ cp(P2 • - P5) -
(p(co) - e) 0 as a function of P on M. We conclude from Theorem V1.2.4 that
e + p(w) - cp(P2 • • - P5) = cp(coy) + K so that we may rewrite our function as
P 1-4 000(P) - (49 (0)7) + K)).

By Theorem V1.3.3(b), this function vanishes identically, showing that
y = 6. Therefore, the function f viewed as a (multiplicative) function on M
vanishes at the points of w and has poles at the points of r (and is holomorphic
and non-zero elsewhere).
It is now necessary to analyze the multiplicative behavior of the function f
on M. It follows immediately from (1.4.1) and (1.4.2) that continuation of this
function over ak leads back to the original function while continuation over
the cycle bk beginning at P leads to exp 27rikp 1(co) - cp k(t)] f(P), where cpk is
the kth component of cp.
Recall now the normalized differentials of third kind r,,Q with simple
poles at P and Q with residue + 1 at P and - 1 at Q. We found (111(3.6.3)) that
1
t PQ = (Pk(P) k(Q).
2ni Jbk
Let us now consider the function
g(P) = exp(S
P
E 'Cm)
k „ ex (f" TR 4
P° 1
where co = R 1 • • • R„ T = T, • • • T 5. It is clear that g(P) and f(P) have the
same zeros and poles and the same multiplicative behavior. Hence it follows
immediately that f(P) = cg(P), with c a constant which may depend on
Ps , since both f(P) and g(P) depend on P2 • • • P. If we write P = P 1 ,

P2 ' ' •
however, we observe that both f and g are symmetric in I) 1 , , Ps ; which
implies that c is independent of the points P„ and thus is an absolute constant.
We therefore have
0(01' 1 • • • Ps) — qi(co) — e)
= c0 (q)(P " Ps) — 4)(0 — e) 11 exp[fpPk r]. (3.5.4)

k=1 ° 1 j
We now differentiate (3.5.4) with respect to a local coordinate z at P, and
set P =-R„ to obtain 9,-
(q)(P2 • Ps) —4(R 2 • • Rs) — egi(Ri)

i= , cz i
= c[E(R 1) (3.5.5)
azi 0)(R P 2 ' • • P — Q(r) — eg;( 1? i)
+ 0 (tP(RiP • • • Ps) — (p(z) — e)dE(R
where E = fJ exPgt 7% R,T). Since R 1 is a simp e zero of E we have

E(R 1 ) = 0 but dE(R,) 0 0, where we easily compute the derivative
S
dE(R 1 ) =
k= 2
ri ex p (IPo L
j= I
by properly choosing the local coordinate z at R, with respect to which we

differentiate.
We now continue the process by differentiating (3.5.5) with respect to a
local coordinate at P2 and set P2 = R2 to obtain
32e
J.
E
g
k=
(q)(P3 • • •
:k 1uZjC
Ps) — (1)(R 3 • • Rs) — e)C(R 1 )Ck (R 2)
= c0(cp(R ,R 2 P 3 - • Ps) — T(T) — e)(d 2 E(R 1,R 2)). (3.5.6)
We have used once again that R2 is a simple zero of E, and therefore

(dE(R,))(R 2)O.
We continue this process arriving finally at the sth stage and obtain
ass?)
. . .
•• Vgg(R s)
= c0(9(a)) q(t) — e)(ds E(R 1 , (3.5.7)
It follows from (3.5.3) that the right side of (3.5.7) does not vanish. Hence
the same is true for the left side and therefore it is surely not the case that all
sth order partial derivatives of 0 vanish at — e (and therefore also at e).
Theorem (Rieinann). Let s be the least integer such that û(H'_ — W, — e)

0 but 0(W3 — W — e) O. Then e = + K with Ce M g .., and i(C) = s.
Furthermore, all partial derivatives of() of order less than s vanish at e while at
least one partial of order s does not vanish at e. Conversely, i f e is a point such
that all partials of order less than s vanish at e but one partial of order s does
not vanish at e then we have e = cp(C) + K with C e Mg _ , and WO= s.
PROOF. The first claim in the theorem is precisely the last statement of
Theorem VI.3.2. The Lemma then gives that all partial derivatives of order
less than s vanish at e. The statement that at least one partial of order s does
not vanish at e is precisely the remark following (3.5.7). We now turn to the
second (converse) part of the theorem.
We assume that all partials of Oof order less than s > 1 vanish at e. Hence
by Theorem VI.3.1 we have e = 9() + K with E A/4_ 1 , and the only
question is: What is ig) equal to? First, i(;) cannot be less than s. If it were,
then by the first part of the theorem it could not be the case that all partial
derivatives of order less than s vanish at e. Similarly i(;) cannot be greater
than s. If it were, then by the first part of the theorem it would not be the case
that there is a non-vanishing partial derivative of order s. Hence we conclude
that i(C) = s.
VI.3.6. We have been making reference to the vector K of Riemann con-

stants since Theorem VI.2.4. In this section, we give a new characteriza-
tion of K that partly explains its significance. Up to this point K has been
defined simply by (2.4.1). We show here that the vector —2K is the image of
the divisor of a meromorphic differential under (the extension to divisors of
the map) cp.
We have already seen that the divisor of a meromorphic differential on a
compact surface of genus g has degree 2g — 2. Hence we now prove the
following
Theorem. Let d be a divisor of degree 2g — 2 on a compact Riemann surface,

M, of genus g 1. Then d is the divisor of a meromorphic differential on M
if and only if cp(11) = —2K.
PROOF. We first show that — 2K is indeed the image of the divisor class of
meromorphic differentials. It suffices to show, of course, that —2K is the
image of the divisor of a holomorphic differential. To this end let be an
arbitrary integral divisor of degree g — 1. It therefore follows from Theorem
VI.3.2 that e = cp(C) + K is a zero of the theta function. Since the theta
function is even, —e is also a zero and (again by Theorem VI.3.2) —e =
q(co) + K, with co an integral divisor of degree g — 1 on M. It therefore
follows that (,o(Cco) = — 2K.
We now need show that Cai is the divisor of a holomorphic differential on
M. We need only note that the divisor Ca) has g — 1 "arbitrary" points. It
therefore follows (by Lemma 111.8.15 as in VI.3.2) that r(l/Cco) > g; which
by the Riemann- Roch theorem implies Kw) >: 1. and therefore igco) = 1.
Hence ,:co is the divisor of a holomorphic differential.
Conversely, suppose d is a divisor of degree 2g — 2 on M such that
q(J) = —2K. It follows by Abel's theorem that there is a function f on M
with divisor z1/(Œ), where is a holomorphic differential on M and (a) denotes
the divisor of Thus fa is a differential on M with divisor (fa) = J.
In the next chapter we will often make use of the following
Corollarz. The vector K of Riemann constants is a point of order 2 in J(M)

if and only if P,14-2 is ..eanonical,- where PC is the base point of the snap
(p: M J (M).
PROOF. The point K is of order 2 if and only if — 2K = 0 ---- cp(Ng - 2 ). Now
use the theorem. D
VI.3.7. We have encountered, in this chapter and in 111.1 1, three very
important and beautiful subsets of J(M). The first, is the zero set of the
6-function
eltrCI = Wg- 1 K;
the second, is the singular set of the 0-function (the points where CI and its
first partials vanish)
= W:-1 + K
(see also VII.1.6); the third is the set of points e J(M) which lead to the
identically vanishing of the function ik of VI.3.3
() super Zero = + K.
It is obvious that
°zero D °super zero D esinz• (3.7.1)

Note that _ super zero is always non-empty for g 2 (take a Weierstrass point,
for example), while is non-empty for g 4 by the Corollary to Theorem
() sin ,
111.8.13 and Theorem 111.8.7 (also for hyperelliptic surfaces of genus 3). We
conclude from Theorem 111.1 1.19 that
dim O zer. = g — 1,
dim esup„ zero = g — 2,
and
g— 4 dim esing g — 3,
and hence the inclusions of (3.7.1) are all proper. The points corresponding
to vanishing of the 0-function, but not identically vanishing (on the surface),
are in
(417,\W) + K = (J(M)\W;) + K.
The sets ezer,„ and E) only on the period matrix 11. The fact that
such a set is non-empty can, of course, be translated by the Riemann vanishing
theorem and the Riemann—Roch theorem into a statement about existence
of meromorphic functions (of a certain type) on M.
It should also be remarked that Ozer° and esing are independent of the
base point of the map (p:M J(M). Thus °sing describes those points
e E J(M) corresponding to the identically vanishing of ti/ for all choices of the
base point (see also VII.2.1).
CHAPTER VII
Examples
In this chapter we give applications and examples of the theory developed

in the preceding chapters. The examples will consist mainly of taking con-
crete representations of compact Riemann surfaces given by algebraic
functions, and computing on these surfaces various objects of interest. The
applications will give rise to new characterizations of surfaces with some
given property. The format of this chapter will differ considerably from the
format of the preceding ones. Many details will be omitted. One of the aims
of this chapter is to convince the reader that computations are quite often
possible; and these computations yield beautiful results.
VII. 1. Hyperelliptic Surfaces (Once Again)

Our first set of examples will continue to deal with the class of surfaces
studied extensively in 111.7: the hyperelliptic surfaces. Recall that a hyper-
elliptic surface M of genus g > 2 has an essentially unique realization as a
two sheeted cover of the sphere branched over 2g + 2 points. It is the Riemann
surface of the algebraic curve
= n
2g+ 2
k= 1
(z — e,,), ek 0 ep for k j. (1.0.1)
VII.1.1. We adopt the following point of view in the above situation. We

think of z as a variable point in C u { oo}, and then view M as the Riemann
surface on which w is a well defined (single valued) meromorphic function.
On this surface, which must be a two sheeted branched covering of C u
the projection map (which we shall also denote by z) onto C u foe) is the
302 VII Examples
function of degree two, and we can think of w as a function of the point

P e M in the sense that w sends Pc M into w(:(1') ). Note that as a function
of w is two-valued: it is defined up to sign.
Alternatively, we can think of M as a surface of genus g > 2 with a mero-
morphic function : of degree 2 and another function w satisfying (1.0.1).
Theorem 111.7.3 established the result that the 2g + 2 points z'(e k),
k = 1, , 2g + 2, are the Weierstrass points on M, and that each of these
points has weight g(g 2 Proposition 111.7.6 showed that if we choose
a Weierstrass point (say :: -1 (e 1 )) as the base point for the map (p of M into
the Jacobian variety J(M), then for P e M. q(P) is of order 2 if and only if P is
a Weierstrass point.
We can actually say more. We can compute precisely which half-periods
(points of order 2) are in the image of (9:.11 ---. AM). We need for this pur-
pose a model for a canonical homology basis on M. Recall the model dis-
cussed in 111.7.4, and set .: -1 (ei) = Pp j = 1, 2, .. , 2g + 2. We wish to
amplify (for the convenience of the calculations) that model slightly to the
one given in Figure V11.1.
Figure VII.1. Hyperelliptic surface of genus 2.
The hyperelliptic involution J can be viewed as a rotation by it radians

about an axis passing through the 2g + 2 Weierstrass points. For k = 1, .
g + 1, let /3k be an oriented curve from P2k_i to P2k. Define bk as /3, followed
by —J13k (that is, followed by Jp, is the opposite direction). The curve ak,
k = 1, . . . , g, is all in "one sheet" and it joins a point on bk to a point on
b9 _,. 1 and then returns to the point on bk . Whereas bk is invariant (as a point
set) under J, a„ is not. The curves a,, , (79 , b 1 , , b, form a canonical
homology basis on M.
In the following calculations, we use standard notation: ICI =
is the normalized basis of Yel(M) dual to the canonical homology basis,
7r(k) is the k-th column of the period matrix TI, etc... . , as well as the fact
that J acts as multiplication by — 1 on Ye l (M). Now, for k = 1, . . . , g,
bk Pk J0k Pk f Pk
P2k
= 2 J. = 2 f., ç.
sk r2k - 1
Next, the intersection numbers satisfy for = 1, . . . , g,

)
ai . 1)0. 1 = —1, bi - b9+1 = 0.

Hyperelliptic Surfaces (Once Again) 303
Thus up to homology
from which we conclude that

P2g + 2 = 1 or(1) .
f P29+1 2
To compute some more integrals we introduce the curves joining P2j to
P2+1 and set a; = ei; Yi p Again we compute intersection numbers
= 1, , g and k= 1, . . . , g)
r-
Œa5 = 0, a; • b; = 0 f6r3 k,j k +1,
1.; • bi = +1, a; • b. = -1.
Thus we conclude that (in H 1 (.14))

Œ=a - for j =1..... g -1,x 9 = a.
It now follows, as above, that

P2k 4. I 1 1
(e.u) - eu + ") = -(e(k) + d""), k = 1, . . . ,g - 1,
afP2k 2
P29+ 1
=
J P29
We now combine all the above data in:

(p(P 1 ) =
(102) = q(P1 ) + f:: =
2) + 5:3 c = ' it(1) + e(i) + e(2)),

(
qi(P =
1
(P ,51 ) = - (70) + • • • + it(k) + eu ) + e(k+1)), k = 1, 2, . . . , g - 1,
2
)
(PlP2k + = 1-2 (x( 1 + • • • + 7t(k+ " eu ) + e+1)), k = 1, . , g - 1,
(1)
(P(P2g+ i) = 1-2 (7 +• + 7/(g) eu )),
1
41P2, +2)
304 VII Examples
Notice that D 2 (p(p)= 0, because (P 2 • • • P294 2)10 +1 is the divisor

of the function w (here we assume that z has a double pole at P I , and hence
in (1.0.1) the product runs over the indices 2 to 2y + 2).
We compute next
E = 2-1 (g7t(1) + (g — 1)2r(2) 22(g) + gem + e(2) + • • • + e(0).

J=1
(1.1.1)
Consider the map cp:Mg --+ J(M) at the point D = P3 P$ • • • P29 .". Its
differential at this point is (the transpose of)
. 2(133) '•' Ca(P3)

:i(P5) ••
(1.1.2)
CI(P29+ 1) 9( .13 29 1)..
A change of basis for abelian differentials of the first kind, multiplies the
above matrix by a non-singular matrix. Hence to compute the rank of (1.1.2),
we may choose a convenient basis for .e(M). We shall use the basis given
by 111(7.5.1):
zi dz
j = 0, . . . , g — 1.
As before we assume for convenience that z has a double pole at P1 , and

vanishes at the point P2. Note then that
(zidz) p2g - 2 i -2 pi
I 2•
w)=
In particular, dz/w does not vanish at P21 41 , j = 1, . . . , g. Thus we want to
compute the rank of
1 z(P 3) z9-1 (P 3 ) -
rf1r dz 1 z(P $) z' '(P5)
— (P 2J+ ) •
J= I w
1 Z(P 29+ 1) Z.- 1 (P 29+ 1)_
1 e3 es-
1
g dz
T—r 1 e$
= 11 — (P2)+ I) •
i= 1 w •
„..„ 9+ I
1 e294- 1 c 294 1
The last matrix is, of course, the Vandermonde matrix which has already
been encountered (in IV.11.10), and is non-singular. We have hence shown
(III.11.11) that i(D) = 0, and that (p. establishes an isomorphism between a
neighborhood of D in Mg and its image in J(M).
VII.! . Hyperelliptic Surfaces (Once Again) 305
VII.1.2. In VI.2.4, we have introduced the vector of Riemann constants
It2kk
K= — (pcp'k dz — e (k) (-
k-=1
where we assumed that the base point for 7t 1 (M) is chosen to agree with the
base point of the map ça:M J(M)—which in our case was selected to be
a Weierstrass, point P1 . It is rather difficult to evaluate K directly. We know
(Theorem V1.3.6) that — 2K is the image in J(M) of the canonical divisor
class. Since P?g' is the divisor of an abelian differential of the first kind,
the canonical class gets nipped into 0 by (p. Thus K is a half-périod. We
want to know which half-period. We shall shoir- that
K= 2 i+ 1). (1.2.1)
i=
Assume for the moment that we knew that 0(0) 0 0, for the 0-function in-
troduced in Chapter VI. In this case 0 o cp does not vanish identically on M
(this is the fact we really need), and hence 0 0 cp has g zeros Q1,. . . , Qg on M.
These zeros satisfy
f + K = 0.
J=1
(recall Theorem VI.2.4).
We have seen that (P) is a half-period. Such a half-period can be written
as PM + Hs), where rej is an integer characteristic. Thus the half-periods
can be classified as odd or even, depending on the parity of the characteristic.
Up to a constant non-zero factor,
19 06' +
—
We hence conclude that 0 vanishes at odd half-periods. We notice that

(p(P2i , i ), = 1, . , g, is an odd half-period. (We also, for the future, notice
that (p(P2), j = 1, . . . , g + 1, is an even half-period.) Thus cp(P21 ., i ) is a
zero of the function 0 on M. Hence
9
E w (p2 ,0= —K = K.
Note that conversely, the identity (1.2.1) shows that 0 does not vanish
identically on M. For if 0 vanished identically on M, then (p(P3P3 • • • P20.1)-1-
K = 0 and i(P 3 • • P2 g+ j) > 0 by Theorem VI.3.3. This contradicts the
previously established fact that i(P3 • • - P 2g+ ,) = 0. These remarks also
show that 0 vanishes at 0 if and only if 0 vanishes identically on M. The fact
that an even theta function vanishes at 0 if and only if it vanishes identically
on M is also a consequence of the Riemann vanishing theorem.
306 VII Examples
Remark. There is an additional property that the 2g + 1 half-periods cp(p),

j = 2, ... , 2g + 2 have. We have already mentioned the fact that cp(P21 .,
j = 1, . . . , g, is odd and ça(P,i), j = 1, . . . , g + 1, is even. The origin (p(P,),
is, of course, also even. If we use the notation (ç .) = + Ile) for half-
periods, and label the half period (p(Pk ), k = 2, ... , 2g + 2 by (j %), then
the 2g + 1 half-periods (3!)) have the property that for all k I, s(k) • s'(1)±
e(k) • s(I) = 1. Here c(k) = (s 1 (k), ,e,(k)), E'(k) = (8(k), ,s;(k)), and the
operation ( ) is the usual inner product over Z 2 .
VII.1.3. We need to establish that 0 does not vanish at the origin. We
postpone this proof to VII.1.9, since it is more convenient to have some
further computations at hand. Note that we never use anything other than
the fact that K is a half-period. We do not anywhere use the exact form of
K (before VII.4).
VII.1.4. It is, of course, true that 0(K) = 0 by Theorem V1.3.1. The order
of vanishing of 0 at K is determined by the Riemann vanishing theorem
(VI.3.5). Write
K = cp(C) + K, CeM
Clearly we can choose C = PÇ . The order of vanishing of 0 at K is precisely

i(:). Since P, is a Weierstrass point, the orders of zeros at P1 of abelian
differentials of the first kind on M are (see 111.7.3):
0, 2, ... , 2g — 2.
Thus
i(pv 1 11(g + 1), if g is odd,
)= if g is even.
19,
(Using the greatest integer notation, we can write that the order of vanishing
is always [1(g + 1)].)
For D e Mg _ 1 , r(D - 1 ) = i(D), and Clifford's theorem (111.8.4) shows that
— 2 i•
We have established that for a hyperelliptic surface there are points at which
the 0-function vanishes to the maximum order possible. We have shown
that such vanishing occurs at a point of order 2 in J(M).
As a matter of fact, given any non-negative integer n [ -(g + 1)], there
is a point e e J(M) such that e has order 2 and 0 vanishes at e to precisely
order n. To see this, we have to construct for n> 0, divisors C E M9 _1 with
C containing only Weierstrass points and i(C) = n. Then the point e =
(p(() + K will have the desired property (for n = 0, we, of course, need a
divisor C e Mg with i(C) = 0). The calculation in VII.1.1 established the
following fact: If D e M, and D consists of distinct Weierstrass points, then
i(D) = 0. From this observation it follows that if (for 0 r g)D E M9 _,. and
Hyperelliptic Surfaces (Once Again) 307
D consists of distinct Weierstrass points, then i(D)----- r. Let

1 < j i < j2 < • • • < 2g + 2
be a choice of g distinct integers as indicated. Then
cp(Pik )+ K
k=1
is a point of order two in J(M) at which the 0-function does not vanish
(choosing jk = 2k + 1, we obtain the previously used fact that 0(0) 0 0).
Choosing g — 1 distinct integers as above (J is now permitted to be 1), we
see that 7) vanishes to orelér 1 at •• •
g- 1
E (p(pik ) + K.
k= 1
More generally, let r and s be non-negative integers such that

2s + r = g— 1.
Choose s non-negative integers
1 j, < j2 < • • • < js 2g + 2
and r more non-negative integers
I k, < k, < • • • < kr < 2g + 2,
such that
k„, j„ all m, n.
Recall now (111.7.3) that every w e 1 (M) that vanishes at a Weierstrass
point vanishes to even order, and conclude that
i(P;,111, • • • P;Pki • • • Pk„) = i(ph • • • PJ,Pki • • Pk,) =g — s = s+ 1.
Thus we see that for D = 12 • • • PLPk , • • • Pk, the order of vanishing of
O at (p(D) + K is precisely s + 1. The possible values of s + 1 are, of course,
1 , 2, • • [i(g + 1)].
We now show how some of the results of 111.8 can be restated in
terms of vanishing properties of 0-functions. We will obtain this way, among
other things, characterizations of hyperelliptic surfaces.
Theorem. A Riemann surface M of genus 3 is hyperelliptic if and only if 0

vanishes at a point of order 2 in J(M) to order 2.
PROOF. If M is hyperelliptic, then the vector K of Riemann constants with
respect to a Weierstrass point on M is a point of order 2 in J(M), and 0
vanishes at K to order 2. Conversely, if 0 vanishes at a point e of order 2 in
J(M) to order 2, then e = (p(Q 1 Q 2 )+ K, 021'22) = 2 for some Q1 Q2 e M2
(by the Riemann vanishing theorem). Thus r(QT 1 Q 2-1 )= 2 and M is
hyperelliptic.
308 vil Examples
Note that we have proven somewhat more:
"Iltenrem. .4 surf ice AI of genus 3 is hyperelliptic if and (nay if ikerc is a

point e E J(M) with 0 vanishing to order 2 at e.
VII.1.6. Definition. A singular point of the zero set of the 0-function is a

point where (0 vanishes and) all the first partial derivatives vanish. We shall
denote the singular set (that is, the set of singular points) by e iing.
It is obvious from the Riemann vanishing theorem that
()sin = W_ 1 + K, (1.6.1)
and from Theorem III.1 1 . 19 that
g— 4 dim g — 3,
with the upper bound attained if and only if the surface is hyperelliptic.
Let us consider g = 4. In this case e sing 0 0 (it is 0 or 1 dimensional).
Note that Proposition 111.8.6 implies immediately (without Theorem
111.1 1.19) that WI 0 Ø. Further Theorem 111.3.7 can be reinterpreted as the
following
Theorem. Let M be a compact surface of genus 4. Then one and only one of
the following holds:
°sing is 1-dimensional,
b. O consists of precisely one point (a point of order 2 in J(M)), or
c. 951 n, consists of precisely two points (a 0 0, a e J(M), and — a), neither one
of which is of order 2.
Each case corresponds to the case indexed by the same letter in Theorem
111.8.7.
PROOF. If M is hyperelliptic then () sing is one-dimensional (and conversely).
In fact, in this case, ()sin, is analytically equivalent to If, q(M) and hence
to M (EXERCISE). Thus case (a) is disjoint from the other two cases.
Proposition 111.8.6 showed that WI is non-empty. Assume a e 47 + K.
Assume also b e W + K. The proof of Theorem 111.8.7 showed that
+ b = 0 unless M is hyperelliptic (recall that the image of the canonical
class in J(M) is —2K (Theorem VI.3.6)). Hence the only possibilities are
a = b (and hence 2a = 0) or WI contains two points and b = — a 0 0. In
the latter case a cannot be of order 2. LI
Corollary. A necessary and sufficient condition for a surface M of genus 4 to

be hyperelliptic is that 0 vanish at two distinct points of order 2 in J(M) to
order 2.
PROOF. If M is hyperelliptic, then the vector K with respect to each of the
10 Weierstrass points is a point of order 2 at which 0-vanishes to order
liyperelliptic Surfaces (Once Again) 309
(precisely) 2. (The reader should develop the dependence of the vector of

Riemann constants K(P0) on the base point P,, and become convinced that
we obtain this way ten distinct points of order 2 in J(.1!).) On the other hand,
the theorem implies that whenever 0 vanishes at two distinct points of order
2 to order 2, then the surface is hyperelliptic (the points of vanishing to order
precisely 2 are the points of WI + K).
VII.1.7. To generalize the above corollary, we translate Corollary 2 to
Proposition 111.8.8.
Theorem. A necessary and sufficient condition for a surface M of even genus

g > 4 ro be hyperelliptic is that 0 vanish at two points of order 2 in J(M) to
order 1,-g.
PROOF. Necessity is established as before. For sufficiency, note that our con-
dition assures the existence of two distinct points of order 2 a, b e 141r, +
K. Write
U = cp(A) + K, 4c Mr, 1 ,
b = 9(B) + K, B E Mri 1 .
Thus .4 and B are inequivalent divisors, and a computation yields that
c(A) = 1 = c(B). Hence, by the result we are translating, M is hyperelliptic
unless A and B are complementary divisors. But in this case a + b =
(p (AB) + 2K = 0. Thus a = —b (here is the only place that we use the
fact that a and b are of order 2), and hence a = b (which contradicts the
hypothesis). LI
Remark. By Theorem 111.8.11, the vanishing of the 0-function at a single

point in J(M) to order fg implies hyperellipticity except if g is 4 or 6.
VII.1.8. The situation for odd genus is even simpler.
Theorem. A necessary and sufficient condition for a surface M of odd genus

g 3 to be hyperelliptic is for 0 to vanish at a point of order 2 in J(M) to
order (g + 1).
PROOF. As before, necessity has been established and for sufficiency, we
need even less. The vanishing property implies the existence of a divisor
D e M9 _ 1 with r(D - 1 ) = 4 (g + 1). Thus by Clifford's theorem (111.8.4), M is
hyperelliptic.
Remark. Again, for sufficiency, we did not need to know that the points at
which the 0-function vanished were of order 2. Except for genus 4 or 6,
vanishing of the 0-function at any point (to the right order) implies hyper-
ellipticity.
VII.1.9. In this section we complete the proof of (1.2.1). Recall that in V1I.1.2
we showed that it suffices to prove that 0(0,11) 0 0.
310 VII Examples
We begin by considering the following set of divisors: Pr', the 2g + 1

divisors Pr 2 Pk , k = 2, ... , 2g + 2; and the ( 2 '12' 1 ) divisors P9, -.1 P,,P,2 such
that i 1,. i, 46 1. and i 2 0 1. We continue in this fashion ending with the
( 1:2 11 ) divisors Pi, • • • Pi with o 1, and all indices distinct. Finally we
add the (29: 1 ) divisors P0,, • • Pig with the saine assumptions on the indices.
The first observation to be made is that our set consists of 22 9 linearly
inequivalent divisors. The fact that the divisors are inequivalent follows
immediately from Abel's theorem and the Riemann-Roch theorem. The
point being, that we would be led to an equivalence of the form Pi, • • • Pir --
PTPi , • • • Pi, with r g, which is impossible since i(Pi, • • • Pi) = g — r.
Counting the number of divisors we have formed, we have j0(2 1) =
12 • 229+1 = 2 2 9
If we now consider D to be one of the divisors in our set, then q(D) + K
is a zero of the theta function of order i(D). Since we know (p(D) + K is a
point of order two, and we have here constructed all the points of order two,
we have catalogued the exact order of vanishing at each point of order 2.
(For example, if g is odd, the arguments of V11.1.4 yield 411 1 ) = 12-(g + 1),
i(11 -2 Pk ) = 4lg — 1), . , i(P,P I , • • • P19 2 ) = 2, i(Pi , • • P19 _,) = 1, and
i(Pi , • • Pig) = 0.)
The above argument has established that the 0-function does not vanish
at the ( 29; ') half-periods
0(13.i1P12 • • • Pi) K, (1.9.1)
where 1 < j, <12 < • • • <j 9 = 2g + 2. Each of these half-periods must be
an even half-period (because 9 vanishes at all odd half-periods). The rest of
the proof involves showing that if 0(0.17) = 0, then we can construct an
odd-half period of the form (1.9.1) and contradict the non-vanishing of the
0-function of this point. (Recall 0 vanishes at 0 if and only if 0 o yo vanishes
identically on M.)
Since K is a half-period, K can be written as
K = (P(Pi,Pi, • • •
with 0 r < g, and 1 <j 1 <1 2 < • • • < f < 2g + 2. Assume first that g = r,
then writing
yo(Pi113,2 • • + K = 0,
and recalling that
i(Pi,Pi: • • Pi) = 0,
we conclude from Theorem VI.3.3, that 0 # 0 on M, and hence also

that 0(0,11) O 0. We finish by showing that if r < g, then it is impossible for
(1.9.1) to be an even half-period for all choices of the indices. We show how
to construct the set 11,,j 2 , ,191. First it should contain the set {4, i2, • • lip}
and we must add a set of g — r numbers in {2,3, ,2g + 2} that are not in
ti 1 ,i2 , Assume this set is {k 1 , Then
(p(Pii ph • • Pi.) + K = cp(Pk ,Pk2 • • •
V11.2. Relations among Quadratic Differentials 311
Recall that the set fo(P 2), ,9(P2 „,)) contains exactly g odd half-periods
and g + 1 even half periods. Thus in the set
2.3 2g + 2',
there are at least g — r indices corresponding to odd half-periods, and at
least g — r + 1 corresponding to even half-periods. We choose s odd points
and t=g—r—s even points. What is the parity of this divisor? Using the
remark at the end of VII.1.2, we see that this divisor has the same parity as
+ —
s+ = s + -1(9 — r)(g — r — 1).
2 s ._
Thus if1(g — r)(g— r —1) is even, we choose s to be odd, and if 1(g — r)(g — r— 1)
is odd we choose s to be even. We have enough room in our set to accomplish
this.
VII. 2. Relations among Quadratic Differentials

VII.2.1. We shall be working with a compact Riemann surface M of
genus g 3, and using standard notation involving divisors, the Jacobian
variety, the 0-function, etc.
We have seen, in 111.3.7, that there is a connection between relations
among quadratic differentials and integral divisors of degree g — 1 with
index of specialty 2. These points in M._ are related via the map 9 to
the points in 141 _ 1 J(M). This last set is connected to () sin by (1.6.1).
Our first result elaborates on this connection by strengthening a remark in
V1.3.7.
Proposition. Let e e J(M). Then

P 1— ■ 0(9(P) ± e) (2.1.1)
vanishes identically on M for every choice of base point P, for the map
9:M — ■ J(M) if and only if e e °sins.
PROOF. The fact is that e e °sing is equivalent by (1.6.1) to the existence of
points e M such that
e = 9(P • • • P 1 ) + K and i(P i • • • P 1 ) 2.
Hence by Theorem VI.3.2, it is equivalent to 0(W1 — W, + e) O. This
is precisely the statement of our proposition. 0
V11.2.2. The above proposition has some interesting consequences. For

any e e J(M), (2.1.1) defines (locally) a holomorphic function on M; in
particular, it is a function defined in a neighborhood of the base point P,.
312 VII Examples
Let z be a local coordinate on M vanishing at P o . The power series expan-

sion of (2.1.1) is then (we are using the function defined by + e, and evaluating
0 and its partials at e)
g eo
0(q(11+ e)= 0(e) + E, --
„ cepPo)z
g at) a 20
+ E CU--(oz(P0) + E i eukau
J.k = 1
+ (e)Ci"(P0) + 3 E (ePPogigo)
04, j,k GUJUk j
e3o
+ ;;(PoK k(Pogi(P0) -3-i+ • • • • (2.2.2)
CUJOUkClii
(Note that in the above expression, we have identified the normalized

differential C; with the holomorphic functions f of z such that ,',"; = ftz)dz
near Po .)
The above expression becomes interesting precisely when e e e sin. or
—e e 19,;„.. In this case, by Proposition VII.2.1, the coefficient of es must
vanish for each n > 0, and each base point. It then follows that 0(+ ---- 0 =
(00/0t4;)( -+e), j = 1, . . . , g. This information is not new. It is a consequence
of the Riemann vanishing theorem (V1.3,5). A new result is contained in
Proposition. For e e e,ing , we have

g e.20
E u JCUk
(± = 0, (2.2.3)
and
E= A a: ° OW/EC! = 0. (2.2.4)
Uk 041
PROOF. Equation (2.2.3) follows from (2.2.2) and the previous observation
that the first partials of 0 vanish. The vanishing of the coefficient of z3 in
(2.2.2) yields
a20 1,3o
E E Gui C/Uk GUI (e), =
, ( e)cick + j,k,i (2.2.5)
a20 030
3 E euiatik +..
j,k,1 aU aU
eU k
0. (2.2.6)
If we subtract (2.2.6) from (2.2.5) and use the fact that 0 is an even func-
tion, then we obtain (2.2.4).
Remark. There are instances when the above proposition is of little value.
For example, if e e &sing , and all the second partials of 0 at e vanish (e e
W.2 _ 1 + K), then (2.2.3) yields no information. It could also happen that all
VII.2. Relations among Quadratic Differentials 313
the second order partial derivatives do not vanish at e, but all the third
order partial derivatives do vanish. This takes place when e e °sing is an
even point of order 2. Why? (EXERCISE.)
VII.2.3. We return now to case (c) of Theorem and consider a surface

M of genus 4 where O m., consists of precisely two points e and —e (with e
not a point of order 2 in J(M)). We have seen, in 111.10, that the abelian
differentials of the first kind on M provide an embedding, M P 3, of the
surface into projective space. Proposition VII.2.2 tells us that the image of M
in P 3 is contained in the intersection of the quadric and cubic defined by
(2.2.3) she]. (2.2.4). Notethat (2.2.3) is not the trivial relation because the
highest order of vanishing the 0-function for a surface of genus 4 is 2. It
should be observed that the coefficients of the curve (given in this way) in
P 3 depend only on e s,ng, which in turn depends only on the period matrix
H of M. Hence the curve in projective space or equivalently the Riemann
surface M can be recovered from the period matrix 17, whenever (2.2.3) and
(2.2.4) are independent equations.
Remark. (For those familiar with elementary properties of curves.) The

intersection of the quadric (2.2.3) and the cubic (2.2.4) certainly contains a
curve of degree 2 • 3 = 6. The degree of the curve M in P 3 is 2 • 4 — 2 = 6.
It is important to observe that while, as stated, the quadric in the above case
is non-trivial, we have not really shown that the cubic is non-trivial or that
the quadric is not contained in the cubic. In these situations the curve is not
recoverable by the above procedure.
EXERCISE
How much of the above carries over to cases (a) and (b) of Theorem VII. 1.6?
VII.2.4. It is not our intention to develop here the theory of moduli of

compact Riemann surfaces of genus g> 2. However, there is one interesting
observation that can be made now. We know that the dimension of ye2(m),
the space of holomorphic quadratic differentials on M, is 3g — 3. We also
know that CiCh e .1e 2(M), j, k = 1, . . . , g. Hence, if the products of the
holomorphic abelian differentials span ../e 2(M) (if and only if M is not
hyperelliptic, by Noether's theorem (1 11 .11.20 ) ), there must be exactly
1(g — 3)(g — 2) relations among the products. When g = 4, this is precisely
the relation (2.2.3). For hyperelliptic surfaces there are more relations. For
hyperelliptic surfaces of genus 4, there are 10 — 7 = 3 linearly independent
relations.
We shall now exhibit two possible ways of obtaining these additional
relations.
One way is quite obvious. Since for hyperelliptic surfaces of genus 4,
°sing is 1-dimensional, it seems reasonable to expect that one can find three
314 VII Examples
points ei e ()sin, such that

4 00
y
ka-;' CtikCU,
0, 1, 2, 3.
are linearly independent. We however, do not know how to effectively prove

such independence.
Another possible way is to use more essentially the fact that ° sin, is
1-dimensional. Let Po be the base point of cp:M AM), and let J:M M
be the hyperelliptic involution (there should be no confusion with the same
letter appearing with two meanings). For P e M, let P' = J(P). Choose
P 1 e M and set
ec, = (p(PI PI P0)+ K e
(Note that
that since every we yew) that vanishes at P c M also vanishes
at P'; i(PP'Q) = i(PQ) 2.) The embedding of M into ()sing . J(M) is now
given by
M PI—+ cp(P,P'i P) (2.4.1)
Let z be a local coordinate vanishing at P o . Equation (2.4.1) defines
e(z) as a holomorphic function of z. By Proposition VII.2.2,
4 ,12.0
(e(z))“:, = 0, (2.4.2)
Su , auk
for all z in a neighborhood of 0. We now expand (52 0/eui euk)(e(z)) as a

power series in z, and obtain
520 520 4 a30
au,uuk
(e(z)) = atij aU k
(eo) + (E S UJ SIk SL (eo)(Po)
(v
a3o 7, v
au,au, au„`"(P 0' 4- IL:. Otim auS41 -O
0
ufônk(e0)i(Pog„,(P0))f-
2
(2.4.3)
Inserting (2.4.3) into (2.4.2), we obtain
4 5 20
= 0,
j,k= I aUjaUk(e°"k
-3n
E E au, Su"SU,, (e ° g 1(Po) C.4= 0,
and
030 ,940
E (E
j,k 1 autaujauk
(eAl(P0) E G um au,,,ui cuk (eogi(Po)m(P0))
- CiCk = O.
It seems reasonable to expect that one should be able to extract three

linearly independent relations from the huge list obtained above (as one
VIII Examples of Non-hyperelliptic Surfaces 315
varies the base point Po). The problem of specifying three such relations is
apparently still open.
EXERCISE
Is the map M esing, that we have constructed, surjective?
VII.2.5. We shall discuss briefly in this paragraph a question intimately
related to the question of relations among the products of the normalized
abelian differentials of the first kind. Let 110 e 4. be a period matrix of a
compact Riemann surface of genus 4. (Recall that is the Siegel upper
half space of genus 4 introduced in V1.1.1.) Theorem VII.1.6 guarantees
that (51 ; is non-empty. Assume we are, again, in case (c). By the remark
following 111.8.7, the rank of the associated relation (2.2.3) among the abelian
differentials must be 4. Choose a (small) neighborhood N of Flo e Z4. What
is a necessary condition for // E N to be a period matrix of a compact
surface of genus 4? Clearly, the 0-function for II must have the property
that esing 0 Ø. We proceed to write down an equation in 54 that expresses
this condition. Consider the system of equations on C4 x
eo , u= 1. 2, 3, 4. ( 2.5.1)
ez.
The hypothesis that /70 is a period matrix tells us that (z°,I70) solves (2.5.1),
whenever z° e °sin , for /70 . The condition that (2.2.3) have rank four, tells
us that the Jacobian matrix of the system (2.5.1) with respect to the z-variables
has rank 4, and thus the implicit function theorem asserts that we can solve
for z = t(z 1,z 2 ,z 3 ,z4) as holomorphic functions of t in a neighborhood of
(z °,17 0) and that
= 0 for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, t e N.
A necessary analytic condition for t to be a period matrix of a compact
surface is now easily written down:
F(r)= Ci(z(T),T) = 0, t e N.
VII. 3. Examples of Non-hyperelliptic Surfaces

We shall study in this section three sheeted covers of the sphere. The cal-
culations will be considerably more involved than in the hyperelliptic case.
Other special cases will also be described.
VII.3.1. In Chapter V, we began the study of automorphisms of (compact)
Riemann surfaces. At the end of V.1.6, we gave some examples to show that
the results of V.1.5 were sharp. We now return to a variation of the second
of those examples.
316 VII Examples
Consider the Riemann surface M:

= z(z — 1)(z — ). 1 ) • • • (z — ). 3k _ 3), k 2. (3.1.1)
Here i.,, , i. 3,_ 3 are 3k — 3 distinct points in We view z as a
meromorphic function on M of degree 3 (w is of degree 3k — 1). It is branched
over 0, 1, co, A l , , ;.3k - 3 with branch number 2. For convenience we label:
Q 1 = z 1 (0), Q2 = Z -1 (1), Q3 = z -1 (oo),
I); = j = 1, . . . , 3k — 3,
and note that the divisor of the function z is
Q?
= 03
--•
The Riemann-Hurwitz formula yields that the genus g of M is 3k — 2 ( >4).

Our first task is to compute a basis for Ye"(M) —compare 111.7.5. Observe
that
••' 3
(dz) =
and
Q1Q2P1
( w) = 3k- I •
Q3
From the above two observations it is easy to conclude that
, j = 0, , k — 2,
and
zi dz
-v-v---2, / = 0, .. . , 2k — 2,
form a basis for ie l (M); as a matter of fact

(zi dz) _ 0 ,,, , 3(,_ .0 _, n,
w v2v3 I- ' ' '
and
eh
t
W2
= Q3lQ3(2k-I-2)
We shall consider the special case k = 2 (hence, g = 4). Thus the basis for
Je l (M) is:
dz dz dz d-
-, (3.1.2)
ww w
The above basis is adapted (recall 111.5.8) to the point Q 1 . As a matter
of fact, the Weierstrass "gap" sequence at Q i is:
1, 2, 4, 7. (3.1.3)
Note that the above is also the "gap" sequence at Q2, Q3 and Pi , j = 1, 2, 3.
Thus each of these 6 points is a Weierstrass point of weight 4. We have
thus accounted for 24 of the 60 Weierstrass Points (here we arc counting
each Weierstrass point according to its multiplicity). The remaining 36
Weierstrass points will occur in groups of three. Each such group of three
will project to the same point in C u { 3o} by the map z. This follows from
the fact that M has an automorphism of period three that interchanges the
sheets of the cover.
We continue with the case k = 2 in (3.1.1). Since M is of genus 4,
by Theorem VII.1.6, A7t is either hyperelliptic (impossible, because M
carries a function of degree 3, by Proposition 111.7.10) or °sing consists
of one point of order 2 or es,,,, consists of precisely two points (neither
one of order 2). Since Qf is the divisor of the abelian differential z 2 (dz,42 ),
the vector K of Riemann constants with respect to the base point Q 1 , is
a point of order 2 of J(M) by Theorem VI.3.6. Further, since
K =9{Q?) ± K,
K is a zero of the theta function. Also; looking at the "gap" sequence (3.1.3),
we see that
i(Q1) = 2,
which shows that K e 0,ing . We have shown that °sins
consists of the single
point K. It must be the case that there is a relation of rank 3 among the
products of the abelian differentials of the first kind. The relation is easily
exhibited:
( 7. dZy = ( z2 dZ2 )(dZ2 ) .
w2 (3.2.1)
W
Of course, alternatively, (3.2.1) can be used to conclude that es ,„, consists

of precisely one point. However, the conclusion (we obtained)
es ,„, = {K},
required a little more analysis.
VII.3.3. We return to the general case (3.1.1) with k 2. Using the basis
we constructed for ..°
'(M), we see that the Weierstrass "gap" sequence at
421 (hence also at Q2, Q3, Pp j = 1, . . . , 3k — 3) is:
{3 1 + 1; 1 = 0, , 2k — 2} k..) {3j + 2; j = 0, , k — 2}.
In particular, every function f, holomorphic on MqQ,}, with deg f 3k — 4
must satisfy
deg f 0(mod 3).
An easy calculation shows that the weight of each of these 3k Weierstrass
points is
2k-2 k-2 3k-2
E (31+ 1) + (3j + 2) — E m = (3k — 2)(k — 1).
1=0 j=0 m=0
318 vfi Examples
We have accounted for 3k(3k -- 2)(k — I) of the (3k — 3)(3k 2)(3k — I)

Weierstrass points on M. The vector of Riemann constants K with respect
to (2 1 is again a point of order 2 in 301). since ()`;' is a lOcal divisor.
The point K E e,in , because i(Q 3 ) = k = j(g + 2).
Finally, we leave it to the reader to explore the question of (linearly inde-
pendent) relations among the abelian differentials of the first kind. For
example, il k = 3, and if we label
dz dz dz
91= = -7, 93 = z
W2
ÇO4
_ , 3 dz dz dz
Ç07 Z
dz
95 - (P6Th -,
w-
then we can write down the following maximal set of linearly independent
relations
= (P1 (P 3 , (Pi = (P293 9t 94, 92 ,P4 = ( f9
= q93(05, (P295 = 9394, (1)197 = (P2(P6, So2(P7 = iP3(p6,
(,03(P7 = 9496, 94 ( 7 =
VII.3.4. The Riemann surface M of (3.1.1) is an example of a surface
with an automorphism T (of period 3, in our case) such that M,i<T>
C u tool. We have seen that for these surfaces, contains a point of
() sin ,
order 2. It may seem at first glance that the existence of points of order 2
in 0,ing is caused by the presence of the automorphism. This conclusion is,
in general, false. Consider, for example, the surface M defined by
1V3 = Z Z -
( 1)(z — ;. 1 )2(z — ;1 2)2(z — ). 3)2,
where A » j = 1, 2, 3, are three distinct points in C \ {0,1}. The surface M

has again an automorphism T of order 3 such that A /<T> is conformaly
equivalent to C u {Do } . Note that M (again) has genus 4. Using notation
as in VII.3.1, we conclude that
(z)= 42?
Q3
(w) —
Q1Q2P PiP23■
421
and
(dz)= QiQiPiPiPi
421
A basis for if l (M) is thus
dz dz dz dz
z (z — ,1 1 )(z — ,1 2 )(z — z(z — 2 1 )(z — ). 2)(z —
w w
From the above we see that the possible orders of zeros of abelian differentials
of the first kind at Q 1 are:
0, 1, 3, 4,
and thus the "gap" sequence at Q 1 is:
1, 2, 4, 5.
In particular, there is no differential in 3r1 (M) all of whose zeros are at
Q 1 . Now, the point K belongs to e sing (because f(Q1) = 2), and if °sing
a point of order 2, K would have to be that point. Hence 2K = O. contaied
By Theorem VI.3.6, weewould also have y9(0) = 0 = —2K or that 421
is canonical. We have seen that this does not occur in our example.
VII.3.5. There is, however, one case where the presence of an auto-
morphism T produces points of order 2 in 0„,,g : the case when T has period 2.
Suppose now that M is a surface of genus g 2, and T e Aut M has period 2
and v(T) fixed points. The genus 4-. of MgT> is computed (recall V.1.9) by
= v(T) = 2g + 2 —
(and M is called #-hyperelliptic).
To show that 0,, n, contains a point of order two, it suffices to find an
w e Ye 1 (M) with even order zeros
(0.)) = Pi • • •
such that
i(Pi • • P9 _ 1 ) 2.
For then e cp(P, • • • P9 _ 1 ) + K e esing , and 2e = cp((co)) + 2K = O.
If # = 0, then M is hyperelliptic. Then for g 3, there is a point of order 2
in °sin, and the order of vanishing of the 0-function at this point is 1(g + 1).
Hence we now assume g> O.
VII.3.6. Let us generalize by considering an automorphism T of prime
order N with MI<T> of positive genus. Consider the action of T on Y i(M).
Since MgT> has positive genus #, 1 is an eigenvalue. Since M has bigger
genus than M MgT>, there is another eigenvalue e = 1, a 0 1). In other
words, there are holomorphic differentials co, co, e .e.(m) such that
Tco = co, Tco, = scoi , co O.
The differential w projects to A7i; while co, projects to a multivalued differ-
ential on M. The function f = co i/co on M projects to an N-valued function
on M.
To describe the structure of the divisors (w) and (co 1 ), we let P1 , , P,
be the fixed points of T (v = v(T) could be zero). Calculations similar to
the ones performed in V.2 show that
ordp, (.0 = Ns; + N — 1, r•eZ
1
r•>- 0•
320 VII Examples
Hence we can write

( ( 9) = I... j( N-1,, (3.6.1)
where 4 is an integral divisor on M and 4 (4 = r(4). Note that J could
contain some of the points 134 = 1, . . . , v.
Similarly,
ordp,cz = riN + ti - 1, 7.1 e Z, ti e Z, 1 ti N - 1, rj > 0.
Thus, as before, we can write
= -1 . . pivv - t xx( 1) . xev-1). (3.6.2)
From (3.6.1) and (3.6.2) we can compute the divisor of the meromorphic
function f = w 11 w on M, and the projected function Jon .1/:
-.. X. (3.6.3)
(/) =
In (3.6.3) we have made an obvious identification of points on M with their

images in Si-. Note that (/) contains fractional powers because locally / is
given by a Puiseaux (not Taylor) series.
The fractional divisors on .ii can be mapped (locally) into J(S-1). Since IN
is single valued on S4, the image of the divisor of f in J(17/) is a point of
order N.
In order to study the converse, we begin by remarking that
v(T)
R= E (1 -
is an integer (EXERCISE) that satisfies

v(T) N-1
R - -T-
1 v(T). (3.6.4)
Every multivalued function on A-4. whose divisor has the same fractional
exponent at 11; as in (3.6.3) and that has the same image in J(M) as (1),
lifts to a meromorphic function on M.
Consider the divisor D on AI
D= •• 131:1-i'4N .
We now pose the following problem: Does there exist an integral divisor
X on k such that
v t•
deg X = - -
(where, as usual, [a] denotes the greatest integer in a),

9(x 2N) = op), (3.6.5)
VII.3. Examples of Non-hyperelliptic Surfaces 32 1
and
4 (X 2) — - • • .1)„1- '-"' LI) (3.6.6)
equals the point of order N in J(.1) determined by the divisor of the
function _T?
The theory of the Jacobi inlersion problem asserts that we can always
solve the above problem, and in fact do so with [-I (1 - ti/N)] - 1
free points. The condition that we shall need is
R= (1 — -t--1) 2,
•■••
which occurs by (3.6.4) whenever
v(T) 2N.
Furthermore, there are (2N)24 different solutions to (3.6.5) corresponding
to the (2N) 24 points of order 2N in J(k). Only 22i of these solutions will
satisfy (3.6.6).
There are now two cases to consider:
R is an even integer ( 2), (3.6.7)
and
R is an odd integer ( 3). (3.6.8)
In case (3.6.7),
x2N
prtl . AN
is the divisor of a meromorphic function on Si whose Nth-root lifts to a

meromorphic function on M with divisor
x2( x2)(1) (x2)(N — 1)
p - t, pNv -t„A zi (I) 4 (N-1).
Thus we conclude that (multiply the above function by (o)

Z1 = -1 . . . pr i x 2(x2)i) . por - 1.) (3.6.9)
is a canonical divisor on M.
In case (3.6.8) we choose P 1 e A4 as the base point of the map cp:
-
We conclude that
p+11x2N
prt, prvr-tv A N
is the divisor of a meromorphic function on Al whose N-th root lifts to a

a meromorphic function on M with divisor
prIx2(x2 )(1) . por -1)
322 VII Examples
In this case we conclude that

Z2 = Pr"- I 1 - • p t (X 2 )tXV 1) • • • ( v s - i)
) (3.6.10)
is a canonical divisor on M.
The sole purpose of the above series of exercises was to produce a
holomorphic differential on M (with enough free points) all of whose zeros
are of even order. We have succeeded in this whenever N = 2 (because
ri = 1 for j = 1,..., v(T)). In this case
R = E (i - =
N 2
and thus X has precisely
r4_(7_111
free points. We conclude from (3.6.9) that
v ( T)
i(Z1)
with a similar result for (3.6.10).

We have established the following
Theorem. Let M he a g-hyperelliptic swface of genus g + 3. Then esin,

contains 2 24 points of order 2 with the order of vanishing of the 0-function
at these points greater than or equal to [ .-(2g + 2 — 4g)].
Remark. The above analysis for N = 2 and v = 0 does not give points of
order two in esi„,. A slightly different and in some sense simpler analysis,
however, does.
VII.3.7. The Riemann surface M of

w29 + 1 = z(z — 1)
affords another interesting example of a surface of genus g. It is an immediate

consequence of the fact that w is a function of degree 2, that M is hyperelliptic.
There is an obvious involution on M:
(z,w)i—* (1 — z w). ,
This is the hyperelliptic involution since it fixes the 2g + 1 points lying

over z = 4 and the point z' ( e).
The Riemann surface M of

w4 = z4 1
VII.3. Examples of Nun-hyperelliptic Surfaces 323
is of genus 3 which obviously has two cyclic groups of order 4 operating

on it; the groups generated by
(z.01--.(zjw), (i:.w).
Using obvious notational conventions, we record the following facts:
o22Q3Q4
(-)—
Q5Q6127128'
P iP 2P 3P 4
(w) —
5Q6Q7Q8'
and -
P?P3P3P,3,
(dz) - -- T.
12;MiQi
From the above we see that
d: d:dz
2, z -7
h3
IV
form a basis for yel(m). Note that
(= = Q1Q2023 ,24 = i t%
More generally for any ceCk..) 13c1, '(e) is a canonical divisor. It follows
from these observations that the "gap" sequence at any 1=1» = 1,2,3,4) is
1, 2, 5.
(Note that the Pi are defined by z(Pi)4 = 1.) Thus each 13 is a Weierstrass
point of weight 2. We have accounted for 8 of the 24 Weierstrass points.
Similarly, the points Qi (j = 1,2,3,4) are Weierstrass points of weight 2, since
dw dw dw
z2 '
is also a basis of Ye l (M). Finally, the points Q. (j = 5,6,7,8) are also
Weierstrass points of weight 2, since
z 1)
(z,w) 1—*(—, —
ww
is an automorphism (of period 2) of the surface M that interchanges the
zeros and poles of w. We have thus accounted for all the Weierstrass points
on M. It is a surface of genus 3 with 12 distinct Weierstrass points each
of weight 2.
VII.3.9. The next to last example of this section is the most complicated
one. It will be used to show that the upper bound on the number of (distinct)
Weierstrass points g3 — g on a surface of genus g (Theorem 111.5.11) is
324 VII Examples
attained. Our example will be for g = 3. Consider the Riemann surface M

of the algebraic curve
= — 1) 2 . (19.1)
On the surface, the function z is of degree 7 (and w is of degree 3). The function
z is ramified over 0, 1, co (with ramification number 7). A calculation using
Riemann-Hurwitz now shows that M has genus 3. In our usual short hand:
-
Pi
(0=
P7131
(d-) =
Qt
and
P i Pj
I'
(w)= —
42 31
From the above formulas we see that the differentials
dz dz dz
(z — 1)-6 (3.9.2)
have (respectively) divisors

PiQi, P1P 32,
It is
is immediate from this calculation that we have again produced a basis
for Yr 1 (M) and that P„ P2, Q 1 are all simple ( = weight one) Weierstrass
points.
We claim that all the Weierstrass points are simple (hence we must have
24 distinct Weierstrass points). We will compute the Wronskian of our basis
of Ye l(M). Since we are no longer interested in points lying over 0, 1, 30
(via z), the function z is a good local coordinate at such points. Using the
notation of 111.5.8, we are computing
1 z — 1 z — 1] 1
37 5 7 6 = det[w 3 , w(z 1), z — 1]
det[ w w w
3! 1
= (z3 — 8:2 + 5z + 1).
z3 :5(z — 1)5
(The computation is long and tedious, but routine.) Denoting the cubic
polynomial by p(z) we see that
p(-1)= —13, p(0) = +1, p(1) = —1, p(8) = 41,
and hence p has three distinct real roots (in the open intervals ( —1,0), (0,1)
and (1,8)). Each zero of the Wronskian corresponds to 7 distinct points on
M. Thus we have produced a surface of genus 3 with 24 distinct (simple)
Weierstrass points.
V11.3. Examples of Non-hyperelliptic Surfaces 325
V11.3.10. The Riemann surface of (3.9.1) actually has 168 = 84(3 — 1)

automorphisms, which shows that the maximum number (of Hurwitz's
theorem, V.1.3) is achieved. It is easy to exhibit an automorphism of period 7:
( z,w) (z,e w), e = exp(--).

7
To exhibit other automorphisms of M we must use some algebraic geometry.
The abelian differentials of the first kind provide an embedding of M into
P3 (111.10). Thus setting
w= z — 1 = +X 3 Y 2 ,
we see from (3.9.1) or (3.9.2) that a projective equation for our curve is
X3 Y + Y 3 Z Z 3 X = O.
Hence we see that we have another automorphism of M (of order 3) given
by the permutation
(X. Y,Z) ( Y,Z,X).
We will not proceed with the above line of thought. (The interested reader
should consult the work of A. Kuribayashi and K. Komiya for the complete
classification of automorphism groups and Weierstrass points for surfaces
of genus 3.) (The authors have a preprint of their forthcoming article, and
hence cannot supply a reference to the literature.)
If we are willing to use the fact that M has 168 automorphisms, we can
conclude without calculation that each Weierstrass point is simple. We have
seen in the proof of Hurwitz's theorem, that the maximum number of
automorphisms occur only if M,'Aut M C i {on} and the canonical
projection
n:M —■ C1/4.)f)o}
is branched over three points with ramification numbers 2, 3, 7. Thus these
are the only possible orders of the stability subgroups of points. We conclude
that each orbit under Aut M must contain at least = 24 points. In
particular, the Weierstrass points must be the fixed points of the elements
of order 7, and there must be 24 such points. Hence they must all be simple.
VIL3.11. For our last example we consider the Riemann surface of
z6 zt
W2
which is a hyperelliptic surface of genus 2. In addition to the hyperelliptic

involution this surface permits an automorphism of period 5
2rci
(ez,e 3 w) with e = exp(-5--).
Let us denote this automorphism by T and observe that the automorphism

JT with J the hyperelliptic involution is of order 10. The automorphism
326 VII Examples
JT is given by
(z,w)i— ■ fez, — e 3 w),
so that the only possible fixed points of JT are P, = z -1 (0) or Qt, Q z the
two points lying over co. Since T is of prime order 5, the Riemann-Hurwitz
formula gives 2 = 5(2 4- — 2) + 4v(T), with v(T) as usual the number of fixed
points of T. The only way this can be satisfied is with g = 0 and v(T) -- -, 3.
Hence T fixes P 1 , Q 1 , and Q2. It is therefore obvious that JT fixes P 1 , but
cannot fix either Q, or Q2, because JTQ, = JQ, = Q2 and JTQ 2 =
= Q1.
The reader should now recall Theorem V.2.11.
VII.4. Branch Points of Hyperelliptic Surfaces

as Holomorphic Functions of the Periods
In IV.7, we solved two elementary moduli problems. In this section we will
describe one way of obtaining moduli for hyperelliptic surfaces; another
elementary case.
VII.4.1. We return once again to the concrete representation of a hyper-
elliptic surface M of genus g > 2. We will now assume that our function z
of degree two is blanched over 0, 1, and :o, and hence represent M by
2g-1
11,2 = z(:,
k= 1
(z -
)-o, (4.1.1)
where A l , , z are distinct points in C \ {0,1 } . We are using a slight

variation of (1.0.1). To fix notation, we set
= z -1 (0), P2 = 1 (1),
Pj+ 2 = Z j = 1, . , 2g — I, P2 9 +2 = Z
We have seen in VII.1.2, that using P1 as a base point for 9: M J(M), the
vector K of Riemann constants is given by
- g
K= —
1 g—1 1
+1
2
1 1
where 17 is the period matrix for the canonica homology basis constructed
in VIL 1.1. We shall show that the Ai are holomorphic functions of the entries
rcki of H. We will accomplish this by expressing the function z in terms of
0-functions.
The function z e or(M) is characterized (up to a constant multiple) by
the property that it has a double pole at P29+ 2, a double zero at 1' 1 , and is
VII.4. Branch Points of Hyperelliptic Surfaces 327
holomorphic on Al\,/) 2, +2 ). We will produce such a function in terms of

0-functions. One main tool will be the Riemann vanishing theorem, and our
explicit knowledge of the images in J(M) of the Weierstrass points on M.
VII.4.2.We shall see that there are many ways to proceed. We begin with
the point of order 2
(P(P1P5P7 ' • P2g+ 1) + K = (P(P1P3) =
by virtue of (1.2.1) and the fact that ç(P2) = 0 for every Weierstrass point
P on M. We have computed (p(P3) in
= Vie t) + et." 71- e(2)).
Similarly,
(P(P20 +2P5P7 • • P29+1) K = 9(P29 . 2 P3) = lop + e(2)),
We also observe that
i(P1P5P7 • • • P29+ I) = = i(P2 9 +2P5P7 • ' • P2g+t)
(compare with VII.1.4). We now consider the multiplicative function

[l 0 0
o
P i--■ (4.2.1)
[1 0 0
0
0 1
According to Theorem VI.2.4, the numerator vanishes precisely (it does not
vanish identically by Theorem VI.3.3) at P1, P5, P7,. . . , 1329+1 and the
denominator at P29+2, P5, P7,. . . , P2g _, 1 . In particular, the function (4.2.1)
vanishes to first order at P, and has a simple pole at P20. 2 . Examining the
multiplicative behavior of the above function, we see that
02 [1 oo • • •
1 1 O • -
f(P)=
02 F1 o o •
Lo 1 0 • •
is a meromorphic function on M with divisor PP.„. Hence
f = cz, c e C\(01.
The constant c is evaluated by f(P 2) = cz(P2) = c. Thus we see that
1 1 0 • •• 01 (0p2),H)
o2[
1 1 0 • -
= f(P2) = 02[1 0 0 • • 0 2,
0 1 0 • •• OI<P(P ) H)
328 VII Examples
and
1 0 0 — 0 1 1 (i ) 1 0 0 ol
0' (0(11,././)
0 1 0 • • ' 0] ( .,.. 7 . 11) o2 [1 1 0 0j
,111 — -
1 0 0 . - • 01 1 100 01
O2 — re ,1 11)02
[1 • [0 1 0 0 (9(P),n)
0 0 •• - 0-1 02 1- 1 0 0 •• • 01
02r_
O I 0 • - 0] Li 1 o — 0
(4.2.2)
0 0 0 ••• 01 192 r1 0 0 •••
02 (P
1 1 0 •• • 0 _I LO 1 0 • • • 00] (P),17 )
(the last equality by V1(1.4.5)).

Setting P = Pi+ 2 we get irom ( 4 .2.2) formulae for A. These formulae are
useful only for
j = 1, 2, 4, 6, , 2g — 2. (4.2.3)
For other values of f, both the numerator and denominator vanish. While
the limit can be calculated to obtain i.J, the calculation involves the normal-
ized abelian differentials of the first kind. For the values of j given in (4.2.3),
nice formulae for can be obtained in terms of 0-constants only. For
example,
02 [0 0 0 ..• 0] [0 0 0
0-,
LO 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.]
—
00 0 0 ••• 01 02 [0 0 0-,_
02[
0••• 0 0 0,
By replacing the point of order 2 that started this whole procedure (for
example, use
49(PiP3P7* • • P2g + K
instead of
0(P IP5P7 P29+ 1 ) K),
we can get similar formulae for for the other values of j. We have hence
established the following
Theorem. The branch points of the two sheeted representation of a hyper-

elliptic Riemann surface are holomorphic functions of the period matrix.
Furthermore, the hyperelliptic surface is completely determined by its period
matrix.
VII.4.3. The fact that there are many ways to express the function z in
terms of 0-functions leads to useful and interesting relations among 0-
constants. We will, however, not pursue this fascinating subject.
V11.5. Examples of Prym Differentials 329
Examples of Prym Differentials

On the hyperelliptic surface M
29-1
W2 = — 1) (z 4), g 2,
k= 1
the differentials
dz dz , dz
- z . . . , z- - - —
w w
form a basis for abelian differentials of the first kind.
On M we can construct (locally) the function y given by
= z(z — 1) n (z — 4),
2g - 3
k. I
and (locally) the differentials

dz dz. , dz
- z . . . , z- --
Y Y Y
Continuation of these differentials along the curves a,, . . . , a9, 6 1 , . , b9 _ 1
of Figure VIII (interpreted correctly) leaves them invariant. However, con-
tinuation along b9 leads to a change of sign. We have hence constructed a
basis for the Prym differentials with characteristic [2 ?] as defined
in 111.9.
The fascinating relation between the lifts of these differentials to a smooth
two-sheeted cover and the theory of moduli will have to be pursued elsewhere.
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Index
abelian differential 49, 63, 226 divisor 69

Abel's theorem 88 homology basis 6, 54
for multivalued functions 127 Cauchy 's integral formula 34
Accola 250 chain 14
additive multivalued function character (on the fundamental
(belonging to a character) 128 group) 120
algebraic function 5 inessential 123
algebraic function field 6, 235 normalized 121
algebraically essential singularity 227 characteristic 206
analytic Clifford index (of a divisor) 103
configuration 230 Clifford's theorem 146
continuation along a curve 120, 121 closed surface 10
coordinate chart 11 cohomology class 42
mapping 11 complementary divisor 104
annulus 197 complex sphere 73
complex torus 133
barrier (at a point) 161 conformal
normalized 161 disc 156
basis adapted to a point 81 mapping 11
Betti number 15 conjugation operator * 23
bilinear relation 62 constant mapping 11
branch 12 coordinate chart 10
number (of mapping) 18 coordinate disc 11
point 15, 327 covering
branched covering 219 branched 219
group 191
canonical manifold 15
class 69, 74 map 15
334 Index
covering front.] free points in 119

transformation 16 greatest common divisor 104
curvature (of inctri0 199. 201 group 68
cusp 203 index of specialty of 70
integral 69
degree of mapping 13 least common multiple 105
Dan twist 18 multiple of 94
deRahm cohomology 42 polar 69
diagonalization procedure 174, 178 principal 68
differentiable manifold 13 ramification 254
differential (form) 4 special 90, 104
abelian 49, 63. 226 strictly integral 94
of the first kind 63 zero 69
of the second kind 64 double (of a Riemann surface) 47
of the third kind 64
associated with closed curve 39 Earle 275
closed 2.3 Eichler trace formula 264
co-closed 23 elementary group 190
co-exact 23 elliptic
exact 23 function 4
G-invariant form 254 Möbius transformation 193
q-canonical 69 surface 94, 164
harmonic 40, 43, 54, 226 equivalent divisors 68
holomorphic 4, 24, 59, 60 essential analytic singularity
measurable 26 Euclidean metric 200
meromorphic 49 Euler (—Poincaré) characteristic 6, 18
multiplicative 122 exceptional Riemann surface 192, 277
Prym 122 extended complex plane 10
differential operators
d, 8, 5 22 finite sheeted cover 13
*23, 59 finite type 206
dimension of divisor 70 free points (in a divisor) 119
Dirichlet Fuchsian equivalent 207
principle 47, 172 Fuchsian group 189
problem 151, 161 of first kind 192
disc (corresponding to a puncture) 214 of second kind 192
discontinuous group 2, 188, 207 function
discrete group 189 additive 128
divisor 68 algebraic 5
canonical 69 element 98, 120
class group 68 elliptic 4
Clifford index of 103 field 2, 235
complementary 104 group 189, 207
dimension of 70 harmonic 24, 151
equivalence of 68 holomorphic 11
Index 335
meroinolphic 11 princip1e 154

multiplicative 7, 121, 283 Hodge theorem 42
subliai inonic 156 holomorph ic
superharmonic 156 differential 4, 59, 60
fundamental domain 206 form 24
fundamental group 14, 194 function 11
mapping 11
gap 78 q-differential 77
Gauss-Bonnet formula 205 homology group 15
genus,(of a surface) 6,47, 206 Hurwitz's
. - theorem 242, 244, 325
geodesic 200, 202 hyperbolic
germ (of a meromorphic Möbius transformation 193
function) 120, 227 Riemann surface 164
greatest common divisor (of two hyperelliptic
divisors) 104 involution 101
Green's function 166 surface 86, 94, 131, 235, 249, 302,
group 327
covering 16, 191
discontinuous 2, 188, 207 Inessential character 123
discrete 189 integral divisor 69
divisor class 68 integration by parts 26
elementary 190 intersection number (of two
Fuchsian 189 curves) 53
function 189, 207 invariant metric 201
fundamental 14, 194 irreducible subvariety 145
homology 15 isometry 199
Kleinian 189
of divisors 68
symplectic 270 Jacobian variety 8, 87, 99, 137
unimodular 198 Jacobi inversion theorem 6, 92, 128,
Guerrero 257 294
g-hyperelliptic 319
G-invariant differential 254 Kleinian group 189
Komiya 325
half-period 286 Kuribayashi 325
half plane (corresponding to a
puncture) 214 least common multiple (of two
harmonic divisors) 105
differential 40, 43, 54, 226 Lefschetz fixed point formula 265
form 24 limit set 188
function 24, 151 local
measure 165, 167 coordinate 11
harmonization 157 parameter 11
Harnack's loxodromic Möbius
inequality 153 transformation 193
336 Index
manifold open surface 10

differentiable 13 order (of a differential) 49
universal cov,ing 2 orthogonal
unlimited covering 15 complement 30
mapping decomposition 38
analytic 11
conformal 11 parabolic
constant 11 Möbius transformation 192
holomorphic 11 Riemann surface 164
measurable 1-form 26 parametric disc 11
meromorphic period matrix 133, 167
differential 49 Perron family 159
function 11 Perron's principle 159
q-differential 49 Picard group 189
metric Poincaré metric (= non-Euclidean
Euclidean 200 metric) 217
invariant 201 Poisson kernel 152
non-Euclidean 202 polar divisor 69
Poincaré 202 principal
Möbius transformation divisor 68
elliptic 193 part 128
hyperbolic 193 projective space 130
loxodromic 193 prolongable Riemann surface 192
parabolic 193 proper solution for Dirichlet
moduli 3, 196, 326 problem 161
monodromy theorem 16 Prym differential 122, 329
multiple of a divisor 69 Puiseaux series 228, 320
multiplicative differential (belonging puncture 206
to a character) 122
multiplicative (holomorphic) q-canonical
function 7, 121, 283 class 69
multiplicative multivalued function divisor 69
(belonging to a character) 121 mapping 129
multiplicity (of mapping) 12 ramification divisor 254
q-Weierstrass point 84
Noether gap theorem 79
Noether's theorem 149 ramification number (of mapping)
non-Euclidean 12
area 202 ramification point 15
metric (= Poincaré metric) 202 region of discontinuity 188
non-gap 78 regular point for Dirichlet
normal form 16 problem 161
normalized representation of Aut M 253, 271
barrier 161 residue (of a differential) 49
character 121 Riemann—Hurwitz formula 18, 75,
nth integer characteristic 127
- 222
Index 337
Riemann inequality 72, 223 surface

Riemann mapping theorem 182 closed 10
Riemann—Roch theorem 7, 71, 74, genus of 6, 17, 206
75, 224 open 10
for multivalued functions 126 triangulability 51
Riemann sphere 10, 198 symbol of polygon 16
Riemann surface 1, 9
closed 10 theta function 280
double of 47 associated with a Riemann
elliptic 94, 164 surface 287
exceptional 192, 277 4+^ of first order 285
genus (of) 17 with integral characteristic 285
hyperbolic 164 torus 3, 18, 133, 197
of finite type 206 total branching number 18
open 10 transition function 10
parabolic 164 triangulability of surfaces 51
prolongable 192
Riemann theta function 7, 280 uniformization 86, 92, 180, 191
singular point of 308 uniformizing
singular set 299 disc 11
zero set of 299 variable 11
Riemannian metric 198 unimodular
group 198
Schwarz 242 matrix 270
Serre 275 unit 123
sheaf of germs 180 universal covering manifold 2
sheet interchange 101 unlimited covering manifold 15
Siegel upper half space 280
signature 206
valuation (on a field) 236
simple Weierstrass point 86
Vandermonde matrix 304
simplex 14
vector of Riemann constants 290, 298
singular point of the 0-function
308
singular set of the 0-function 299 Weierstrass
singularity gap sequence 310, 316
algebraically essential 227 gap theorem 78
essential analytic 228 Ad-function 4, 93, 100
special divisor 90, 104 point 8, 84, 242, 323
sphere 18 weight of a point 82
stereographic projection 199 Weyl 's lemma 31, 36, 37
Stokes' theorem 22 Wronskian 82, 324
strictly integral divisor 69
subharmonic function 156 zero
superharmonic function 156 divisor 69
symplectic group 270 set of 0-function 299

GTM 71 Riemann Surfaces (Hershel M. Farkas, Irwin Kra (Auth.) )

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GTM 71 Riemann Surfaces (Hershel M. Farkas, Irwin Kra (Auth.) )

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H. M. Farkas I.

AMS Classification (1980): 30Fxx, 14H15, 20H10

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

(Graduate texts in mathematics; v. 71)

All rights reserved.

August, 1979 H. M. FARKAS 1. KRA

Commonly Used Symbols xi

111.10. Projective Imbeddings 129

The theory of Riemann surfaces lies in the intersection of many important

0.1. Topological Aspects, Uniformization,

to a cylinder which is conformally the same as a twice punctured sphere.

possibly open) polygon contained in U and that U/G is obtained by certain

0.2. Algebraic Functions

The 9-function satisfies the differential equation

It is important to observe that p' is again an elliptic function; hence a

conversely, 0:,e(N)— ■ .,r(M) is an isomorphism which preserves constants,

0.3. Abelian Varieties

We will show that on the above surfaces of genus g, the g differentials

Il = (7r), It jk = fbj (Pk

is symmetric with positive definite imaginary part. It then follows that C 9

vector differential 0 = ((p i , . . ,99) from a fixed base point to a variable

0.4. More Analytic Aspects

1.1. Definitions and Examples

is a homeomorphism onto an open subset of the complex plane C) such that

Remark. If M is a Riemann surface and {U.z} is a coordinate on M, then

1.1.3. Examples. The simplest example of an open Riemann surface is the

(Here and hereafter we continue to use the usual conventions involving

sition functions involved are

1.1.5. A continuous mapping

Theorem. Let M and N be Riemann surfaces with M compact. Let f :M ---• N

holomorphic mappings satisfy the maximum modulus principle. (The prin-

Thus, we also have (since a non-vanishing holomorphic function on a disc

where h is holomorphic and h(0) 0. Note that n(7) is another local

Proposition. Let f:M N be a non-constant holomorphic mapping between

PROOF. For each integer n 1, let

Remark. Every surface (orientable topological two-real-dimensional rri'ani-

1.2. Topology of Riemann Surfaces

"Remark. It is easy to see that the fundamental group is a topological invariant.

1.2.4. Covering Manifolds. The manifold M* is said to be a (ramified) cover-

EXAMPLE. Proposition 1.1.6 shows that every non-constant holomorphic

Continuing the general discussion, we call M* an unlimited covering mani-

1.2.5. Normal Forms of Compact Orientable Surfaces. Any triangulation of

The final simplification we need involves the notion of linked edges. We

Figure 1.3. Surface of genus 1.

Figure 1.4. Surface of genus 2.

seen until 111.4 or IV.4) a sphere. A surface of genus 1 is topologically a torus.

Consider a non-constant holomorphic mapping between compact

Theorem (Riemann-Hurwitz Relation). We have

Corollary 1. The total branching number B is always even.

Corollary 2. Assume that f is unramified. Then

1.3. Differential Forms

Remark. We shall use interchangeably the terms "form", "differential", and

1.3.1. Let M be a Riemann surface. A 0-form on M is a function on M. A

on the intersection of the domains of z and Y. The 2 x 2 matrix appearing in

where 0(x,y)/a(50 is the determinant of the Jacobian. Since we consider

1.3.2. Many times it is more convenient to use complex notation for

It follows from (3.2.2) that

L = ff„, f(x,y) dx A dy.