CHAPTER

1. PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
1.1 Existing infrastructure utility of Bele Hawasa town
1.1.1. Road network and linkage
The urban development through physical, social, economic and technological integration is
achieved with good transport system. Urban centers with poor transport services is meaningless
in each and every socio-economic activities undertaking in the town.
Bele Hawasa town is linked to some urban and urban, urban and rural centers by road transport.
Accordingly the main roads to Tercha and Sodo, All roads that link the town with other zone
rural centers are asphalt and gravel road. The existing road of Bele town is good.
Bele Hawasa has federal roads rather than to Sodo and Tercha other weredas and rural kebeles.
Totally, there are more than three main inlet and outlet roads.

1.1.2. Types and length of existing roads in Bele Hawasa town are:

Due to the nature of topography Bele hawasa town has different pattern of road network. Organic
Pattern of road net-work mostly existing settlement areas and the rest other areas are grid pattern
types of street net-work are observed in the town. The hills and flat topography of the land
played significant role in shaping these streets. Most development followed the radial streets
resulting star (irregular) shape. However, local and collector streets have grid iron patterns on the
other hand irregular pattern of streets are observed in old and settlement. The hierarchy of the
street arrangement in the Bele Hawasa town is good road well Strategic.
Existing road type in Bele Hawasa town Asphalt Road: 19 km, Cobblestone Road No, Gravel
Road 4 km, Earthen Road 95% and other rural roads,
Utilities are not installed properly and not at standard position on road structure. Most of the
pedestrians move along the middle of the roads. The ditches aloud for storm water are clogged
by silt and garbage during flood.

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1.1.3. Proposed road hierarchy
Bele Hawasa is a small town being located in a rural hinterland connected resourceful areas that
demand strong connections, as they are development potentials. This is considered in the
determination of the outlet roads right of ways and directions. The most important or major
outlets of the town are the roads those are leading to Bele hawasa and Sodo towns and This
width is proposed for the road that connects Bele to Tercha, has importance of serving wider
rural area and some urban centers. The coverage road system has to confirm with the circulation
requirement of various land uses. Thus, in order to provide maximum accessibility with in all
parts of the town the following considerations are taken in to account in the layout of road
network.

To establish a hierarchical set of road system;

To locate traffic generating and attracting activities in the central accessible area of
the town or along the main roads;
To resolve the existing road network challenge;
To intervene encroachment and narrow width of other existing roads;
To propose new roads especially in the expansion and/or at periphery of the town;
Based on these, the existing roads are intervening to reasonable width for giving good traffic
movement and designed as indicated on the proposed land use plan (see road net-work map)

The road from Bele and sodo to tercha, is -m width and with set-back 2.5m left and or right of
the road as indicated on proposal road network map.

The road which are newly proposed to the expansion urban area are
40,30,26,20,16,12,and 10 ms;
Other inner existed roads are proposed as minor (26 and 20ms), collectors (14
and16m) and local roads (10and12m) width;
Note: All blocks along road net-works investigated with minimum Set back is 1.5ms.

The new proposed roads urban-rural and urban-urban linkage Roads and the accessible roads at
the expansion or periphery of the town are designated as:-

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 Expresses road -40 m wide
Principal arterial road 30,36m wide
Minor » » 20 and 26ms wide
Collector road 14,16 and18ms wide
Local roads – 10 and12 m wide considering right of way (see proposed land use and
road net-work).
The lowest levels of hierarchy which are the most important to access individual plots or parcels
are the local roads. These roads are the most dominant one as to length and density. The widths
of such roads proposed for Bele hawasa Town are 12m ; where the 12m width is the most widely
used one for the expansion areas, built up areas with possibilities to widen the existing narrower
roads . The 12m (twelve meter) wide, roads are only used for the built up areas where widening
is highly destructive or for the roads having limited services as to the number of users.
Classification: Road is classified in to seven by the planning team and here under the following.

Table 1.1 Road Network Hierarchy Proposed by RUPI

No Labeled Road Width (m2)

1 A Two way triple lane principal 40
2 B Two way triple lane Arterial 30
3 C Two way double lane Arterial 26
4 D One way double lane Collector 20
5 E One way double lane Collector 16
6 F One way double lane Collector 12
7 G One way local road 10
Source: (RUPI) Pan Document of the town
These seven urban road classifications are not available in the urban land use-planning standard.
Instead, the following classification is adopted based on the standard.

Table 1.2 Road Hierarchy

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 No Street Right-off-way width (m)
Core areas Intermediate zone Expansion area
1 Principal arterial-PAS 25,30 25,30 30,40,50,60,100,120
2 Sub arterial-SAS 20,25 20,25,30 20,25
3 Collector Street-CS 11-20 11-20 11-20
4 Local Street 4-10 8-10 10-12
Source: (Construction (standard), 2012)
So, this mismatching tables indicates disobey of the plan standard. The other discomfort of the
plan is unclear and inadequate labeling of the road network plan;

A. Road Junction
As far as road junction is concerned this is not soundly planned. According to the plan there are
principal and arterial roads adopted. But except one /made to be roundabout/ leaving the others

either T-Junction or Cross Junction. It is not clear why roundabout is ignored at all principals and
arterial road cross junction. The other issue is halfhearted planning of junctions.

B. Utilities
Utility facilities are to be accommodated on right-of-ways (underground, surface, and overhead),
should satisfy the required institutional standard, and should not adversely affect road safety,
construction, maintenance, or operation. “The horizontal and vertical location of utility lines
within the right-of-way limits should conform to the standard of road section”, (Construction
(standard), 2012, p. 50). The following tables show the horizontal and vertical utility line
arrangements standard, applicable at any road types.

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Table;-1.3 Minimum Horizontal Distances between Utility Lines

Fuel
Utilities Water Sewer Power line Telephone Gas line line
Water _ 1.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 1
power line 1.5 _ 1 1 1 1
Telephone 0.7 1 _ 0.5 0.5 1
Gas line 0.7 1 0.5 0.5 _ 1
Fuel line 1 1 1 1 1 _
Source: (Construction (standard), 2012, p. 51)

Table;- 1.4 Minimum Vertical Coverage above Utility Line

Utility Vertical covering

Water 1.5
power line 1.5
Telephone 0.5 (above conduits)
Gas line 1
Fuel line 1
Source: (Construction (standard), 2012, p. 51)

Fig:-1.1 Utility Line Arrangement

Source: (Construction (standard), 2012, p. 51)

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Fig:-1.2 Proposed Road Section and utility Line Arrangement Standard and various widths:-

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The following road section of the plan is compared with that of the standard illustrated above.

1.1.4. The following problems are identified concerning to the road of the town:-
 Due to difficulty of topography, roads hinder the movement of vehicles especially in the
rainy season.
 Some of the roads side is not protected by ditch and culvert /other constructed structure to
make the existing road safe.
 Most of the roads are narrow, less than standard, so people and animals walk along the
runoff way,
 People dump solid west along the road,
 Many people constructed their residence along the center of previous plan road. Some
households construct their house in contact with streams,
 Some roads, which were almost parallel to contour line, have sloppy space between the
property line and the road edge. This provides west space area of the town,

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The existing road network as shown on the map, it is organic in outer part of the town and girded
in the center but not well hierarchical. Some roads have no regular width and length. So it is
difficult to determine the total coverage area of the existing road. The town has no parking lot
and other related services.
Recommendation
 The roads have to be standard in size and structure,
 All the utility lines have to be on proper aliment,
 Drainage lines have to be adequate and at proper position of the road cross-section,
 Properly constructed roads save life and property

2.2 Storm water drainage

Bele Hawasa Town topography is plan land . Due to fast urbanization, the inner city covered by
more impervious layer such as, roofing, asphalt road, gravel road, earth pressed road which
generate a significant amount of runoff. On the other hand, in upper catchment deforestation rate
and improper cultivation increase from time to time. This aggravates the soil erosion and flood
occurrences and reduces water infiltration and water holding capacity of soil. The generated
runoffs from inner city and hinterland drain by natural as well as manmade storm water drainage
line sometime run on the open and agricultural land. The existing drainage lines are masonry
ditches that carry high amount of runoff. The town has small coverage of manmade storm water
drainage line at sides of asphalt road and earth road. But the coverage is less as compare to total
need of drainage. This runoff has a threat for erosion and as same time the natural waterway
increasing in width and depth and the drains create problem on traffic movement.
In order to reduce the problem, the municipality tries to look different measure such as
construction of drainage lines, diverting runoff from the road ditch to the natural drains etc but
the coverage still very low as compared to total need.

1. 2.1. Methodology

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The study adopts the following steps:
 Data collection:- This involved both primary and secondary sources. The primary data
collection was conducted through field surveying, observation and focused on the
conditions, coverage of natural and artificial drainage channels. The secondary data that is
precipitation collected from Ethiopian Meteorological Services (EMS); and written
document.

Table:-1.2.1 Data collected and secondary data used.

S. No. Data group Data type Source

1 Rainfall - Rainfall intensity Ethiopian Metrological agency
- Number of rainy days
2 Catchment - Area - Base map
- Elevations - Base map
- Lengths - Base map
- Surface coverage condition - Field survey, and land use map
- Field survey
- General catchment
alignment, shape and type
3 Channel data - Original ground elevation - Base map
(OGL)
- Length - Base map
- Existing condition - Field survey and base map
- Outlet point and condition
4 Water bodies - Discharge - Field survey
5 Flood history - Peak flood history - Local person

As described above, data of channel and catchment characteristics are taken by interpolation
and/or scale reading from map. This means the accuracy of the data depend on the accuracy of
the base map and measurements on the base map. In case some deviation is noted from the actual
ground condition, the user advised to adopt channel bed level, bed slope and flow direction on
the actual land. See drainage network map. During implementation, the existing condition it
needs some adjustment depend on the land feature.
 Data processing-The data collected from primary and secondary sources have processed
using appropriate formulas and practical methods of design.

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The symbols and formulas used during the data processing have been mentioned in Table 2 and 3
respectively.
Table:-1.2.2 Symbols used in this drainage study.
.
Symbol Description Unit

Ld Drainage length Meter

Ad Cross-sectional drainage channels area Meter Square
Ac Area of catchments Hectare
qp Storm water runoff discharge Meter cube/sec
Qd Discharging capacity of the pipe or drainage Meter cube /sec
channel
D Internal Pipe diameter, drains Meter
Y Height of maximum drainage channel Meter
B Width of a Drainage channel Meter
V Velocity Meter/sec
S Slope of a channel or a pipe No unit

Tc Time of concentration Hr

I Rainfall intensity mm/hr

C Runoff coefficient No unit

R Hydraulic mean depth A/P m2/m

H Channel elevation Meter

H Elevation difference in the catchments from Meter
the farthest to the point of interest.
N Manning's roughness coefficient No unit

L Distance from the farthest point catchments of Meter

the drainage area to the point of discharge.
T Return Period Year

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 Table 1.3 Formulas used for computation of storm water drainage line
No Description Formula
1 Rational formula Q=0.00278CIA
2 Velocity V=(R2/3 S½) /n
3
Pipe diameter 3 (2 full ) D= (0.074 Q/S½) 3/8

4 Discharging capacity of drainage channel Q= A(1/n) R 2/3 S½

5 Time of concentration Tc =3.64*(1.1-c)L0.83*S-0.33
6 Intensity I = a/(b+td)c

 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this storm water drainage study is to mitigate the flood problem of the
town by providing efficient drainage network and flood protection structures. Pertinent to the
prevailing drainage problems, the following solution and directions have been set out.
a. To identify and critically analyze the existing urban storm water drainage in the town
with more emphasis on inundation area.
b. To improve the existing drainage infrastructures by computing their discharging capacity
and investigating their physical conditions of the town.
c. To study the magnitudes of existing drainage problems, identify their-relations and then
determine the intensities of the impacts of rainfall and runoff.
d. To prepare an urban storm water drainage plan which will guide the concerned
stakeholders to initiate and implement during intervention program.
e. To identify and formulate of short and long-term storm water drainage line and related
mitigating measures.
 Study Area
The study area of the town more focuses on : -
 The existing drainage;
 Flood prone area of the town;
 Gully areas formed by storm water;
Since the root of natural drains, is flat and meandering and people construct their residence at the
edge of stream. Deep gorges formed at different points of the town cause loss of property.
In some area, natural as well as man- made drains have less capacity to carry the coming runoff
due to under size and full of sediments in the drains.

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During high intensive rainfall, soil particle detach by the impact of raindrop. The detached soil
particle and other unwanted material transport by runoff and deposited at natural drains.
The storm water along its way to natural drain, it has natural drops of topography. This drop of
ground provokes high scouring and erosion of waterways. In addition, there is a deep gorge at
the junction of storm water from the town and the natural drains. There is a deep scour at the end
of manmade ditches (lined and unlined). In order to reduce the problem, the municipality tries
to look different measure such as construction of long drainage lines without flow energy
dissipation, diverting runoff from the road ditch to the natural drains etc. but the coverage still
very low as compared to total need. The ditches and end of ditches are not protected from storm
erosion.

1.2.2 Storm Water Drainage Line

Definitions

In the Context of this study, storm water defined to include at least the following types of
effluent through which they generally differ in quality, quantity and in its origin
 Rain generated runoff, which comes from surfaces of streets, walkways, roofs, developed
and undeveloped areas and hinterlands.
 Water that comes from flushing of streets, water tanks, pipelines, washing of cars etc.
 The rise ground water above the bottom level of storm ditches, the water enter either
through manholes, or on the side of drains etc.
 Leakage water i.e. water which comes from leaking and damaged water supply
pipelines.
Since storm water dispose directly to the natural drains, it is required to be free of any domestic
sewage, sludge and industrial and commercial wastes which are pollutant to nature and which
contain large amount of organic loads (BOD), grease, toxic and other environmentally
hazardous, suspended and dissolved substances.
1.2.3 Basis for the Study

The final engineering design work of storm water drainage channels, conduits, ditches and other
relevant hydraulic structures in the above target areas has been executed(on local development
plan) based on:-

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 The existing storm drainage lines;
 The proposed road network and its hierarchy;
 The revised pervious plan;
 Proposed land use;
 Rainfall intensity;
 Slope of the area;
 Flood prone area;
 The size of catchments; and
 Surface condition
1.2.4 Coverage of Existing Drainage Services

Existing drainage service coverage in Bele hawasa generally can be considered inadequate, both
in quality as well as in coverage. The type of drainage facilities in the town are rectangular
masonry channel, earthed channel, and natural waterway. The drainage facilities have a problem
of eroding drainage channels, sedimentation due to milled slope, vegetation growth in the drains,
disposing solid waste in the drains, so the runoffs cannot transport unwanted materials.
The causes of sedimentation are:-
- Absence of silt trap structures;
- Absence of sufficient capacity of drainage structure;
- Poor workmanship;
- Disposing of solid waste which cannot be transport by runoff in to drainage line;
- Disposing surplus solids along drainage line; and
- Most of area not covered by vegetation on earthed road, soils, and small particle easily
washed by runoff.
1.2.5 Existing storm water drainage condition
Access Road Facilities

a) General: - As far as road service coverage concerned, Bele Hawasa have poor drainage
network and the road quality problem. The town has some asphalt, graveled roads and
earthen road .
b) Types and available roods in the town.

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  Roads are gravel and earthed surfaced Roads. Earthed surface roads affect the
dwellers health, during dry season, it become dusty. During rainy time, it becomes
muddy. At the time of high intensive rainfall, all dust and mud will be washed and
Transport by runoff. Due to frequent happening of this phenomenon, the road will deteriorate
from year to year.
1.2.6 Technical Problems Identified during Surveying of Existing Storm Water Drainage
Line in the Town are:-
 Absence of silt trapping structure: - There is no silt trapping structure at the inlet of the
drainage line so that the drainage line is filled by silt, gravel and none decomposable urban
solid waste during peak runoff period. The situation is worsened in flat areas where the
velocities become low. The sediment blocks the drainage line and this causes over flow on
the surface of road and surrounding area.
 Improper dimension:- The dimension of drainage channel is a decisive factor to convey the
coming runoff. In some parts of the town, the drainage channel cannot convey the coming
runoff from the existing catchments. In this case, excess runoff creates and overflows on the
surface of road and adjacent area.
 Slope: - Slope is a determinant factor for the dimension and velocity of runoff. Slope of
drainage line has more potential to facilitate the coming runoffs whereas, in low laying area,
the velocity of the runoff is reduced and create sedimentation alongside drainage line. The
sedimentation reduces the carrying capacity of the drainage channel, which causes flooding
on the surfaces of road and adjacent area.
 When the storm joins the natural drains, it forms a gorge by eroding naturally gently sloping
ground.
 Absence of silt trapping structure: - There is no silt trapping structure at the inlet of the
drainage line so that the drainage line is filled by silt, gravel and none decomposable urban
solid waste during peak runoff period. The sediment blocks the drainage line and this causes
over flow on the surface of road and surrounding area.
 Improper dimension:- The dimension of drainage channel is a decisive factor to convey the
coming runoff. In some parts of the town, the drainage channel cannot convey the coming

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 runoff from the existing catchments. In this case, excess runoff creates and overflows on the
surface of road and adjacent area.
 Ignorance of diverting roadside drains at upper part of the town to nearest natural drains
leads high quantity of storm to the middle of the road.

Drainage problems in the town

Natural drains are not protected and there is no buffer along the natural drains.

Natural drains cut deep gorge, along their root to streams. There is high storm along the road in
the town and cause erosion problem at some parts of the town there is also occurrence of water
logging at flatter area, during this rainy season. There were areas where Ground water table
emerges ground surface in dry season also,
1.2.7 Social and Regulation Problems Related to the Existing Drainage Line Includes-

 Waste dumping:- People who have less awareness and carelessness dispose every household
waste in to the drainage channel. Some people never feel responsibility for the drainage
line; they just dump every waste, which are not easily transported by the runoff. Waste and
sediment settle on the drainage line and sometime create bad smell.
 Lose of regulatory polices:- Even if there is law but only few persons governed by laws
while some of them out of the rule, no body take care from respective offices what they are
doing in the water ways and water body

 Awareness: - Some dwellers in the town have less aware for the effect of disposing waste in
the drainage channel. Simply dispose any unwanted material directly in waterways.
1.2.8 Selection of Potential Storm Water Drainage Routes
Selection criteria
In the final stage of study, only main and sub main roads of the town have been selected to be
designed. The drainage routes have been identified, ranked and then selected based on the
following criteria.
 Economic, social and historical significance of the area to be served by a drainage system;
 Intensities and extents of prevailing storm water drainage and environmental sanitation
related problems in that particular area;
 The extent and quality of the existing storm drainage services;

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 Types of available road systems in the area;
 Future development and potential of the area;
 Prevailing flooding and erosion problems in that area;
 The topography and relative location of the area within the structural plan of the town i.e. is
a core area, peripheral area etc;
 Costs of construction, associated with environment impacts and other relevant factors; and
 Aesthetic value of the area.
Storm water drainage network design should not be create any problem on traffic, private and
government property and should not be a bottleneck for future development.

1.3. Water supply

Water is the most necessary requirements for human being. If not handled well (treated), is
means for epidemic disease, if not controlled causes loss of life and property.
Bele town, one of fast growing towns of the Wolayita zona, The to this grows needs provision of
infrastructures for the growing population. Potable water is one of these infrastructures. Since
1998 E.C Bele is user potable water.Now one of the fast growing towns of the region, it needs
sufficient amount of potable water supply at present as well as in future. The total present
population of the town is 38,054. The total required water for the available water is 25522 cubic
meters per day It is expected that with 100% extraction we have present population will be
2246.4 cubic meters per day water is available .water supply coverage of the town as informed
by the town water supply office from existing boreholes and spring (ground Water) .There are
two bore holes with 14. l/se and on spring with 12. l/se discharge.
 The total need of potable water for the population of 38,054 according to WHO standard is
1902.7 mcu/dad. (Excesses use of water at hotels, hospital, clinics, small scale enterprises, etc.
accounts 35% over and becomes 665.95 M3/day ) of available potential water in produced and
from this 25% is west because of different reasons. If all water supplying management and all
other problems were solved.

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 Recommendation
 Even though, the town has plenty of unconsumed water, according to WHO standard is
high shortage of water,
 The town water supply office has its 5 year strategic plan for water supply,
 However, immediate solution will be to improve water management system, and improve
efficiency of provision.
 The office would have stuffiest professionals and equipment for farther potable water
provision,
 For sustainable supply of water, additional water sources have to be studied and will be
constructed in near future to cover the need of present population and projected
population of 2025.
1.4. Electrical Power
Power supply is one of the prime factors in regional and/or urban development. Without
this it is difficult and/or impossible to attract investment. Therefore, adequate and un-restrained
power supply is a prerequisite development. To this effect, the condition of power supply in the
study area Bele was through assessed an as reseed.

 Provision of electric power in Bele Hawasa town was started in 1998 E.C with hydro power
electric system
 This time 1200 owners of electric meter in the town , (general)
 Coverage of electrical power is 48%
 The existing power supply system for the town is Hydropower supply system from Lasho sub
station.

 There is over head street light with 20 transformers ,

Problems encountered
 There are town roads which do not have street light around all road in the town
 shortage of transformer
 There are town roads which have power interruption around all road and village

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 When trees cut, fall on electric line.

2.1. PROPOSED DRAINAGE LINE FACILITIES

2.1.1 Drainage Facilities

Using some economic, social and topographic criteria roads, closed pipe, open ditch and other
drainage structure must be recommended to save the road, human life and property. In a town
like Bele Hawasa, which are many other top priority needs, to provide every access road with a
storm drainage line with short period, it is not to be a feasible option from different perspectives.
So the implementation must be taken step by step. During implementation, we must consider the
following:-
 Use equal or the next grater commercially available diameter of pipe size;
 Use equivalent multiple of pipes or replace by slab/box culvert for pipe greater than the
maximum commercially available diameter;
 The drainage channels are joined at junctions such that invert elevation of the upstream is
no lower than that of the downstream; and
 The municipality should maintain the existing drainage channel frequently and should
expand, phase by phase, the coverage of the storm water drainage line network according
to its priority and financial capacity. The main priority should be given to the main
drainage channels and flood prone area.
During selection of drains, the drains type should be strongly considered before decide the
channel type.

The proposed storm water drainage line have three alternative shapes, thus are circular,
trapezoidal and rectangular. Choosing of alternative shapes depends on:-

 Aesthetic value
 Maintenance cost
 Capacity municipality in financial and manpower
 Material availability
 Other

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The maximum allowable estimated shape due to traffic mobility, aesthetic value, space and
shape of storm water drainage line needs a certain modification without changing the cross
sectional area of drainage channel and slope. In some area due to lack of space, they can choose
rectangular channel by reducing width and increasing depth. In some area during implementation
by comparing and contrasting the existing condition, they can modify the dimension by
considering slope.

Fig:-2.1 Cross- sectional shape of drainage line are :-

Road

Road

Alternative b. Both circular and open storm water drainage line

Road

Alternative c. Rectangular storm water drainage line

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2. Design Criteria

 Estimation of Runoff Quantity (qd)

The commonly known as Rational Formula is used to measure the quantity of peak storm runoff
from particular catchment area with its characteristics. For watershed of area larger than 20 ha
and less than 5 ha the modified rational method is employed. In this method, reduction of peak
flow mainly due to surface storage is considered. Tests indicated that for large catchments the
peak is reduced by about 20 percent. This is estimation but it differs according the character of
vegetation covers, slope, soil texture and structure. This percent of runoff remain on the
catchments by infiltrating to the ground, retention and detention.
qp = 0.00278 CIA
qp = peak discharge (m3/s)
i = Rainfall intensity in (mm/hr)
A = Catchment area in ha
C = Runoff coefficient (unit less)
 Drainage Area (Ad)
The area which contributes a certain volume of runoff to determine the size of drainage channel
with relate to topographic slope.
3. Run-off Coefficient (C)
Run-off coefficient indicates the permeability or run-off generating capacity of a given
watershed or catchment. Due to lack of measured figures, a usual practice is directly adopted
from literature values for catchments assessment. Since, the town is composed of different types
of surface conditions, the following mean run-off coefficients which are relevant to urban and
semi-urban are applied.

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Table 2.1 Typical of Run-off Coefficient Values (C)

Type of catchment or surface condition Run-off Coefficient(C)

Roof 0.70 to 0.95
Asphalt pavement 0.85 to 0.95
Macadam Road 0.25 to 0.60
Gravel Drive area 0.15 to 0.30
Residential area 0.25 to 0.75
Sandy Soil 0.05 to 0.20
Heavy Soil 0.13 to 0.35
Pasture Land 0.40 to 0.70
Forest Area 0.50 to 0.85
Industrial Area 0.50 to 0.90
Sources;-E.K Garg (2003), Sewage Disposal and Air Pollution Engineering

 Rainfall and Rainfall Intensity (I)

Rainfall
The National Metrological Agency is the organization responsible for the collection of
meteorological data.

Rainfall Intensity
Bell’s Rainfall Intensity Equation is used for computing the design rainfall intensity
a
i=
( b+ T c )c
Where i = Rainfall intensity in mm/hr
Tc = Rain fall duration (Time of concentration) in hr
a, b and c are regionally applicable constants in most cases’ ” approaches unity and”
b” is taken to be 0.3
Intensity of rainfall is the amount of rainfall per unit time. The relationship between Rainfall
Duration and Intensity is graphically expressed by IDF curve, which is shown in Fig No 1.One of
the prime tasks in runoff estimation procedure to development of Intensity Duration Frequencies

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curves (IDF Curves) to show the relationship between intensity and duration of rainfall in respect
to the return period. The curves shapes directly depend on the value of Intensity and duration. In
urban condition choosing of recurrences interval depends on the size, economy and safety of the
town. The choosing of return period is very important for the decision and choosing of rainfall
intensity. To design the drainage network of the town, fifty years of average recurrence interval
is adopted and the maximum rainfall duration is 60 minutes.
Other factors which affect the quantity of storm water are:-

 Area of the catchments;

 Shape and slope of the catchments;

 Obstacle during the flow of runoff, e.g. trees, bushes, grasses

 Initial state of the catchments area with respect to wetness;

 Density of drainage network;

 Rain fall intensity;

 Soil type, texture and structure; and

 Vegetation cover.

After the analysis of the 10 years rainfall data, IDF curves and equations are developed to
compute discharge in the above rational formula.
51. 034 65 .792 76 . 961
i2= i5= i 10=
0 .3+ t d , 0 .3+ t d , 0 . 3+t d

91 .719 102 .875

i 25= i 50=
0 . 3+t d , 0 . 3+t d

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Fig:-2.2 hydrological regions which displaying similar rainfall patterns
Note: rainfall data used in the preparation of this figure have been collected from many
ministries of water resources meteorology stations. in the course of the preparation of this
manual, they have been subjected to statistical techniques. The results indicate that the country
can be divided into the above hydrological regions displaying similar rainfall patterns. The
information is subject to review, and future data may indicate the need for a further refinement in
both values and regional boundaries.

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 320
280
240 2 (years )
Intenisty in hr/mi

200 5 (years )
160 10 (years)
120 25 (years )

80 50 (years)

40
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time in minute

Fig 12.2.3 IDF Curves

 Time of Concentration (Tc)

Time of concentration is the time required from a drop of rainfall to travel from the further end
of the catchment to the point of interest. It is estimated by using the Air port formula.

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 Tc = 3.64 (1.1 –c) L0.83

H0.33

Tc = Time of Concentration (hrs)

L = Flow length from the remotest point up to the point of interest in km
H = Elevation difference in m
C= Runoff coefficient (Unit less)
 Flow Velocities
Manning’s formula is used to determine the flow velocities in drainage

V = 1/n * R2/3 * Sd1/2

Where V = Velocity of flow in m/s

R = hydraulic radius in m
Sd = Slope of energy grade line
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
a) Minimum Flow Velocities (V)
The minimum flow velocity is the movement of runoff without deposition of particles. The
velocity of flow in drains depends on hydraulic radius(R), the invert slope of the conduits and
roughness coefficients of the water ways. To prevent or reduce the further deposition of solid
waste materials in the channels, a minimum permissible flow velocity at design discharge is
specified to be 0.8m/s.
b) Maximum Velocities
Maximum Velocities are set usually for preventing scouring and erosion of drainage conduits
and structures. To prevent scour and other undesirable effects of high velocity flow, a maximum
permissible flow velocity is also specified to be 5m/s.

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 Fig:-2.4 Drainage cross-section Calculation

Pro. X-sec.(Y)&bed
Ce. W.out fr.
Ca.area Board Rec. with f. bo.
Cof. X- D or Sid. of
R. ID Intencity Dis Q Velo. Area W D^2 Dia rect. Y .With F.B width
p1 4.384 60 0.8 0.59 1.3 0.45 0.67 0.6 0.76 0.67 0.97 0.67
p2 4.4 60 0.8 0.59 1.3 0.45 0.67 0.6 0.76 0.67 0.97 0.67
p1+p2 8.784 70 0.85 1.45 1.3 1.12 1.06 1.4 1.19 1.06 1.36 1.06
p3 6.77 70 0.85 1.12 1.3 0.86 0.93 1.1 1.05 0.93 1.23 0.93
p4 17.12 70 0.85 2.83 1.3 2.18 1.48 2.8 1.67 1.48 1.78 1.48
p5 130.9 70 0.85 21.7 1.3 16.7 4.08 21 4.60 4.08 4.38 4.07
p6 133.4 70 0.85 22.1 1.3 17 4.12 22 4.65 4.12 4.42 4.12

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 Roughness Coefficient (n)
The hydraulic friction coefficient is determined by roughness of drain channels. Selected
roughness coefficient are depends on the smoothness of the material 0.016 is used for concrete
(cement pipe) and 0.017 for stone lined channel.
Discharge Capacity of Drainage Channels
Manning’s formula is used to determine carrying capacity of drains
Qd = AV
R 2 S 1
d 3 d 2
Q= A d∗
n

Where Qd = Discharge of drainage channel m3/s

Ad = Cross sectional area of drainage channel in (m2)
Rd = Hydraulic mean radius in m
Sd = Bed slope
n = Roughness coefficient

2.2.3 Locations and Spacing of Manholes and Other Structures

Manholes are generally provided at every bend, junction, change of gradient and change pipe
size. For closed conduits running in straight line, manholes are provided at regular intervals.
Manhole spacing adopted is:

2.2. 4 Storm Drainage structures

1. Intermediate Structures
Street inlets are an opening to provide on the side or on starting point of drainage lines. The inlet
design should full fill the requirement of collection of runoff from street and adjacent area
dispose safely without creating any problem.
These types of structures are:
a) Inlet structures or inlet boxes with or without silt trap facilities (for closed conduits)
b) Grilles placed across or along flow direction

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c) Junction manholes
d) Inspection manholes
e) Drop Manholes
f) Drop structures
g) Box or pipe culverts for road crossings

2. Manhole and Culverts

Manhole is an opening on the channel line through which a person can enter the drainage line
and make necessary inspections and repairs. If pipe channel is used, it should be installed at
every change of alignment, gradient and diameter of the conduits. Manhole chamber should be
large enough to allow necessary examination and clearance of drains.

Pipe, box or slab culverts are provided at road crossings. For the design purpose the whole width
of the road is considered as a length of the culvert. In actual case, the length depends upon the
width of footpath and carriageway width. Pipe and box culverts should have sufficient
cushioning to prevent breakage due to ground surface loading or heavy track movement
 Use equal or the next grater commercially available diameter of pipe size,
 Use equivalent multiple of pipes or replace by slab/box culvert for pipe greater than the
maximum commercially available diameter,
 The drainage channels are joined at junctions such that invert elevation of the upstream is
no lower than that of the downstream,

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 3. Structures
End structures are important to overcome the problem of erosion or sliding of support structures.
Some of them are retaining walls, energy dissipating structures, box and slab culverts and drop
structures.

1. Selection of Layout or Alignment Line

The alignment is done along the general direction of the ground surface slope since runoff drains
through gravity flow.
The trunk lines are selected considering different path options. Then branch lines are set to joint
towards this trunk line. The branching line starts from minimum possible depth at the remotest
point from the trunk line then ends at the trunk line with the corresponding trunk line depth.

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During implementation, municipality expert can be modifying drains type, size, and slope by
considering the size of carrying capacity.

2.2.5 Maintenance of storm water drainage line

The municipality should supervise and inspect drainage lines every time, and take immediate
action in order to repair the damage ones before cause’s serious problem.

Blocking of drainage line is the result of deposition of silt, non-decomposable material, growing
of vegetation, and other miscellaneous materials. Blocking of drainage line is frequently
occurring where drainages have been laid at flatter slopes, problem of erosion (transporting of
floating material), inadequate self-cleansing velocity and no silt trap mechanism area.

Blocking of drainage line is also caused due to disposing of ashes, rubbish, garbage, and other
materials into manholes and other opening parts of the drainage line. The main works to be done
in the maintenance of drainage works particularly cleaning sediments, repair the broken drains,
and inefficient drains

The best recommendation to prevent blocking drainage line by different factor:

1. Establish solid waste disposal area;

2. Establish temporary garbage container in different points, the town dwellers they can
transport easily by cart and can dispose the solid waste;
3. Create awareness of the disadvantage of waste disposing at every open space in the town;
4. Cover open area by grasses or pre cast in order to reduce soil erosion
5. Constructing grill or wire meshes at the mouth of inlets and manholes; and
6. Construct silt trap mechanisms on inlets and long drains to trap unwanted materials.

Recommendation

 Adequate opening should be provided in order to convey the coming storm water without
causing overflowing on the surfaces roads;
 Silt and solid waste trap mechanism must be constructed before runoff enters into
concrete pipe , this will reduce the complexity of cleaning of the pipe drains;
 Construction of drainage channel, culverts and waterways by private owners should be
supervised and guided by structural plan and municipality;

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  The municipality must be develop polices and regulation to control disposing of waste
and construction material in drainage channel, manhole, and other structure;
 Employ best method of minimizing sediment problems in waterways and drainage
channel;
 For pipe diameter greater than commercially available adopt rectangular channel or by
considering carrying capacity or use two or three pipe which are commercial available.
 The hazard of gully formation can frequently be avoided by installing properly shaped
channels protected by vegetation to absorb the energy of runoff. Once a gully is formed,
it may be more economical to allow the gully to re-vegetate with natural erosion resistant
plants rather than attempting to reshape it to the original topography with expensive earth
works and construct physical structure. Gully formation or expansion can be prevented
by reducing the amount of runoff and by providing check dams at required intervals; and
 Construction storm water drainage line should be done in consultation with
telecommunication, water supply, and other relevant stakeholder.
REFERENCES

1. Environmental Engineering (VolII), Seweage disposal and air pollution engineering by S.K
Garg. 2003 Fifteen revised edition
2. Applied hyderlogy, By ven Te Chaw

3. Ministry of Urban Development and Construction

(Urban Planning Coordinating Bureau) (2008), Urban Storm Water Drainage Design Manual,
Addis Ababa.

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