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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

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BIOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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Animals: Multicellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living

organisms). Ex: cat, ladybird, newt, etc.
1. Characteristics and Plants: Multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make
their food) organism with a cellulose cell wall and
Classification of Living chloroplasts. Ex: cactus, oak tree.
Fungi: Single-celled or multicellular heterotrophic
Organisms organisms with cell walls not made of cellulose, spread by
spreading spores in moist/dark/warm environments. Most
have hyphae and mycelium in structure. Ex: yeast,
1.1. Characteristics of Living Organisms
mushrooms.
MRS GREN Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms with no true nucleus
or DNA in the cytoplasm. Many also have plasmids. Ex:
Movement: an action by an organism or part of an E.coli, Salmonella.
organism causing a change of position or place Protocists: Single-celled organism with a nucleus.
Respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break Eukaryotes. Some are multicellular. Ex: Amoeba,
down nutrient molecules and release energy for seaweed.
metabolism
Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes in Main features of all animals:
the internal or external environment
multicellular
Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass
contains a nucleus but no cell walls or chloroplasts
Reproduction: the processes that make more of the same
only feed on organic substances made by other living
kind of organism
things
Excretion: the removal of the waste products of
metabolism and substances in excess of requirements
Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth and 1.4. Animal Kingdom
development
Mammals
Fur/hair on the skin
1.2. Concept and Uses of Classification External ears (pinna)
System Internal fertilisation, giving the birth of young
Mammary glands
Organisms are classified into groups by the features they Reptiles
share. Thick, dry, scaly skin
Sequence of classification: Kingdom → Phylum →Classes Usually 4 legs
→ Orders → Families → Genus → Species. Internal fertilisation, birth from egg
Species are a group of organisms which can reproduce to Soft eggs
produce fertile offspring. Fish
The Binomial System of Naming Species is an Wet scales
internationally agreed system in which the scientific name Streamlined body shape
of an organism comprises two parts showing the genus External fertilisation and soft eggs
and species. Uses gills to breathe
The format is Genus species. The genus is capitalized, Amphibians
and the species are not. Smooth, moist skin
The classification of organisms helps show the External fertilisation and soft eggs
evolutionary relationships between them. Gills & Lungs can live on land and water
Scientists also use the DNA base sequence to help Most have 4 legs
classify organisms. Birds
The similarity in DNA chains shows how closely related Feathers on body and scales on legs
two organisms are. Constant internal body temperature
Dichotomous keys use visible features to classify Hard eggs
organisms. They give you a choice of two features, and Internal fertilisation, birth through eggs
you follow the one that applies: each choice leads to
another choice until the organism is narrowed down to its 1.5. Arthropods
genus and, finally, species.
Invertebrates are organisms that do not have a backbone.
1.3. The Five Kingdoms All arthropods have three standard features:

1. Exoskeleton

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2. Jointed legs
3. Segmented body

Crustaceans: (e.g. crabs)

Have an exoskeleton 1 pair of compound eyes
3 body segments – head, thorax, abdomen
More than four pairs of legs (10-14 legs)
Arachnids: (e.g. spiders)
2 body segments – cephalothorax and abdomen
Four pairs of legs (8 legs)
Myriapods: (e.g. centipedes)
Segmented body
Additional segments formed
One pair of antennae
10+ pairs of legs – 1 or 2 pairs on each segment
Insects: (e.g. bees)
3 body segments – head, thorax and abdomen 2. Organisation of the
3 pairs of jointed legs (6 legs)
1 pair of antennae organism
1 or 2 pairs of wings

2.1. Cell Structure and Organisation

1.6. Classification of Plants
All living things are made of cells.
In IGCSE Biology, the plant kingdom is classified into ferns New cells are produced by the division of existing cells
and flowering plants. All typical cells have:
Cell membrane: controls movement in and out of cells
Ferns:
Cytoplasm: where chemical reactions take place
Do not produce flowers/seeds
Nucleus: contains DNA and controls the cell
They are plants with roots, stems and feathery leaves
Mitochondria: where aerobic respiration happens
Reproduce by spores
Ribosome: allows protein synthesis
Flowering plants:
A typical animal cell (e.g., the liver cell) has all above
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves
Plant cells especially also have:
Reproduce sexually by means of flowers and seeds
Vacuole: cell sap to keep cell turgid
Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower
Cell wall (all cells except for animal and protoctist cells
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons have cell walls): rigid to keep the shape of the cell,
strengthens the cell
One cotyledon/One-seed leaf Two cotyledons/Two-seed leaf
Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs light
Parallel veins Branching veins energy for photosynthesis
Long Narrow Leaf Broad leaves A typical plant cell (e.g., the palisade cell) has everything
3 Flower Parts 4 or 5 Flower Parts above.
Scattered Vascular Bundles Ringed Vascular Bundles

1.7. Viruses
Viruses are not part of any classification system due to
not being considered living things.
They do not carry out the seven life processes for
themselves; instead, they take over a host cell’s metabolic
pathways to make multiple copies of themselves.
Virus structure contains only a genetic material (RNA or
DNA) inside a protein coat.
Example of virus structure below (No mitochondria or
Prokaryotes DO NOT have mitochondria, rough endoplasmic
ribosomes)
reticulum and a nucleus!

A bacterial cell only contains a cell wall, cell membrane,

cytoplasm, ribosomes, circular DNA, and plasmids.

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Other Forms in Magnification Formula

2.2. Levels of Organisation
Actual size = image size / magnification
Key Terms
Image size = magnification x actual size
Cells - Building Blocks of Life Unit Conversions (μm - micrometre)
Tissue - Groups of cells with similar structures working
together to perform a shared function 1cm = 10mm
Organ - Group of tissues working together to perform a 1mm = 1000μm
specific function
Organ system - Group of organs with related functions Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’)
working together to perform body functions.

Cell Function Adaptation(s) Diagram 3. Movement In and Out of

Biconcave/Disc
shape
Cells
Red
Transport of
blood No nucleus
oxygen 3.1. Diffusion
cell Flexible
Has haemoglobin
Net movement of particles from a region of their higher
Long concentration to a region of their lower concentration (i.e.
Many protein down a concentration gradient) as a result of their
Contracts to get
Muscle fibres in random movement.
structures closer
cell cytoplasm to Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of
together
shorten cell when random movement of molecules and ions.
energy available The diffusion of gases and solutes is important as without
it, molecules which are needed for life, for example,
Movement of glucose and oxygen for respiration, would not be able to
Ciliated mucus in the Tiny hairs called get to the places they are needed. Water is needed as a
cell trachea and cilia solvent.
bronchi Factors that influence diffusion:
Concentration gradient
Elongated shape Temperature
Root Absorb mineral Surface area
for more surface
hair cell ions and water
area Distance

No cytoplasm so
water passes 3.2. Osmosis
freely
Net movement of water molecules from a region of
No cross walls so higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower
Xylem Transport water
cells connect to water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially
vessel and support plant
form tube permeable membrane
The role of water as a solvent in organisms to aid with
Lignin makes it
digestion, excretion and transport
strong and
Conc. of solute outside cell = conc. inside cell → no change
waterproof
in size
Regular shape so Conc. of solute outside cell > conc. inside cell → cell
many can fit in a shrinks (Flaccid/Plasmolysis)
Palisade small space Conc. of solute outside cell < conc. inside cell → cell swells
Photo-synthesises
cell (Turgid)
Many In animals:
chloroplasts Increasing solute concentration inside a cell can cause
it to burst (lysis) because it has too much water and no
cell wall.
2.3. Size of Specimens
In plants:
size of drawing image I Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes
M agnification = = = the cell to become turgid, and the vacuole fills up.
size of specimen actual
​ ​ ​

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Decreasing solute concentration inside of the cell Proteins: Add a few drops of Biuret reagent, +ve result =
causes the cell to become flaccid, losing water, and purple/lilac colour
the vacuole gets smaller. The cell body shrinks, pulling Fats: Ethanol Emulsion test; ethanol is added to the
away from the cell wall. mixture, and this is poured into a test tube with an equal
Plants are supported by the water pressure inside the amount of distilled water, then is shaken, +ve result =
cells pressing outwards on the cell wall. milky-white emulsion
Vitamin C: Decolourisation of DCPIP shows that a vitamin
3.3. Active Transport C is probably present.

Movement of particles through a cell membrane from a

region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration (i.e. against a concentration gradient),
using energy from respiration.
Carrier proteins are also used during active transport.

4.3. Structure of a DNA

Chromosomes are made of a molecule called DNA
DNA is also called deoxyribonucleic acid.
It is embedded in the cell membrane to pick up specific
molecules and take them through the cell membrane
against their concentration gradient.
Active transport is needed when an organism wants to
optimize the nutrients it can take up - ion uptake by root
hairs cell.

4. Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Fats and oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly coiled
(CHO) DNA
Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen Two strands coiled together to form a double helix
and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S}) Each strand contains chemicals called bases
Cross-links between strands are formed by pairs of bases
Smaller molecules Larger molecules The bases always pair up in the same way:
A and T
Simple sugars Starch, glycogen and cellulose
C and G
Fatty acids and glycerol Fats and oils
Amino acids/peptides Proteins
5. Enzymes
4.2. Food Tests
Catalyst: a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction
Starch: Add a few drops of iodine solution (+ve result = and is not changed by the reaction
blue-black colour, -ve result = remains brown) Enzymes are proteins that are involved in all metabolic
Reducing sugars: Add Benedict’s reagent, then the reactions, where they function as biological catalysts.
mixture is heated in a water bath for 2 to 3 minutes Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for a
(70°C). (+ve result = brick-red precipitate, -ve result = reaction to take place.
remains blue)

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It is important in all living organisms regarding the Effect of Temperature Effect of pH

reaction rate necessary to sustain life.
Enzymes are unchanged and can be reused

Lock and Key (model):

6. Plant Nutrition
Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to react, Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture
complementary to the active site. carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.
Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction light+chlorophyll
C arbonDioxide + Water ​
Glucose + Ox
Different sequences of amino acids may lead to different light+cholorophyll
shapes of protein molecules, as these slight differences may 6C O2 + 6H2 O
​ ​ ​ +C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2
​ ​ ​ ​

be deferred in their function.

The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of
a plant leaf, and water is taken up through the roots.
5.2. Effect of Temperature on Enzymes Chlorophyll is a green dye that traps light energy and
converts it into chemical energy to form carbohydrates
Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the temperature
and their subsequent storage.
at which they work best, giving the fastest reaction ≈ at
Glucose is used for respiration, energy storage, cellulose
37°C in animals & humans body. cell wall, making proteins and sugars.
When temperature increases, molecules move faster,
more effectively, frequent collisions. Functions of the carbohydrate made from Photosynthesis
Having more kinetic energy makes them more likely to
bind to active sites. starch as an energy store
If the temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate cellulose to build cell walls
too vigorously; the enzyme is denatured, losing its shape glucose used in respiration to provide energy
and no longer binding with a substrate. sucrose for transport in the phloem
When the temperature is too low, there is not enough nectar to attract insects for pollination
kinetic energy for the reaction, so it reacts too slowly.
6.2. Investigation of Chlorophyll
5.3. Effect of pH on Enzymes
Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white)
Enzymes are sensitive to pH. leaves.
Some enzymes work best in an acid, and others in an De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for
alkaline. about 48 hours.
Enzymes work best at their optimum pH. Expose the plant to sunlight for a few days.
If the pH changes, the hydrogen bond is broken, Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell
denatures the enzyme, making it no longer fit with the walls, denature enzymes and allow for easier penetration
substrate’s active site; therefore, no reaction occurs. by ethanol.
Pepsin in acidic conditions, Amylase in neutral conditions Warmed in ethanol until the leaf is colourless to extract
and trypsin in alkalinity conditions. chlorophyll, which would mask the observation
Dipped into the water briefly: to help soften the leaf
The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added. If
5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent, it
Activity will remain brown.

Effect of Temperature Effect of pH

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6.3. Investigation of Light

De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48 hours
Place a stencil over part of a leaf
Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours
Remove the stencil and test for starch
6.5. Limiting Factors
+ve result = parts which received light turn blue-black
Limiting Factors: something present in the environment in
-ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remains brown
such short supply that it restricts life processes.
Light Intensity
As the amount of light
increases, the rate of
photosynthesis increases (a-
b)
The limiting factor is light
Increasing the amount of light
after a certain point does not
6.4. Investigation of Carbon Dioxide affect the rate (c)

Take two de-starched potted plants. The limiting factor is now

Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them A and carbon dioxide or
B. temperature
Inside A, keep N aHC O3 (Sodium Bicarbonate). It
​

produces C O2 . ​
6.6. Leaf Structure
Inside B, keep N aOH (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs
C O2 .
​ Most dicotyledonous plant leaves have a large surface area
Keep both set-ups in the sunlight for at least 6 hours. and are thin.
Perform the starch test on both plants.

Cuticle: the waxy layer that prevents water loss from the
The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test
top of the leaf
The leaves of Plant B will remain brown after the starch
Upper/Lower Epidermis: transparent cell that allows
test
sunlight to pass through to the palisade cell
Hydrogencarbonate indicator - measures the carbon dioxide Palisade mesophyll: is found at the top of the cell and
concentration contains many chloroplasts that absorb sunlight.
Spongy mesophyll: irregularly shaped cells which create
air spaces to allow the gaseous exchange to take place;
do not contain many chloroplasts
Vascular Bundles: made up of xylem and phloem
Xylem: vessel which transports water and dissolved
minerals and has lignified walls made of cellulose
Phloem: vessel which transports nutrients
Stomata: little holes that open and close to allow the
gaseous exchange to occur. The stomata are close to

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prevent water loss and open to letting gases in and out. Nutrients Uses
When guard cells lose water, the stoma close (at night), Development and maintenance of
while the stoma opens when guard cells gain water & Calcium
strong bones and teeth
swell (during the day).
Iron Making haemoglobin
Provides bulk for faeces, helps
Fibre (Roughage)
peristalsis
Chemical reactions, solvent for
Water
transport

7.3. Deficiencies
Vitamin C: Scurvy; loss of teeth, pale skin & sunken eyes
Calcium/Vitamin D: Rickets, Osteoporosis; weak bones
and teeth

7.4. Human Alimentary Canal

6.7. Mineral Requirements
Nitrate ions Magnesium ions
Making amino acids Making chlorophyll
Deficiency: small plant due to Deficiency: plant lacks
slow/stunted growth chlorophyll, leaves turn yellow

You need to know the purpose of these required nutrients Functions of the Organs
.
Ingestion: taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the
body through the mouth.
7. Human Nutrition Physical Digestion: breakdown of food into smaller pieces
without chemical change.
Balanced Diet: A diet containing proper proportions of It increases the surface area of food for the action of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water to enzymes in chemical digestion.
maintain good health and metabolism. Chemical Digestion: breakdown of large, insoluble food
molecules into small, soluble molecules.
Diet-related to age/gender/lifestyle: Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
Children Below 12: Require more calcium into the blood
Teenagers: Highest calorie intake Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by cells
Adults: Balanced meal with fewer calories Egestion: the removal of undigested food from the body
Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium as faeces
Males: Generally, require more energy

Main Organs in the Alimentary Canal

7.2. Importance of Dietary Sources
Mouth: contains teeth used for mechanical digestion, an
Nutrients Uses area where food is mixed with salivary amylase & where
Carbohydrates Energy ingestion takes place
Source of energy, building materials, Salivary glands: produce saliva, which contains amylase
Fats and oils energy store, insulation, buoyancy, and helps food slide down oesophagus
making hormones Oesophagus: tube-shaped organ which uses peristalsis
(circular muscle contract and relax) to transport food
Energy, building materials, enzymes,
from mouth to stomach
Proteins haemoglobin, structural material
Stomach: has pepsin (a protease) to break down proteins
(muscle), hormones, antibodies
into amino acids and kills bacteria with hydrochloric acid.
Vitamin C Collagen, resistance to diseases They also have elastic walls.
Vitamin D Absorption of calcium Small intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts the:

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Duodenum: fats are emulsified by bile and digested by Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of
pancreatic lipase to form fatty acids and glycerol. collagen fibres
Pancreatic amylase and trypsin (a protease) break Nerves
down starch. Blood vessels
Ileum: Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. This
is where absorption takes place, adapted by having 7.7. Chemical Digestion
villi and microvilli.
Pancreas: produces amylase, trypsin and lipase. Where enzymes are used to break down large insoluble
Liver: produces bile (emulsifies fats, neutralises acidic fat substances such as proteins into smaller soluble
molecules), deamination and makes urea to be sent to the substances like amino acids so that they can be absorbed.
kidney. Also, site of the breakdown of alcohol and other Amylase: breaks down starch into maltose; it is produced
toxins. in the pancreas (but also in the salivary gland)
Gall bladder: stores bile from the liver Maltase: breaks down into glucose in the membrane of
Large intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two the epithelium lining in small intestines.
parts: Protease: breaks down proteins into peptides (done by
Colon: organ for absorption of minerals and vitamins pepsin-acidic) and then into amino acids (done by trypsin).
and reabsorbing water from waste to maintain the Pepsin comes from the stomach and trypsin from the
body’s water levels pancreas (alkali).
Rectum: where faeces are temporarily stored Lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol,
Anus: a ring of muscle which controls when faeces is produced by the pancreas.
released. Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice:
Appendix: is not part of the syllabus, so it doesn’t need to Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms
be known. Giving the optimum pH for pepsin activity
Kills pathogens
7.5. Teeth Bile: an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acidic
mixture of food and gastric juices entering the duodenum
Incisors Canines Premolars Molars from the stomach to provide a suitable pH for enzyme
action.

7.8. Absorption & Villus

Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
into the blood

Blunt for
Blunt chewing
Rectangular chewing and
Sharp-pointed and grinding.
shape, sharp grinding, one
for piercing Two or three
for cutting and or two roots,
and tearing roots, ridges
biting ridges at the
at the end
end

7.6. Structure of a Tooth

Our teeth are embedded in bone and the gums

The small intestine is the region for absorption of

digested food.
The small intestine is folded into many villi, increasing the
Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from surface area for absorption. One villus will have tiny folds
calcium salts on the cells on its outside called microvilli.
Cement: helps to anchor tooth More surface area means more absorption of nutrients
Pulp: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels, and can happen.
nerve endings which detect pain. Lacteals: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol

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Capillaries: provide a better blood supply

8.2. Root Hair Cell
Most water is absorbed from the small intestine, and
some from the colon (large intestine).
The small intestine absorbs 5–10 dm3 per day
The colon absorbs 0.3–0.5 dm3 per day

8. Transport in Plants
Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil
Functions of Xylem They have an elongated shape for a larger surface area,
which increases water absorption rate by osmosis and
transport water and mineral ions, and support ions by active transport.
Functions of Phloem
8.3. Pathway Taken by Water
transport sucrose and amino acids
The large surface area of root hairs is important as it
Adaptations of Xylem
increases the uptake of water and mineral ions.
1. thick walls with lignin
2. no cell contents
3. cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a
long continuous tube

Water enters root hair cells from moist soil via osmosis
because water potential is higher in soil than in the
cytoplasm.
Then it enters into the root cortex cells, xylem, and lastly,
the mesophyll cells.

8.4. Transpiration
Transpiration: loss of water vapour from leaves, and it
evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cells into the

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air spaces and diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata. Caused by water loss in leaves which lowers their water
potential
Water moves from the xylem to leaf tissues via osmosis
Water moves up the stem in the xylem due to tension
(because of the cohesion of water molecules to each
other) caused by water loss from the leaves
Ends with the gain of water through roots
This upwards flow of water is called the transpiration
stream

8.6. Factors Affecting Rate of

Transpiration
Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the water-
holding capacity of air and increase the transpiration rate
\n Humidity: Low humidity increases the water potential
gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere hence
Water leaves mesophyll cells into air spaces created by increasing the transpiration rate
an irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then Wind speed: Removing water molecules to maintain a
diffuses out of the stomata. steep concentration gradient
Water vapour loss is due to the large internal surface
area provided by the interconnecting air spaces between
mesophyll cells and the size and number of stomata
8.7. Translocation
Water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a
Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the
transpiration pull that draws up a column of water
phloem; from regions of production (sources) to regions of
molecules held together by forces of attraction between
storage or regions of utilization in respiration or growth
water molecules
(sinks).

Wilting Translocation in different seasons:

Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to
occurs if water loss is greater than water uptake – cells leaves
become flaccid, tissues become limp, and plants are no Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from
longer supported photosynthesizing leaves to root stores,
Below is a picture of a girdle in a tree trunk.
Investigating Transpiration

A potometer is used to measure the rate of water uptake

However, it may not be accurate as some water is used

for photosynthesis.
9. Transport in Animals
8.5. Uptake of Water Circulatory system: a system of tubes (veins, capillaries,
arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and veins)
to ensure a one-way flow of blood.

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Right atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to the

9.2. Transport Systems
right ventricle
Single circulation system (fish): Right ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
Pulmonary artery: carries deoxygenated blood from the
Blood flows through the heart once every complete
right ventricle to the lungs
circuit
Septum: separates the left and right sides of the heart
Two heart chambers
Blood absorbs oxygen in the gills and keeps deoxygenated and oxygenated blood separate.
Released in body cells, then back to the heart Pulmonary vein: carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to
the left atrium
Left atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to the
left ventricle
Left ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via the
aorta
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to
the rest of the body
Atrioventricular and semi-lunar valves: prevent backflow
of blood

Relative Muscle Wall Thickness: Atria < Right Ventricle < Left
Ventricle

9.4. Cardiac Cycle

Atrial diastole,
Double circulation system: Cardiac diastole: Atrial systole, ventricular systole:
Four heart chambers all chambers are ventricular diastole: after the atria relax,
Blood passes through the heart twice every complete relaxed, and atria contract, the ventricles
circuit blood flows into pushing blood into contract, forcing
Oxygenated in the lungs, to the heart, to the body, and the heart the ventricles blood out of the
back to the heart heart
Advantages: delivers greater blood flow rate to tissues
around the body as the heart pumps the rich Physical activity makes the heart beat faster and more
oxygenated blood to it from the lungs
deeply for increased blood circulation so that more
oxygen and glucose can reach the muscles.
9.3. The Heart
Explain the reasons for changes in pressure seen in arteries
The mammalian heart contains a systemic and pulmonary (0610/42/F/M/23)
circuit.
caused by contraction of muscles (of the heart/ventricle)
pressure increases when the heart / ventricles
contract/pump
pressure decreases when the heart/ventricles relax

9.5. Exercise on Heart Rate

The heart's electrical activity can be monitored by the
electrocardiogram (ECG), pulse rate, stethoscope and
listening to the sounds of the valves closing.

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Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and Vessel Function Structure
deeply for increased blood circulation so that more Large and wide lumen to
oxygen and glucose can get to the muscle. reduce resistance to the
flow of blood
9.6. Coronary Heart Disease One cell thick wall for
easy diffusion
The coronary arteries are the heart’s blood supply.
Highly branched; large
The coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting blood Allow substances to surface area
Capillaries
supply to the heart muscle. diffuse into cells Capillary beds
Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a constantly supplied with
heart attack fresh blood, so diffusion
Risk factors are diet, lack of exercise, stress, smoking, occurs
genetic predisposition, age and sex
Can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding fatty food (a Major Blood Vessels
good diet) and exercising regularly Heart: Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries & Vein
Lungs: Pulmonary Arteries & Veins
Kidney: Renal Arteries & Veins
Liver: Hepatic Artery, Hepatic Veins and Hepatic Portal vein
Arterioles and Venules

The vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called

arterioles
The vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called
venules

9.8. Blood
Red blood cells: haemoglobin and oxygen transport (oxy-
Arteries, Veins and Capillaries haemoglobin)
White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody production
Platelets: allows blood clotting
9.7. Structural Adaptations of Vessels Plasma: transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea,
hormones and carbon dioxide (mostly water and
Vessel Function Structure dissolved substances)
Elastic tissue walls
stretch and relax as
blood is forced out;
Transport high-pressure causes pulse
Arteries
blood away from heart Thick walls to withstand
high pressure
Small lumen maintains
9.9. White Blood Cells
(high) blood pressure.
Veins Transport low pressure Valves prevent backflow Phagocyte Lymphocyte
blood to the heart of blood.
Phagocyte has lobed/irregular
Blood is at low pressure, Lymphocytes have a circular
C-shaped nucleus and
but nearby muscles nucleus and are found in
vesicles containing digestive
squeeze veins and help blood
enzymes.
push blood to the heart

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Phagocyte Lymphocyte 10.3. Ways of Controlling the Spread of

Phagocytosis: engulf
pathogen, vesicles fuse with
Large nucleus/small Diseases
cytoplasm, and they produce
the vacuole, enzymes digest
antibodies, a clean water supply
bacteria.
hygienic food preparation
Antigens: good personal hygiene
protein/carbohydrate on the Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins waste disposal
surface of the pathogen which bind to label pathogens. sewage treatment
provokes the immune system
Then either destroyed by 10.4. The Immune System
being ingested by phagocytes
or the antibodies do it. An antibody is a protein molecule which fits into another
molecule
9.10. Blood Clotting Pathogen molecules are called antigens.
To destroy a pathogen, antibody molecules must be made
Reduces blood loss and keeps pathogens out which are exactly the right shape to fit into molecules
Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), forms a (antigens) outside the pathogen.
mesh to trap red blood cells, and eventually dries to form Antibodies lock onto antigens leading to the destruction of
a scab. pathogens/marking of pathogens for destruction by
phagocytes
If a pathogen enters the body, it meets many
10. Diseases and Immunity lymphocytes. One of these will recognise the pathogen
and divide rapidly by mitosis

10.1. Pathogens These lymphocytes then secrete antibodies, destroying the

pathogens
Pathogen: a disease-causing organism. Active immunity: defence against a pathogen by antibody
Transmissible disease: a disease in which the pathogen production in the body.
can be passed from one host to another.
The pathogen for a transmissible disease may be Active immunity is gained after infection by a pathogen or
transmitted either: by vaccination.
Direct contact e.g. through blood, body fluids Vaccines immunise children against diseases caused by
Indirect contact e.g. contaminated surfaces/food, from pathogens
animals, from air Process of vaccination:
Harmless pathogen given which has antigens by
10.2. Body Defences injection
Antigens trigger an immune response by lymphocytes
The human body has many natural defences against which produce antibodies
pathogens. Memory cells are produced that give long-term
Mechanical barriers: immunity
Nostrils contain hairs that help trap dust
Passive immunity - short-term defences against a pathogen
The skin has a thick outer layer of dead cells
by antibodies acquired from another individual.
Chemical barriers:
Sticky mucus which can trap pathogens Memory cells are NOT produced in passive immunity
In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is secreted, which Babies get passive immunity by breastfeeding.
kills many of the bacteria in food Breast milk contains antibodies from the mother,
Cells: Pathogens that manage to get through all these which are passed on to her baby.
defences are usually destroyed by white blood cells: Useful because a young baby’s immune system is not
Some of these cells take in and digest the pathogens well developed; the mother’s antibodies can protect it
by phagocytosis against any diseases.
Others produce antibodies that incapacitate or kill the Some diseases are caused by the immune system
pathogen targeting and destroying body cells (Auto-immune
Vaccination against disease helps antibodies to disease)
produce very quickly
10.5. Cholera

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Diarrhoea: loss of watery faeces Inspired Air Expired Air

To cure this is to give oral rehydration therapy Oxygen 21% 16%
One of these is infectious by a bacterium, “Vibrio chlorae”,
Carbon Dioxide 0.04% 4%
causing cholera.
Cholera is a disease caused by a bacterium transmitted in Nitrogen 78% 78%
contaminated water. Water Vapour Lower Higher
The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes the
secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine, causing Test for CO2: Add CO2 through limewater. +ve result =
lower osmotic water movement into the gut, causing turns cloudy
diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of salts from the blood.
11.3. Effect of Physical Activity on
11. Gas Exchange in Humans Breathing
Physical activity increases the breathing rate – more
11.1. Gas Exchange Surfaces respiration - higher CO2 concentration in the blood
This is measured with a spirometer to produce a
Properties Reasons
spirogram.
Short distance to diffuse (one cell During exercise, tissues respire at a higher rate, the
Thin surface
thick) change in breathing volume and rate helps to keep CO2
Many molecules can diffuse at concentration and pH at safe levels.
Large surface area
once/More alveoli
Regular fresh air supplies keep up 11.4. Breathing
Good ventilation concentration gradients for oxygen
and carbon dioxide. Inspiration Expiration
Gases can be carried to/from the External intercostal muscles External intercostal muscles
Good blood supply
cells that need/produce them contract – pulls ribcage relax – ribcage falls
upwards and outwards downwards and inwards
11.2. Structure of the Lungs Diaphragm muscles contract Diaphragm muscles relax –
– the diaphragm moves return to a dome shape, and
The lung contains a diaphragm, ribs, intercostal muscles, downwards, and the volume the volume of the thorax
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated of the thorax increases decreases
capillaries Atmospheric Pressure > Atmospheric Pressure <
Pressure in Thorax Pressure in Thorax
Air moves into the lungs Air moves out of the lungs

Cartilage (in the trachea): prevents the trachea from

collapsing during the absence of air and protects it by
keeping it open.
Ribs: to protect vital organs and blood vessels and
expands and contract (and efficient breathing).
Intercostal (internal & external) muscles: situated
between the ribs that create and move the chest wall.
Diaphragm: produces volume and pressure changes in Internal intercostal muscles: are used in coughing and
the thorax leading to the ventilation of the lungs. sneezing.
Mucus & cilia: goblet cells produce sticky mucus to trap
and eliminate particulate matter and microorganisms.
Composition of Breathing Dry Air Ciliated cells have cilia: little hairs which sweep/beat back
and forward in a coordinated way to brush mucus up the

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lungs into the mouth. Aerobic Anaerobic

Oxygen Needed Not needed
12. Respiration Breakdown of
Complete Incomplete
Glucose
Respiration: Chemical reactions that break down nutrient Animals: Lactic Acid
Carbon Dioxide
molecules in living cells to release energy. Products & Yeast: Carbon
and Water
Dioxide and Ethanol
Uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle Amount of Energy
contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active More Less
Released
transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the
maintenance of a constant body temperature.
Respiration involves the action of enzymes in cells to 13. Excretion in Humans
speed up the reaction.
In the exam, always state that energy is released; it is
Excretion: the removal from organisms of toxic materials, the
NEVER made, produced, or created. waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in cells
including respiration) and substances in excess of
12.2. Aerobic Respiration requirements.

Chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down Substances should include carbon dioxide (lungs), urea,
nutrient molecules to release energy excess water and ions (kidney).
The importance of excretion is due to the toxicity of the
Glucose + oxygen → carbondioxide + water urea.

C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6C O2 + 6H2 O

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

13.2. Function of Liver

12.3. Anaerobic Respiration The role of the liver is in the assimilation of amino acids by
converting them to proteins.
Chemical reactions in cells break down nutrient molecules
to release energy without using oxygen.
In muscles (vigorous exercise):
Glucose → Lactic Acid
In yeast (single-cell fungi):
Glucose → Ethanol + C arbon Dioxide
C 6 H12 O6 → 2C 2 H5 OH + 2C O2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Disadvantages of anaerobic respiration:

Only produces 1/20 of the energy per glucose
molecule that aerobic respiration would
Produces poisonous lactic acid
Lactic acid:
Builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous
exercise
The heart, liver and kidneys need extra oxygen to do Deamination is removing the nitrogen-containing part of
this which causes you to continue breathing heavily amino acids to form urea.
after exercise.
The extra oxygen is called the oxygen debt. Urea is formed in the liver from excess amino acids.
Oxygen Debt is removed by: Alcohol, drugs & hormones are broken down in the liver.
continuation of fast heart rate to transport lactic acid
in the blood from the muscles to the liver 13.3. Function of Kidney
continuation of deeper and faster breathing to supply
oxygen for aerobic respiration of lactic acid Removal of urea and excess water and the re-absorption
aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver of glucose and some salts

12.4. Comparison of Aerobic and

Anaerobic Respiration
Aerobic Anaerobic

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nephron by active transport. These substances are

reabsorbed back into the blood capillary.
3. Loop of Henlé: this part is permeable to water but not
salt. Water is drawn out of the filtrate in the nephron
by osmosis because of the low water potential of the
medulla tissue fluid.
4. Collecting duct: the remaining substances move
through the second coiled tubule into the collecting
duct, forming urine. The permeability of this part of
the nephron to water is controlled.

14. Coordination and

Response
14.1. Nervous Control in Humans
The mammalian nervous system consists of two parts:
Central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain
and spinal cord, which are the areas of coordination.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprises nerves
Cortex: contains Bowman’s capsules and coiled tubules
and neurones, which coordinate and regulate body
Ureter: carries urine from the kidney to the bladder
functions.
Medulla: has loops of Henlé and collecting ducts
Electrical impulses are travelled through the neurones.
Loop of Henlé: selectively absorbs water/solutes
The nervous system helps with the coordination and
Collecting ducts: reabsorbs water into blood and stores
regulation of body functions.
wastes until it is passed into the ureter.
Urethra: carrying urine from the bladder to the outside.
Bladder: stores urine 14.2. Types of Neurones
Renal capsule: filters water, glucose, urea and salts from
the blood. Nerve impulse: an electrical signal that passes along the
Kidney tubule: reabsorbs 100% of glucose; most of the nerve cells called neurones
water and some salts back into the blood (red), leading to
Motor Neurone:
urea concentration in the urine and loss of excess water
and salts into the tubule.
Renal artery: brings wastes and water from the blood
Renal vein: reabsorbs water and useful molecules and
leaves wastes behind

13.4. Structure of the Kidney

Sensory Neurone:

1. Ultrafiltration: blood from the renal artery enters the

glomerulus. Water, urea, salts and glucose are forced Relay Neurone:
into the Bowman’s capsule. Blood cells and large
proteins cannot pass through.
2. Selective reabsorption: in the tubule, two-thirds of the
salt and water and all the glucose move out of the

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Synaptic cleft: the small gap between each pair of

neurones
Inside the neurone’s axon, there are 100s of tiny vacuoles
(vesicles, each containing a chemical called
neurotransmitter)
When an impulse arrives, the vesicles move to the cell
membrane and empty their content into the synaptic cleft.
The neurotransmitter quickly diffuses across the tiny gap
and attaches to receptor molecules in the cell membrane
of the relay neurone.
This can happen because the neurotransmitter
molecules' shape complements the receptor molecule's
shape.

14.5. The Eye

14.3. Simple Reflex Arc
Sense organ: groups of receptor cells responding to specific
A reflex action automatically and rapidly integrates and stimuli: light, sound, touch, temperature and chemicals.
coordinates the stimuli with the responses of effectors
(muscles and glands).
E.g. quickly removing your hand from the hot metal
surface
They involve three neurones: a sensory neurone, a relay
neurone and a motor neurone.
The gap between neurones is called a synapse.
How the simple reflex arc works:
A stimulus affects a receptor (cell or organ that
Cornea: refracts light
converts a stimulus into an electrical impulse) Iris: controls how much light enters the pupil
A sensory neurone carries impulses from the receptor
Lens: focuses light onto the retina
to the CNS Retina: contains light receptors, some sensitive to light of
Connector/relay neurone carries impulse slowly
different colours (Rods and cones)
(because it has no myelin sheath) across the spinal
Optic nerves: carries impulses to the brain
cord
The motor neurone carries impulses from the CNS to
the effector 14.6. Accommodation
The effector (either a muscle or a gland) carries out
the response Adjusting for near and distant objects.

14.4. Synapses
Synapse: a junction between two neurones, consisting of a
gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a
neurotransmitter
Near Object Distant Object
The synapses ensure that impulses travel in one direction Ciliary muscles contract Ciliary muscles relax
only. Suspensory Ligaments slack Suspensory Ligaments tighten

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Near Object Distant Object Distribution of Rods and Cones

The lens becomes short and The lens becomes long and
fat thin

Explain why a person cannot focus on distant objects if the

suspensory ligaments become permanently overstretched.
(0610/42/F/M/23)

1. ciliary muscles relax

2. suspensory ligaments can no longer become tight
3. the lens is not stretched/remains wide
4. the angle of refraction remains unchanged

14.7. Pupil Reflex 14.9. Hormones

Hormones: A chemical substance produced by a gland and
carried by the blood, altering the activity of one or more
specific target organs.
Adjusting for high and low light intensity
Endocrine Glands
An involuntary response
adrenal glands and adrenaline
Low Light Intensity High Light Intensity pancreas and insulin
Radial muscles (straight lines) testes and testosterone
Circular muscles (circular
contract and become shorter ovaries and oestrogen
lines) contract and become
to pull the pupil (black dot),
shorter to reduce pupil size to
making it wider to let more
protect the retina from 14.10. Adrenaline
light enter to form a clear
bleaching.
image on the retina A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland.
It increases pulse rate, heart rate and pupil diameter.
14.8. Rods and Cones Increases blood glucose concentration for respiration.
Adrenaline is secreted, for example, bungee jumping or
Rods Cones riding a rollercoaster.
Provide low detail, black & Provide detailed, coloured
Gland Hormone Function
white images, good for seeing images; they work in high light
Prepares the body for vigorous
in low-intensity light (at night). intensity. Adrenal gland Adrenaline
action
Packed most tightly around
Most tightly packed at the Reduces the concentration of
the edge of the retina, so you Pancreas Insulin
retina's center, objects are glucose in the blood
can see things most clearly
seen most clearly when Causes the development of
when not looking directly at Testes Testosterone
directly looking at them. male sexual characteristics
them.
Causes the development of
Ovary Oestrogen
Fovea: female sexual characteristics
Part of the retina where the receptor cells are pushed Increases concentration of
Pancreas Glucagon
most closely together glucose in the blood
Where light is focused when you look straight at an
object
14.11. Nervous and Hormonal Systems
Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system
Speed of action Very rapid Can be slow
Chemical
Electrical impulses messengers
Nature of message travelling along (hormones)
nerves travelling in the
bloodstream

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Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system blood glucose concentration

Duration of Usually within It may take years
response seconds (puberty) 14.15. Thermoregulation
Localized response Widespread
Area of response (only one area response (in many
usually) organs)
Development of the
Example of process Reflexes such as
reproductive
controlled blinking
system

14.12. Homeostasis
Constant body temperature is maintained by:
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal
environment. Insulation: provided by fatty tissue retains heat. Hairs
become erect to trap warm air by contracting erector
Homeostasis is the control of internal conditions within muscles and vice versa.
set limits. Vasodilatation: when it is hot, arterioles, which supply
blood to the skin-surface capillaries, dilate (become
14.13. Negative Feedback wider) to allow more blood near to skin surface to
increase heat loss (face redder)
Feedback controls the production of hormones – the Vasoconstriction: when it is cold, arterioles, which supply
hormones regulate their own production. blood to the skin-surface capillaries, constrict (become
A negative feedback control is when the change in smaller) to allow less blood near to skin surface to
hormone level acts as a signal to cancel out that change, decrease heat loss
so when blood hormone level is low, hormone production Sweating: the water evaporates, giving a cooling effect
is stimulated, when it is high, it is inhibited. Skin receptors: sense heat, and sensory neurons send
impulses to the hypothalamus
Shivering: muscular activity generates heat
14.14. Glucoregulation
Thermoregulatory centre: the hypothalamus controls
corrective mechanisms (e.g. sweating and shivering).
Blood glucose levels are monitored and controlled by the
pancreas
The pancreas produces and releases different hormones
depending on the blood glucose level
Insulin is released when blood glucose levels are high –
the liver stores excess glucose as glycogen
Glucagon is released when blood glucose levels are low –
the liver converts stored glycogen into glucose and
releases it into the blood

14.16. Tropic Responses

Auxin:
When the control of blood glucose does not work, a Plant hormones or growth substances
person is said to have diabetes Controls tropisms
Type 1 diabetes is caused by the death of the cells that It is produced by cells at the tip of the roots and shoots
secrete insulin. of plants
Symptoms: hyperglycaemia (feeling unwell, dry Gravitropism: a response in which a plant grows towards
mouth, blurred vision, and feel thirsty) or (positive) or away (negative) from gravity.
hypoglycaemia (tired, showing confusion and Auxins’ role in gravitropism:
irrational behaviour) Made in the shoot tip
Treatment: eating little and often and avoiding large Then it diffuses through the plant from the shoot tip
amounts of carbohydrates, injecting insulin to reduce

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Auxin is unequally distributed in response to light and The generation time is the time taken for a cell to
gravity divide into 2.
Auxin stimulates cell elongation
Phototropism: a response in which a plant grows towards Advantages Disadvantages
(positive) or away (negative) from the direction light is Fast: no need to find mate,
No variation/biodiversity
coming. fertilise etc.
Auxins’ role in phototropism: Good characteristics are kept Harmful genes transferred
If the sun shines on the right side of a plant’s shoot,
Overcrowding- fighting for
auxins accumulate on the dark opposite left side. Do not need to carry offspring
food
Auxins accumulating makes cells on the left side grow
faster than cells on the right. Prone to extinction
When the left side of the shoot starts growing faster
than the right side, the shoot will start to bend to the 16.2. Sexual Reproduction
right side towards sunlight.
Sexual reproduction: process involving the fusion of the
nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the
15. Drugs production of offspring that are genetically different from
each other
Drugs: Any substance taken into the body that modifies or Fertilisation: the fusion of gamete nuclei
affects chemical reactions in the body. Nuclei of gametes are haploid and that the nucleus of a
zygote is diploid
15.2. Antibiotics Diploid - Full Set of Chromosomes
Haploid - Half Set of Chromosomes
Antibiotics work by disrupting the cell wall formation of
the bacteria you are trying to get rid of, but not of human Advantages Disadvantages
cells. Produces genetically different
Takes lots of time and energy
Some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics which reduces offspring
the effectiveness of antibiotics Reduced risk of extinction Mate required
The development of resistant bacteria such as MRSA can Energy on improving
be minimized by limiting antibiotics only when essential
appearances or pollen
and ensuring treatment is completed. volume for pollination (plants)
Antibiotics don’t work on viruses because they do not have
a cell wall and make the host cell perform their tasks.
16.3. Sexual Reproduction in Plants
15.3. Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
Insect-pollinated, dicotyledonous flowering plant: foxglove

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can be reproduced through Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant
natural selection, where it begins from:

Mutation - giving rise to variation

Antibiotics kill bacteria without changing genes
Competition for food space, etc
Reproduce via binary fission
Then alleles are passed on to offspring to reproduce.

16. Reproduction Wind-pollinated flower structure: grass

16.1. Asexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction: the process resulting in the
production of genetically identical offspring from one
parent.
Bacteria:
Reproduce by binary fission, each bacterium divides 16.4. Functions
into two.
Sepal: protect the flower bud.

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Petal: brightly coloured and scented and may have Advantages Disadvantages
nectarines which are all used to attract insects, petals in Less susceptible to diseases More energy required
wind pollinated flowers are tiny, and used for pushing the
bracts (leaf-like structures) apart to expose stamens and
stigma 16.6. Germination
Anther: has pollen sacs with pollen grains which contain
the male nucleus (male gamete). A process controlled by enzymes
Stigma: platform on which pollen grains land Water: activates enzymes to turn insoluble food stores
Ovary: hollow chamber, ovules grow from the walls. into soluble substances, and makes tissues swell so that
the testa splits
Oxygen: enters through the gaps in the testa (along with
16.5. Pollination water), and is used in aerobic respiration.
Temperature: must be suitable for enzymes to work (at
Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from the male part of
optimum temperature).
the plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the
plant (stigma).
Agents of pollination: insects, birds, mammals, water and 16.7. Sexual Reproduction In Humans
wind
Male reproductive system:
Insect Pollinated Wind Pollinated
Bright, colourful petals – attract Dull petals
Sweetly scented No scent
Contains nectar No nectaries
A moderate amount of pollen Huge amount of pollen
Pollen is spiky/sticky Pollen round and smooth
Another & stigma inside the
Anther & stigma hangs out
flower
Sticky stigma Feathery stigma

Pollen tube: pollen grain lands on stigma and creates a

tunnel down the style, through the micropyle, to the
ovules.
Ovule - seed
Ovary - fruit Testes: have many coiled tubes which produce sperm,
and the cells between tubes produce testosterone.
Self-Pollination Scrotum: holds testicles
Sperm duct: carries sperm from testicles to urethra.
the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to Prostate gland: makes seminal fluid
the stigma of the same flower or a different flower on the Urethra: carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of
same plant. the penis
Penis: male sex organ used to transfer semen to the
Advantages Disadvantages
female.
Genetically identical Lack of genetic variation
High chance of successful Increases competition Female reproductive system:
pollination between plants
Susceptible to the same
Fast and saves time
disease

Cross-Pollination

the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to

the stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same
species.

Advantages Disadvantages
Increases variation Reliance on pollinators
Quick to adapt to surroundings Wastage of pollen

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4. Released once per month containing 23 chromosomes

Features Functions
Energy storage Development of zygote
Jelly coat Changes at fertilisation

16.9. Menstrual Cycle

Ovary: contains follicles that develop into the ova and

produces progesterone and oestrogen
Oviduct (fallopian tube): carries the ovum to the uterus
Uterus (womb): where the fetus develops.
Cervix: neck of the uterus: a strong rigid muscle, moist by
mucus with a small opening
Vagina: receives the penis during intercourse and way out
for baby at birth. Moist tube of muscle, flexible and
secretes mucus

16.8. Adaptive Features of Gametes

Sperm (Male Gamete)

1. Small in size
2. Elongated and streamlined with energy storage
3. Millions in numbers containing 23 chromosomes

Day 1 to 5:
Features Functions In the ovary, FSH secreted by the Pituitary Gland to
Flagellum Propels the sperm to swim stimulate the maturation of ONE follicle in the ovary.
In the uterus: the endometrium breaks down;
Respiration to release energy
Mitochondria menstruation
for swimming
Day 5 to 12:
Release digestive enzymes to In the ovary, the follicle keeps maturing
Enzymes in the acrosome
digest the jelly coat In the uterus, oestrogen is secreted by follicle and the
ovarian tissues to prepare the endometrium
Egg Cell (Female Gamete) Day 13/14/15:
In the ovary, LH is also secreted by the Pituitary Gland
1. Larger in size
to trigger the release of the egg from the follicle into
2. Spherical, protein/fat in the cytoplasm
the fallopian tube. Ovulation happens on Day 14.
3. Moved with the help of Cillia
Day 15 to 28:

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In the ovary, LH triggers the formation of Corpus The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and
Luteum a female gamete (egg cell).
In the uterus: progesterone is secreted by Corpus Development of zygote:
Luteum to keep endometrium thick, waiting for One sperm penetrates
possible embryo implants. The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier against
Day 28 – Scenario 1: Egg not fertilised sperm
No implantation takes place, the Corpus Luteum The head of the sperm (male nucleus) approaches
degenerates, causing a lack of progesterone. and then fuses with the nucleus of the ovum.
This means that endometrium is no longer thick, back Zygote divides over and over to make a ball of cells
to Day 1 called an embryo.
Day 28 – Scenario 2: The egg is fertilised It implants itself in the nucleus's (implantation) wall,
Implantation occurs. followed by conception.
This makes the hormones keep the Corpus Luteum Development of fetus: zygote is changed through growth
maintained which means that progesterone is high. (mitosis) and development (organization of cells into
This keeps the Endometrium thick for pregnancy tissues and organs)
Umbilical cord: contains the umbilical artery, which
carries deoxygenated blood and waste products from the
fetus to the placenta and the umbilical vein, which carries
oxygenated blood and soluble food from the placenta to
the fetus. (Contains fetus’ blood)
Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such as
foods, wastes and oxygen between mother and fetus;
physical attachment between uterus and fetus. (Contains
mother’s blood)
Amniotic sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid,
broken at birth.
Amniotic fluid: protects the fetus against mechanical
shock, drying out and temperature fluctuations
Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta
and affect the fetus.

16.12. Sex Hormones

Primary sexual characteristics: present during
development in the uterus and are the differences in
reproductive organs etc, between males and females
Secondary sexual characteristics: are the changes that
occur during puberty as children become adolescents
At puberty, the pituitary gland starts to stimulate the
16.10. Hormones in Menstrual Cycle primary sex organs; the testes in males and the ovaries in
females.
Oestrogen is secreted by the ovaries. It stops FSH from Sex hormones – testosterone in males and oestrogen in
being produced - so that only one egg matures in a cycle, females are released into the bloodstream.
and it stimulates the pituitary gland to release the They only affect the target organs, which have receptors
hormone LH. which can recognize them.
Progesterone is a hormone secreted by ovaries. It Causes secondary sexual characteristics such as the
maintains the lining of the uterus during the middle part growth of pubic hair and maturation of sexual organs.
of the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted by the 16.13. Sexually Transmitted Infections
pituitary gland. It causes an egg to mature in an ovary and
stimulates ovaries to release the hormone oestrogen. Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one example of a
Luteinizing hormone (LH): is also secreted by the pituitary sexually transmitted infection.
gland and causes mature eggs to be released from the
ovary. Transmission: Intercourse, blood transfusion, organ
transplant or sharing a needle with an infected person
16.11. Fertilisation Prevention:
Avoid intercourse with many partners
Use a condom

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Don’t come in contact with other people’s blood The nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical
How it affects the immune system: cells
Infects and destroys lymphocytes Mitosis is needed for:
Decreases the efficiency of the immune system Growth: in animals each tissue provides its own new
The body becomes liable to infection by other cells when they are needed.
pathogens Repair of damaged tissues: for example, when you cut
This may leads to AIDS and dies from infection your skin, mitosis provides new cells to cover up cut.
Replacement of worn out cells
Asexual reproduction: in plants
17. Inheritance Exact replication of chromosomes occurs before mitosis
During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate,
Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from maintaining the chromosome number in each daughter
generation to generation. cell
Stem cells: unspecialized cells that divide by mitosis to
17.2. Chromosomes, Genes and Proteins produce daughter cells that can become specialized for
specific functions
Chromosomes: made of DNA, which contains genetic
information in the form of genes 17.5. Meiosis
Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein
Allele: an alternative form of a gene Reduction division in which the chromosome number is
Inheritance of sex in humans is used with X and Y halved from diploid to haploid
chromosomes. Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes
Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of Meiosis results in genetic variation, so the cells produced
unpaired chromosomes (e.g. sperm and egg) are not all genetically identical.
Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of
chromosomes (e.g. in body cells)
17.6. Monohybrid Inheritance
The sequence of bases in a gene determines the
sequence of amino acids used to make a specific protein. Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of
Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes
the alleles present (e.g. Tt or GG)
to protein molecules. Phenotype: the observable features of an organism (e.g.
tall plant or green seed)
17.3. DNA & Protein Synthesis genotype + environment + random variation → phenotype
Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular
DNA: controls cell function by controlling the production of gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two identical homozygous individuals
proteins, including enzymes, membrane carriers and that breed together will be pure-breeding
receptors for neurotransmitters Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular
DNA has 2 long strands and 4 nucleotides, AT and CG gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-breeding
Protein synthesis has two stages: Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T
Transcription (rewriting the base code of DNA into or G)
bases of RNA) Recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is
Translation (using RNA base sequence to build amino no dominant allele of the gene present (e.g. t or g)
acids into a sequence in a protein) Pedigree diagrams:
How proteins are made:
the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus
messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move
to the cytoplasm
the mRNA passes through ribosomes
the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein
molecules
the specific order of amino acids is determined by the
sequence of bases in the mRNA
All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but
many genes in a particular cell are not expressed
because the cell only makes the specific proteins it needs

17.4. Mitosis

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IA and IB are co-dominant giving blood group AB or IAIB,

and both dominant to IO.
Sex-linked characteristic: a characteristic in which the
gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome, and
this makes it more common in one sex than in the other
Red-green colour blindness is an example of sex
linkage.

18. Variation & Selection

18.1. Variation
Variation: differences between individuals of the same
species
Genetic diagrams: Phenotypic variation is caused by both genetic and
1:1 Monohybrid Crosses environmental factors
Continuous variation results in a range of phenotypes
between two extremes; examples include body length and
body mass
Discontinuous variation results in a limited number of
phenotypes with no intermediates (e.g. you are either
blood group O, A, B or AB, nothing else)
Discontinuous variation is usually caused by genes only,
and continuous variation is caused by both genes and the
environment.

3:1 Monohybrid Crosses

18.2. Genetic Mutation

Mutation is a genetic change.

Gene mutation: a change in the base sequence of DNA

Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed
Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random
fertilisation are sources of genetic variation in populations
Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate
of mutation

Co-dominance: when both alleles in heterozygous

organisms contribute to the phenotype
There are three alleles for the blood group given by the
symbols IA, IB and IO.

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Variation leads to survival of the fittest since the

variations in certain organisms give that organism an
advantage over the others in its species in that area.
The development of strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
is an example of natural selection.
The surviving organisms reproduce since they don’t get
eaten up, so variation has caused the species to evolve.
Adaptation is the process of natural selection by which
populations become more suited to their environment
over many generations.

18.5. Artificial Selection

Mutation is a source of variation e.g. in Down’s syndrome, It is breeding organisms with valued characteristics
where a parent’s chromosomes are unevenly distributed together to try to produce offspring which share those
in meiosis. In fertilisation, a zygote with a number of useful characteristics (selective breeding).
chromosomes that is not 46 is created (e.g. 23 + 24). It can be used to produce organisms that are more
Characteristics: broad forehead, short neck, downward- economically valued
sloping eyes, short nose and mental retardation. For example, cows that produce more milk, wheat that is
easier to separate from grain, dogs which have a better
18.3. Adaptive Features appearance
Selective breeding:
Adaptive feature: an inherited feature that helps an organism Selecting by humans of individuals with desirable
to survive and reproduce in its environment features
Crossing three individuals to produce the next
Xerophytes: live in deserts where water is scarce, and generation
evaporation is rapid or in windy habitats. Their features Selection of offspring showing the desirable features
are: Selective breeding by artificial selection is carried out
Deep roots reach the water far underground over many generations to improve crop plants and
Leaves reduced spines with minimum surface area for domesticated animals.
transpiration
Shallow spreading roots to collect occasional rain
Rolled leaves, leaf hairs and stomata sunk in pits to 19. Organisms and their
trap moist air
Waxy leaf cuticle, impermeable water Environment
Stomata open at night and closed at midday when
evaporation is highest 19.1. Food Chains and Food Webs
E.g. cactus and marram grass
The sun is the principal source of energy input to
Hydrophytes: live wholly or partly submerged in water.
biological systems.
Their features are:
Leaves are highly divided to create a large surface Energy flow is NOT a cycle; it starts from the sun, and then
that energy is harnessed by plants which are eaten by
area for absorption and photosynthesis
animals which other animals eat.
Very little cuticle formation
At each step, energy is lost to the environment.
Lack of xylem tubes, no stomata underside of leaves
Food chain: a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from
Stomata are on the upper surface and have a thick
waxy layer to repel water and to keep the stomata one organism to the next beginning with a producer, for
example:
open and clear
Roots are often reduced, and root hairs are often
Mahogany tree → caterpillar → song bird → hawk
absent
Food web: showing a network of interconnected food
18.4. Natural Selection chains.
Energy is transferred between organisms in a food
The greater chance of passing on genes by the best- chain by ingestion
adapted organisms. Producer: an organism that makes its organic nutrients,
Variation is natural or random changes in all living usually using energy from sunlight through
organisms. photosynthesis

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Consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on

other organisms.
Consumers may be classed as primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary according to their position in a
food chain
Herbivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating plants
Carnivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating other
animals
Decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from dead
or waste organic matter (i.e. a saprotroph) Carbon is taken from the atmosphere by photosynthesis
Trophic level: the position of an organism in a food chain, (plants)
food web or ecological pyramid. It is passed on to animals and decomposers by feeding.
Primary consumer: eat vegetables It is returned by respiration; in plants, in animals and
Secondary consumer: eat meat/drink milk being decomposed by microorganisms.
Tertiary consumer: eat a predatory fish, salmon
(Fossilisation is NOT needed anymore - 2023-2025 syllabus)
Food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels
because energy transfer is inefficient: 19.3. Nitrogen Cycle
Sun produces light, and less than 1% of the energy falls
onto leaves.
Producers ‘fix’ only about 5-8% of that energy because of:
transmission, reflection and incorrect wavelength.
Primary consumers only get between 5-10% because
some parts are indigestible (e.g., cellulose) and do not eat
the whole plant.
Secondary consumer gets between 10-20% because the
animal matter is more digestible & has a higher energy
value.
At each level, heat is lost by respiration. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide usable nitrogen for
plants, these may exist in the root nodules where they live
Humans eating plants is more efficient than humans eating
in symbiosis with the plants (nitrogen fixation), or this can
animals because:
happen because of lightning, or microorganisms provide
We need only a couple of vegetables to have one meal, them through decomposition.
but to have the meat; we must feed the animal a lot of Nitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen-containing substances
plant material to get far less meat. into better nitrogen-containing substances for the plants
When raising an animal, plants lose energy in the (nitrification).
environment. Then the animal loses energy to the Plants absorb these substances and convert them into
environment and does not use up all the plant material, so proteins
it is inefficient. Death and decay happen at each trophic level leading to
stage one
Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass Denitrifying bacteria carry out denitrification: they convert
nitrogen-containing substances into atmospheric nitrogen

19.4. Population
Population: a group of organisms of one species living in
the same area at the same time.
Shows the number of each Pyramid, which shows the Community: all of the populations of different species in
organism in a food chain biomass an ecosystem.
When moving up the pyramid, Ecosystem: a unit containing the community of organisms
(number of individuals × their and their environment interacting together.
the number of individuals
individual mass)
decreases
19.5. Factors Affecting the Rate of
The pyramids of biomass are ALWAYS pyramid-shaped.
Population Growth
19.2. Carbon Cycle

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Food supply: quantity and quality; snails need calcium to

20.1. Food Supply
reproduce to make a shell.
Predation: if the predator population falls, the prey Humans have increased food production because:
population will rise.
Disease: causes organisms to die, so a high death rate Agricultural machinery to use larger areas of land and
partly cancels out the birth rate meaning less population improve efficiency
growth, especially if the organism dies before giving birth, Chemical fertilisers help crops grow better
or even population decline. Insecticides: a type of pesticide that kills insects
Herbicides: a type of pesticide that kills weeds
19.6. Sigmoid Population Growth Curve Selective breeding to improve production by crop plants
and livestock

Large-scale Monoculture: the continuous production of one

type of genetically identical crop.

Negative Impacts of Large-scale Monoculture

If a natural disaster occurs, the whole crop could be
wiped out.
Lag phase: number of mature, reproducing individuals is If pests & diseases attack crops, they could harm them
low and they may be widely dispersed easily
Exponential (Log) phase: exponential growth occurs, the Using large fields and pesticides reduces the variety
conditions are ideal and the maximum growth rate is of species. This hinders biodiversity.
reached. Limiting factors do not limit growth much. When insecticides are used persistently, the pests
Stationary phase: limiting factors slow growth as the may eventually become resistant to them, reducing
population has reached the “carrying capacity” of its their effectiveness
environment; when mortality rate = birth rate, the curve
levels off and fluctuates around this maximum population Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock Production
size. Welfare issues for the livestock
Death phase: death rate > birth rate due to lack of food, Diseases can spread easily among them
Waste can pollute land and waterways nearby
competition, etc.

19.7. Human Population Growth 20.2. Habitat Destruction

Biodiversity: the number of different species that live in an
Factors favouring growth Factors controlling growth
area.
Lower infant mortality Disease
Higher life expectancy famine Reason for habitat destruction
Better nutrition War Increased area for food crop growth, livestock
production and housing
Better housing
Extraction of natural resources
Better sanitation Freshwater and Marine pollution
Medicine By altering food webs, and food chains, humans can have
Vaccination a negative impact on habitats.
Effects of deforestation
The human population is becoming stable (stagnation) Reduced biodiversity/destroys habitats/extinction
due to: Loss of CO2 fixation, thus increase in CO2, thus global
better education (particularly for women), so they warming
work instead of getting married and having children Soil erosion: tree roots cannot retain soil and go into
better living conditions, fewer people die, fewer births rivers making the water dirty & cause blockages, and
needed the soil becomes less fertile
cities, reduced need for physical labour on farms Flooding: 75% of water is usually absorbed by foliage,
family planning root systems or evaporates. After deforestation, water
But overall, the population is still increasing. accumulates in valleys.

20.3. Pollution
20. Human Influences on
Pollution due to pesticides:
Ecosystems

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Insecticides (kill insects): meant to kill insects which eat Natural resources:
crops, but can kill other, useful insects such as bees which
are pollinators, or by bioaccumulation (the increase in Water: used to grow food, keep it clean, provide power,
dose of toxin from one level of the food chain to the next) control fires, and drink. We get water constantly through
Herbicides (kill weeds): can be harmful to animals which rainfall but we are using up the planet’s fresh water faster
eat the plants than it can be replenished.
Fossil fuels: need to be conserved as they will soon run
out, they should be therefore replaced with green forms
Non-biodegradable plastics: of energy.

Choke birds, fish and other animals Recycling:

Fill up the animals’ stomachs so that they can’t eat food
Collect in rivers, and get in the way of fish Water: water from sewage can be returned to the
environment for human use by sanitation and sewage
treatment
Global Warming: Paper: sent to special centres where it is pulped to make
raw materials for industry
Increase in average temperature of the Earth
Plastic: fossil fuels, bottles → fleece clothing
Methane from burping of cows Metal: mining takes a lot of energy, so recycling saves
Started at the same time as humans began burning fossil energy
fuels
Scientists believe fossil fuels are causing this – not proven Species and habitats: need to be conserved because:
yet
Increase in carbon dioxide and methane concentrations in Organisms have value in themselves (ethical value)
the atmosphere cause an enhanced greenhouse effect Value to medicine (new molecules from exotic plants =
the leads to climate change new drugs)
Genetic resources are useful to humans as well and are
lost when species disappear (DNA for genetic
Eutrophication: when water plants receive too many engineering)
nutrients. Each species has its role in its ecosystem; if it is removed,
then the whole ecosystem could collapse
Fertilisers put in soil by farmers
The use of artificial insemination (AI) and in vitro
Fertilisers with nitrates / detergents with phosphates
fertilisation (IVF) in captive breeding programmes
leach into rivers and lakes after rain
Water plants grow more than usual Endangered species:
They block sunlight and kill plants underneath
They die and sink to bottom How they become endangered: climate change, habitat
Bacteria/fungi decompose remains using the O2 and destruction, hunting, pollution and introduced species
decreasing the O2 concentration If the population size drops, variation decreases
Fish and other creatures die from oxygen starvation Endangered species can be conserved by: monitoring and
protecting species and habitats, education, captive
breeding programmes and seed banks
Reasons for conservation programmes include:
reducing extinction
protecting vulnerable environments
maintaining ecosystem functions by nutrient cycling
and resource provision, e.g. food, drugs, fuel and
20.4. Conservation genes
increase biodiversity
Sustainable resource: one which is produced as rapidly as it is
removed from the environment so that it does not run out

Some resources can be conserved and managed

21. Biotechnology & Genetic
sustainably, limited to forests and fish stocks.
Modification
1. Forests can be conserved using: education, protected
areas, quotas and replanting. Bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic
2. Fish stocks can be conserved using: education, closed engineering due to their rapid reproduction rate and their
seasons, protected areas, controlled net types and
mesh size, quotas and monitoring.

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ability to make complex molecules Lipases: break down stains containing fats and oil
Amylases: break down carbohydrate-based stains, such
as starch
Cellulases: break down cellulose fibres

Lactase:

The enzyme that breaks down lactose (the sugar found in

milk); people can stop making lactase naturally, therefore,
can’t digest lactose. \n

Why are bacteria useful in biotechnology and genetic

modification?

1. few ethical concerns over their manipulation and

growth
2. the presence of plasmids

21.2. Biofuel
Use plants to make sugars which yeast then breaks down
to make ethanol.
This process also uses anaerobic respiration.

Bread Making
Flour, sugar, water and salt are mixed with yeast to make
the dough.
Amylase breaks down some starch to make maltose and Lactose-free milk production
glucose. This is used by yeast in respiration. Lactase made from yeast
The dough is kept warm, moist (28°C). Yeast ferments Lactase bound to the surface of alginate beads
sugar making carbon dioxide which creates bubbles, so Milk passed down beads
bread rises. Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose
Cooking (at 180°C) – kills yeast, evaporates alcohol and Immobilized enzymes are reused
hardens the outer surface.

21.4. Making Penicillin

21.3. Uses of Enzymes
Pectinase:

Fruit juices are extracted using pectinase (breaks down

pectin)
Pectin helps plant walls stick together
If pectin is broke down, it’s easier to squeeze juice from
the fruit
Extraction of juice from fruit, making juice clear, not
cloudy

Biological Washing powders:

Penicillin: an antibiotic produced by a fungus called
Biological washing powders and liquids contain enzymes Penicillium.
that help remove the stain They require proper temperature, pH, oxygen, nutrient
The enzymes are coated with a special wax that melts in supply and waste products.
the wash releasing the enzyme The stainless steel fermentation vessel contains medium
Once the stains have been broken down, they are easier containing sugars and ammonium salts.
for detergents to remove Penicillium is added to produce penicillin. They use sugar
Proteases: break down proteins in stains, e.g., grass, for respiration and ammonium salts to make protein and
blood nucleic acids

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The fermentation vessel consists of ‘PAWS’ Isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using
Probes monitor temperature and pH restriction enzymes, forming sticky ends
Air provides oxygen for aerobic respiration in fungus Cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same restriction
A water-cooled jacket removes heat to maintain a enzymes, forming complementary sticky ends.
temperature of 24°C. Insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using
Stirrer keeps the microorganism suspended (allowing DNA ligase to form a recombinant plasmid – insertion of
access to nutrients and oxygen) while maintaining an the plasmid into bacteria.
even temperature. Replication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids,
which make human protein as they express the gene
Filtered to remove fungus and then can be crystallized to
make capsules.
21.6. Genetically Modified Crops
21.5. Genetic Modification Advantages Disadvantages
Uniform in shape – easy to
Genetic Modification: changing the genetic material of an
transport/appeal to Natural species may die
organism by removing, changing or inserting individual genes
consumers
Examples of genetic modification: Decrease biodiversity/genetic
Growing season shorter
the insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce diversity
human insulin Led to the development of
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer Drought resistant – less water superweeds – stronger than
resistance to herbicides GM
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer
No one knows the long-term
resistance to insect pests Higher yields
effects on humans
the insertion of genes into crop plants to provide
additional vitamins Solve global hunger Expensive seeds

Human Insulin in Bacteria

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Biology

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ZNOTES.ORG

UPDATED TO 2020-22 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
BUSINESS
STUDIES (0450)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE BUSINESS STUDIES (0450)

A business also employs people as worker and pays them

wages to allow them to consume products as well
1. Understanding business
activity 1.4. Added Value
Added value is the difference between the selling price
1.1. Nature of Business Activity and the cost of bought-in raw materials and components.

Needs: goods or services that we need in order to live Added Value = selling price – total cost
Wants: goods or services which people would like to have.
It is NOT the profit because added value does not include
But are not essential for living.
the price to pay for labour, transport etc.
People’s wants are unlimited (you will always want
To increase added value, a business can either:
something) but the resources available to produce them
Increase the selling price of product, while keeping
are limited which leads to scarcity (the basic economic
the total cost of material the same
problem)
Create a brand image
Scarcity: there are not enough products to fulfil the wants
Improve packaging
of the population
Make products more appealing by adding features
Resources (also known as factors of production) include:
Provide higher quality goods and services
Land, Labour, Capital & Enterprise
Decrease the total cost of materials, while keeping the
Land – any natural resource used in production
selling price of the product the same.
Labour – mental and physical efforts of a human
Capital – man-made goods used in production
Enterprise – the risk-taking ability of an entrepreneur 1.5. Classification of Businesses
As there are limited resources, people are always forced
to make a choice. This means that we will be giving Businesses can be put into three sectors:
something up, this is known as opportunity cost Primary sector – extraction of natural resources. Ex.
Opportunity cost: it is the next best alternative that is farming, fishing
Secondary sector – manufacturing and production of
given up by choosing another item.
goods. Ex. car manufacturer
Tertiary sector – provides services. Ex. hairdressing,
1.2. Specialisation banking
The relative importance of these sectors in an economy
Specialisation: when people and businesses focus on
depends on:
what they are best at.
Number of workers employed
Division of labour is when production is split in different
Value of output produced
tasks and each worker performs one of these tasks
Deindustrialisation occurs when there is a decline in the
importance of the secondary sector.
Advantages Disadvantages
This can happen due to:
Workers become bored of Depletion of primary resources in home country
Workers specialized in certain
doing the same job. Efficiency Cheaper goods by developing countries
task, increases efficiency
might fall Ability to spend more income on services
Less time is wasted from one If a worker is absent, no
workbench to another, more other worker can do the job.
1.6. Mixed Economy
efficiency Efficiency might fall
As the business is more Employees have to rely on Has both a private sector and a public sector.
efficient, output increase each other to produce Private Sector: Businesses NOT owned by
which may lead to economies products, leading to a fall in government, will make own decisions on what and
of scale productivity how to produce. The main aim is to make profits.
Workers become more skilled Public Sector: Owned by the government.
and experienced, reducing Government will make decisions on what and how to
the mistakes made produce (i.e. healthcare, education, defence, public
transport). The main aim is to provide a service to
customers.
1.3. Purpose of Business Activity: Privatization refers to the selling of a public sector
business to the private sector.
Businesses combine scarce factors of production to
Privatisation may occur as private sector is more efficient,
produce goods or services to satisfy people’s wants
competitive and will be able to make good quality goods

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leading to higher profits.

1.9. Government Support for Start-Ups
But private sector does not have social objectives, making
their products unaffordable.
Governments encourage entrepreneurs to set up a
business because start-ups:
1.7. Enterprise, Business Growth & Size Reduce unemployment, new businesses create jobs
Increase competition, gives consumers more choice
An entrepreneur is a person who organises, operates and Increase output, economy benefits from increased
takes risk to make the business better output of goods and services
Characteristics of entrepreneurs: Can grow further and become large and important
Hard working businesses which pay government more taxes
Risk Takers Governments may give support to entrepreneurs by:
Creative Business ideas & help, they set up support sessions
Effective Communicators held by experienced business people
Optimistic Finance, they may lend loans at low interest rates or
Self-confident grants
Innovative Governments provide grants for training employees
Independent. to make them more efficient and productive
Advantages and disadvantages of being an entrepreneur: Governments allow entrepreneurs to use research
facilities in universities
Advantages Disadvantages
entrepreneurs will have to
Independent, able to choose 1.10. Business Size
put their own money into the
how to use time and money
business. There are several different measurements of business
Able to put own ideas into many entrepreneur’s size and they all have limitations:
practice businesses fail (risky)
May become successful and Lack of knowledge and Measurements Limitations
very profitable if business experience in starting and Some businesses employ few
The number of people
grows operating a business people but produce high
employed in the business
Lost income from not being output values
Able to make use of personal
employee for another The value of output of the high level of output does not
interests and skills
business (Opportunity cost) business mean business is big
Will have to invest their own different businesses sell
Profits to themselves, no
savings as well as find other The value of sales different products (expensive
need to share them with
sources of finance , which is and cheap)
anyone
time taking and expensive The total value of capital some companies may use
(money) invested into the cheap labor giving low output
Who needs to know the size of a business? business (capital employed) with low-cost equipment

Investors
No way of measuring the size is considered correct as
Government
each method gives different answers. Businesses choose
Competitors
the method they think is the best. Therefore, businesses
Workers
may use more than one method.
Bank

1.11. Reasons for business Growth

1.8. Business Plans
Some businesses want to grow because:
A business plan contains business objectives, important
Higher profits
details about the operations, finance, and the owners
More status for owners and managers
Business plans assist entrepreneurs because:
can benefit from Economies of Scale (lower costs)
It helps gain finance. banks will ask for a business plan
Larger share of its market, ‘big names'
before agreeing to a loan or overdraft for the
business
It forces the entrepreneur to plan ahead carefully, Ways of business growth
which reduces risk of the business failing.
The main parts of a business plan include: name, type of Businesses can either grow by:
organization, business aim and forecast profit Internal Growth
External Growth

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Internal Growth is when the business expands its existing A business owned by just one person. It’s the smallest
operations type of business. Can employ other people however.
External Growth is when the business takes over or Useful for people who are setting up new business
merges with another business. Do not need much capital to get business running
There are three types of External Growth: Will be dealing mainly with the public
Horizontal Integration – firm taking over/merging with
another firm in the same industry Advantages Disadvantages
Ex. a paper company taking over another paper Capital is usually provided by
Easy to set up, do not require
company owner, hard to get capital to
a lot of money to set up
Benefits include economies of scale and higher expand firm
market share They have unlimited liability
Problems include diseconomies of scale and They are their own boss, has
(responsible for any debts of
difficult to control and manage the business the freedom to choose their
the business, bank can take
Vertical Integration – firm taking over/merging with own holidays, work hours,
away possessions to pay
another firm in same industry but different stage of prices, who to employ
back)
production (there is forwards and backwards)
Close relationship with Business is likely to remain
Ex. paper manufacturing company taking over
customers small
paper selling company
Benefits include profits by supplier/retailer are Does not have to share No one to discuss business
absorbed and personal attention is given profits matters with
Conglomerate Merger - firm merging/taking over They are unincorporated
Does not have to give
another firm in a different industry. (also known as (business has same identity
information about the
‘diversification’) as the owner). So, business
business
Ex. paper company taking over a food company ends when owner dies
Benefits include spread of risks and transfer of Lesser legal restrictions
ideas.

1.14. Partnerships
Why small businesses are at greater
risk A business in which 2 to 20 people agree to own it.
Usually small businesses but bigger than sole traders.
Established by youngsters who lack managed experience Useful for people who want to form a business but
Borrow money to begin so will have to repay whether or don’t want the legal complications
not business is successful Industries such as medicine or law where you are not
Start-ups have lesser experience and information about allowed to form a company
the market in order to make informed decisions Partners that know each other very well
New entrepreneurs may not have a realistic picture of the Requires a Partnership Agreement
market
Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to set up, do not require Capital is usually provided by
1.12. Why Businesses Fail a lot of money partners

Poor management – from lack of experience, poor choice More capital invested (more Partners have unlimited
of managers (family business), bad decisions expansion) liability
Failure to plan for change – businesses need to adapt Partners can disagree on
Partners are motivated
everchanging business environment. Must take risks. decisions. If one of the
because any losses are
Poor money management – lack of money to pay partners is inefficient, they all
shared by the partners
workers, suppliers, landlords, etc. lose money
Over-expansion – (diseconomies of scale), management Responsibilities are shared They are unincorporated. If
problems and finance (focused on different parts of one of the partner dies, the
Competition with other businesses – new businesses are business) partnership ends
at more risk of failing than existing businesses.
This is because start-ups have lack of money, resources, Contents of Partnership Agreement:
poor planning & don’t have much research Amount of capital invested by all partners
Tasks to be done by each partner
1.13. Sole Trader The way profits are shared out
How long partnership will last

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Arrangements for absence, retirement and how Advantages (in addition to those
Disadvantages
partners could be let known in LTDs)
Difficult to set up (legal
Opportunity to raise high capital
1.15. Private Limited Company (LTD) sums
formalities) & accounts
are even more public
An LTD is different from the other because it can sell Danger of business being
shares and it is an incorporated business. No restriction of buying, selling or
taken over due to public
Company must be owned by at least 2 shareholders transferring shares
shares
A shareholder buys shares of an LTD company which
Selling shares to public is
represent part ownership of the company
expensive
Dividend is the amount of profit each shareholder
gets
DON’T GET CONFUSED, Public Limited Companies are
Shares are sold privately to friends and family
NOT in the PUBLIC sector, they are in PRIVATE sector
Has separate identity from owners, incorporated, so
company accounts are separate from the owners’
Must have: Articles of Association and Memorandum of 1.17. Joint Venture
Association
Article of Association – must contain the RULES in which A joint venture is when two or more businesses start a
the company will be managed. Contains: project together sharing capital risks, and profits
Rules for shareholder meetings
List of directors and their jobs Advantages Disadvantages
Voting rights of shareholders Costs are shared, good for Profits have to be shared if
Details of how accounts are recorded expensive projects project is successful
Memorandum of Association – must contain important Shared knowledge of two Might have disagreements
information about the company: businesses over important decisions
Company name, address Different methods of running
What the business does Risks are shared
business
Number of shares to be sold

Advantages Disadvantages 1.18. Franchise

Shares can be sold to lots of
Difficult to set up (legal A franchise is an agreement of a business based upon an
people. More capital to
formalities). existing brand/business
expand
The franchisor is the main business/brand
Owners are able to keep
Shares are difficult transfer. The franchisee is the individual to start up franchise
control of company as long
Requires other shareholders In a franchise, the franchisor allows the franchisee to
as they don’t sell too many
to agree trade under its name and see its products for a fee
shares
The franchisee pays an original fee to franchisor and a
All shareholders have limited percentage of its profit for the privilege
Accounts are less secret than
liability (bank can only take Franchisor provides support, such as:
other forms of business
amount of money invested) Advertising
Company continues after a Company cannot offer it Legal advice
shareholder dies shares to the public Employee training
Financial advice
Private Limited Companies are useful for family Franchise agreements last 5 – 20 years, if franchisee
businesses or businesses/partnerships where owners cancels the agreement early there may be large fines
want to expand more (as you can sell shares)
1.19. Risk, Ownership & Limited Liability
1.16. Public Limited Company (PLC)
Risk - the uncertainty of profits or danger of loss, events
A PLC is similar to LTD only the shares can be sold to the that could cause business to fail
public. It is the biggest type of business. Ownership – who owns the business (partnership =
Shareholders of PLCs may attend an Annual General partners, LTDs and PLCs = the shareholders)
Meeting where they may vote for the board directors The people with risk are usually the owners
Liability – how much the shareholders of a company are
Advantages (in addition to those liable for the debts in the business
Disadvantages
in LTDs)

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Limited Liability – liability of shareholders is limited to

1.22. Stakeholder objectives
the amount of money they invested (PLC & LTD)
Unlimited liability – owners of business are held A stakeholder is any person with a direct interest in the
responsible for all the debts of the business (not just
performance of a business
their investment) (Sole trader & partnerships)
There are two types of stakeholder groups:
Internal Stakeholders work/own the company
1.20. Public Sector (owners, managers, workers)
External Stakeholders are outside of the business
The public sector includes every business owned by the (consumers, government, banks)
government. Each stakeholder group has different objectives for the
Businesses in the public sector are public services, i.e. performance of the business
education, transport, hospitals, education and police Internal Stakeholder’s objectives are payments or profits,
Usually these businesses have been nationalized (used to they want business growth, so value of investment
be private sector but government bought it) increases or they get higher status/power
Capital comes from taxes, by tax payer Customers objectives are reliable products, value for
money, good quality, good design and good service
Advantages Disadvantages Government objectives include: money from taxes, will
Reduces wastage of Low efficiency due to lack of employ more people, increase country’s output
resources (if a monopoly) competition Banks objectives are to make profit out of loans
Easily manipulated by the Since different stakeholders have different objectives, it
Allows access of essentials to may cause conflict, to try to please all the stakeholders
government to exploit
everyone For example: customers want cheap products but
citizens
Not flexible as profit is not a workers want higher salaries.
Continued even if in losses Therefore, managers have to compromise to decide
main aim
which objectives are best for the company
Keeps in mind social costs of Will have to be subsidized if
decisions (non-profitable) in losses, opportunity cost
2. People in business
1.21. Business Objectives
2.1. Motivating Workers
Business objectives are aims or targets a business works
towards It is very important for a business to have a well-
Benefits of having business objectives: motivated workforce
Employees have a clear target to work towards The main reasons why people work:
Decisions made keeping in mind objectives Money: to pay for the basic needs for life and some
Clear & measurable objectives will make sure the wants
entire organisation works towards the same goal Security: to know that you are safe (financially)
Managers will be able to compare performance Affiliation (Social needs): to feel part of a group, meet
A business objective maybe changed if economic people, make friends
conditions change or one objective has already been Self-importance (esteem): to feel that you are
achieved important and that the job you do is important
Private sector business objectives: Job Satisfaction: to feel pleasure that you have done a
Business Survival - Adjust to business environment, good job
change price of products if necessary Motivation – the feeling that makes employees want to
Generating profit – pay a return to owners or provide work hard and effectively in a business
finance to invest further in business Well-motivated workers high productivity increased
Returns to shareholders - discourage shareholders output higher profits
from selling their shares. Can be increased by Unhappy workers do not work effectively low output no/
increasing profit or increasing the share price lower profits
Growth of business – increase salaries, economies of
scale. only achieved if customers are satisfied with the
product 2.2. Key Motivational Theories
Market Share – the proportion of the total market
F.W. TAYLOR
sales by one business, gives good publicity, more
“All individuals are motivated by personal gain”
influence over suppliers and customers
Also known as “theory of an economic man”
Service to community – provide jobs, support
Had a mechanical approach rather than human.
disadvantaged groups in society, protect environment

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This means that if the workers are paid more, they will Job Satisfaction
work more effectively Financial Rewards/Motivators include:
By breaking down worker’s jobs into simple tasks, you Wages
could calculate how much output they could do in a Wage is a payment given weekly
day Workers are paid quickly, so don’t have to wait too
Taylor’s idea was that if the workers produced more, long to receive money
they would receive a bonus Given overtime for extra hours worked
But the problem with this approach is that Taylor They must be calculated every week, which is
believed everyone is ONLY motivated by money, expensive
which doesn’t, always stand true Wage clerks need to be appointed
ABRAHAM MASLOW Time Rate (payment per hour, i.e. 10$/hour)
Also known as “Hierarchy of Needs” – a pyramid Paid according to number of hours worked
showing the different types of needs and how some Easy to calculate
are more important than others Good and bad workers are paid the same
(demotivating)
Supervisors may need to be appointed to keep a
check on workers
Clocking-in system may be required
Piece Rate
Physiological Needs – food, rest, shelter (fulfilled by Workers are paid depending on the quantity of
receiving wages) products made
Safe/security Needs – protection against danger & Given above basic pay
poverty. Having fair treatment (fulfilled by having job Encourages workers to work faster
security) May only focus on quantity and ignore quality
Social Needs – friendship, belonging in a group Workers focusing on quality may earn less
(fulfilled by having colleagues at work) (demotivating)
Esteem Needs – having status and recognition Salaries
(fulfilled by being recognised for good work) Paid monthly
Self-actualisation – achieving your full potential, No overtime
feeling that you have done a good job (fulfilled by Salary = annual income/12
being promoted & being given more responsibility) Payment needs to be calculated only once a
Maslow’s theory also suggests that each level in the month
hierarchy (starting from Physiological needs) needs to Commission
be achieved before moving on to the next Given to sales staff
FEDRICK HERZBERG Higher sales, higher money
Also known as “the 2-factor theory” Encourages people to sell more
Humans have two sets of needs: If too persuasive may have negative effects on
Basic animal needs (called ‘Hygiene’) customers
To be able to grow physiologically (called Profit sharing
‘Motivator’ needs) It involves giving employees a share of profit,
above basic pay
‘Motivator’ Factors ‘Hygiene’ Factors Increases motivation
Achievement Status Other profits may be given to shareholders
Recognition Security Bonus
Personal Growth Work Conditions A lump sum amount of money is given to workers
who have done a good job
Relationship with boss &
Advancement/Promotion Paid yearly
subordinates
Performance related pay
Work itself Salary Employee pay is related to the effectiveness of the
employee
The presence of hygiene factors doesn’t motivate Mostly used in service sector, when output can’t
employees, but their absence demotivates them. be easily measured
Often used as a method of appraisal
2.3. Methods of Motivation Appraisal is when an employee’s immediate
supervisor observes their work and discusses their
There are 3 Factors that motivate employees: training needs
Financial Rewards Share ownership
Non-Financial Rewards Shares of a company are given out to employees

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Encourages them to work harder Example of Organisational Chart:

Share price and value may increase
Improves loyalty as there’s a greater sense of
belonging
Non-Financial Rewards (fringe benefits) -
Company Car
Discounts of products
Health Care
Children’s school paid for
House is paid for
Free trips abroad (holidays) Chain of command - The structure in an organization
Job Satisfaction which allows instructions to be passed down from senior
Enjoyment derived from feeling that you have done a management levels to lower levels of management
good job Span of control - The no of employees working directly
Pay under a manager
Promotion There are two types of organizational structures of a
Status business:
Training You can have a ‘tall’ structure, with a long chain of
If these things are kept in mind employees will be command:
well-motivated
Job Rotation
Working, swapping around and doing a specific job for
a limited time period
Increases variety of work
Easier for managers to cover up if 1 employee is
absent
Makes the job more interesting
Job Enlargement
Where extra tasks of similar level of work are added
to a person’s job description
Extra tasks shouldn’t add extra work
You can have a ‘wide’ structure, with a short chain of
Increases variety
command:
Higher job satisfaction
Job Enrichment
It involves adding tasks that require more skills
Higher responsibility
Higher job satisfaction
Higher productivity

The advantages to have a short (and wide) structure is

2.4. Organisation and Management that:
Communication is faster and more accurate
Organisational structure – the levels of management and Top managers are more in touch with subordinates
division of responsibilities within a company because there are less levels
Organisational Charts show a clear structure of the Wider span of control means employees feel trusted
business and make it easy to see which part of the and take more decisions by themselves
company does what Higher job satisfaction
Features – Disadvantages:
It is a hierarchy Difficult to control
Organised into departments Inefficient supervisors
Shows the chain of command and span of control Communication problems
Benefits – Difficult to motivate workers
The chart shows how everybody is linked in the Sometimes there may be a conflict between
organization departments (i.e. marketing wants to buy something
Gives a sense of belonging but finance does not think it is necessary)
Employees know their position The supervisors working in these departments are Line
It shows how departments are linked managers – they have direct responsibility over people
All employees are aware from which communication below them in the organisational chart
channel will they receive messages

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You also have Staff Managers – which are specialists in This means the trust for the workers is increased by the
certain areas to provide support and information to line manager
managers Therefore, there needs to be more trust in workers in
order to reduce control over them

2.6. Leadership Styles

Leadership styles are the different approaches to deal
with people when with authority
There are THREE TYPES OF leadership styles:
Autocratic Leader: where the manager expects to be
in charge of the business and expects to have their
orders followed with no questions asked
2.5. Role of Management Democratic Leader: where the manager allows the
subordinates to be involved in the decision-making
All organisations have managers. Leaders, director,
process
executive are all different names, but they are all
Laissez-Faire Leader: Where the manager makes
managers
broad/general objectives for the employees and
The functions of managers include:
leaves them to make their own decisions.
Planning – setting aims or targets
Organising – delegating tasks. organising people and
resources effectively 2.7. Trade Unions
Co-ordinating – making sure departments work well
with each other and have good communication Trade union – a group of workers that join together to
Commanding – making sure the workers are keeping protect their interests
to targets and deadlines. By guiding and delegating A trade union is a pressure group
tasks Employees usually have the same interests (i.e. good
Controlling – measuring and evaluating work of wages, pleasant work environment, etc)
employees and verify they are on target If an employee wants to join a trade union, they must pay
Without clear and effective management, a business will a yearly subscription for the benefits
lack: Benefits from a trade union usually include:
A sense of control and direction Improved conditions of employment (such as wages,
Control of employees holidays, hours of work)
Organization of resources Improved work environment (health & safety, heating,
Coordination between departments noise)
Advice/support if member thinks they have been
unfairly fired, mistreated, etc
Delegation
Disadvantages:
Costs money
Delegation involves giving a subordinate the authority to
May required to take industrial action
perform particular task.
However, if the employee does a bad job, the manager
must accept the responsibility for it 2.8. Recruitment
Delegation is important because:
Managers cannot do every job by themselves Recruitment – the process from identifying that a
Managers can then measure the success of the business needs to employ someone, to the point where
employees applications have arrived at the business
Work becomes more interesting for subordinate, Recruitment is one of the roles of the Human Resources
increases their motivation department
Makes employees feel trusted and important Recruiting usually happens when an employee leaves a
Gives workers greater career opportunities and job, a business is starting up, or it wants to expand
chances of promotion Recruitment process (for external recruitment):
However, some managers do not delegate tasks because: A job analysis is done to identify the tasks and
They might be afraid the subordinates will fail and responsibilities to be carried out by the new employee
manager wants to control everything Once the details of the job are gathered, a job
Manager might also feel threatened that subordinate description will be made, outlining these duties.
will do a better job than them From the job description, a job specification is
Delegation means that once the task is completed, the created, which outlines the requirements,
manager will have less direct control qualifications and expertise for the job

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Then the job is advertised Full-time workers

Internal - when the vacancy is filled by someone Workers working for more than 35 hours a week
who is an existing employee of the business Advantages:
It is cheaper, motivates other employees, Higher training and chances of promotion
potential of the employee is already known. Lesser time taken in recruitment
The employee is aware of the working Highly committed to the business
conditions and other workers, lesser time Lesser communication problems
taken for induction training Disadvantages:
But no new ideas come into the business and No flexible working hours
there may be jealousy and rivalry amongst Expensive
employees May demand higher pay as poor work-life balance
External - when the vacancy is filled by someone
who isn’t an existing employee and will be new to 2.10. Training
the business
New ideas come into the business. There’s Training is needed when:
wider choice of workers New technology is employed
But it is expensive and time-taking and may Less supervision is required
demotivate existing employees Need to increase efficiency
Ads can be place in: Need to increase chances of internal promotion
Local newspapers- usually for unskilled and New skills needed
semi-skilled workers. Need to lower accidents
National newspaper- usually for senior There are three types of training:
positions which requires high skills. Induction Training – where the employee is given an
Specialist magazines- used for particular introduction on the company’s procedures and customs,
technical people. and is introduced to their co-workers
Government job centers- usually for
unskilled and semi-skilled workers. Advantages Disadvantages
Recruitment agencies- they keep details Employees settle into their
about qualified people and are approached Time consuming
job quickly
by companies
Workers make fewer Worker is being paid while
Selection process:
mistakes not doing work
Candidates start by sending their application forms.
They send in their CV’s and resumes outlines why the Delays the start of work for
May be a legal requirement
applicant wants the job the employee
Short-listed applicants are called for interviews. These
may be done one-on-one, two-on-one talks, skill tests, On-the-job Training – where the employee does the job
aptitude tests, etc. while being supervised by a more experienced worker,
giving tips, suggestions and help

2.9. Types of Workers Advantages Disadvantages

Trainer won’t be as
Part-time workers Employee does not need to
productive because they are
Workers working for less than 35 hours a week be sent away
teaching employee
Advantages:
Work hours are flexible. Trainer might have bad
So cheaper than off-the-job
Business can extend the opening/closing hours habits and pass on to
training
Employees can just work at busy times employee
Cheaper for the employer than employing a full- Not recognized training
There is still production from
time worker qualifications outside the
worker while training
May agree for a low salary as good work-life business
balance
Disadvantages: Off-the-job training – where the employee is trained away
Employees are less likely to be trained because from the workplace, normally by specialized trainers.
they might see it as temporary and don’t want a
promotion Advantages Disadvantages
Takes longer to recruit many part-time workers Expensive to send employees
Lots of skills are taught
than a couple full-time workers off to expert trainings
Communication problems may arise
Might be less committed to the company

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Advantages Disadvantages Unfair dismissal: when the worker is dismissed

trainings are sometimes off- unfairly (i.e. from joining a trade union, being
Workers are being paid but pregnant, or when given no warnings before being
work hours, worker will still
not doing any work dismissed), the worker can take their case to an
work
industrial tribunal to see both sides of argument.
Professional training gives
Employees become versatile Wage protection: an employee in a business should
employees additional
(can be moved around have a contract of employment, where it should
qualifications, makes it easier
company and know what to contain the wage rate, frequency of wages and what
for employee to find another
do) deductions are made from the wages (from tax). In
job
some countries businesses pay whatever they want
because unemployment is high, so they offer very low
Sometimes, a company might need to reduce the size of wages.
the workforce, possibly because of: Governments take action by creating a legal minimum
Automation (robots replacing human jobs) wage.
Less demand for products or services
Business might have relocated abroad
Business being taken over/merged and now there are 2.12. Internal & External
too many workers doing same job Communication
Companies need to think ahead on the future and
establish how many employees they will need and their Effective communication is important so that the
skills, this is called workforce planning information sent in the message is received, understood
When a business needs to reduce the number of and acted upon as it should
employees, they can either dismiss the employee or It is important to businesses because if it is not
make them redundant understood, it can lead to serious consequences
Dismissal – when the worker is told to leave the job due There are two types of communication in businesses:
to poor work or poor behavior (i.e. if employee is always Internal Communication – communication between
late for work after being given warnings, when employee employees of the same business
is caught stealing, etc)It is more commonly known as External Communication – communication between the
being ‘fired’ business and other businesses and individuals
Redundancy – when a business no longer needs an External communication has to be especially efficient
employee. Even though the employee did nothing wrong. because it establishes the image and the efficiency of a
Usually happens during period of falling sales or due to business
an economic recession (when no one is buying anything) i.e. if a company communicates inefficiently with their
suppliers, they might receive the incorrect materials
2.11. Legal Controls over employment Effective communication involves:
1. The transmitter/sender sending a message to pass
issues on information
2. A medium of communication – the method for
There are many laws in countries, that ensure that sending message (i.e. e-mail, phone, etc)
everyone has equal employment opportunities regardless 3. The message being sent to the receiver
of race, gender, religion, age etc. 4. The receiver confirming that the message has
This means that businesses need to be careful when been received and responds to it (feedback)
advertising a job. They cannot advertise for just a single There are two types of communication:
type of person. One-way communication – where the receiver cannot
Companies must treat all applicants for the job equally, if reply to the message (i.e. posters)
not, they will be fined and prosecuted Two-way communication – where the receiver can
Employees of a business have legal right that must be respond to the message, could be just confirmation
protected, which includes: that message was received (e-mail)
Unfair discrimination at work/when applying: i.e. The methods of communication include:
when employers discriminate unfairly against Verbal methods – sender speaks to the receiver (i.e.
employees or applicants due to their race, gender, meetings, telephone, video conference)
religion or colour.
Health and safety: there are laws that make sure that Advantages Disadvantages
employees are protected from dangerous machinery, Information given out quickly
that they are provided safety equipment & clothing, If talking to many people, it’s
& Efficient way to
hygiene conditions, suitable temperatures, provide hard to tell whether everyone
communicate with many
breaks. got the message
people

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Advantages Disadvantages
Not good for accurate
3. Marketing
Opportunity for immediate messages and if a permanent
feedback record of the message is 3.1. Marketing, Competition & Customer
needed
Message is reinforced by the Marketing – Identifying customer needs and satisfying
speaker’s body language them
There are many departments within the Marketing sector
of a business
Written methods – sender creates e-mails, memos or
letters, including the use of Information Technology The role of the marketing is to:
Identify customer needs – this will be done via ‘Market
Advantages Disadvantages Research’. It will influence the development of a
Might lead to too many e- product, its price, and the sales technique
Message can be referred to in A good marketing department should also be able
mails and ‘information
the future “hard evidence” to anticipate (predict before happening) changes
overload’
of customer needs (i.e. due to advancement in
Easy to explain complicated Two-way communication is
technology)
messages difficult
Find new trends or gaps in market with potential
Can be copied and re-sent to Hard to check if message has Satisfy customer needs – selling the exact product
many people been received customers want, for a price they are willing to pay
Maintaining customer loyalty – building customer
Visual methods – sender uses diagrams, charts, videos, relationships and make sure that existing customers
PowerPoints will continue to buy from them and to attract new
customers
Advantages Disadvantages Maintaining customer loyalty will be achieved by
Information presented in always satisfying customer needs
No feedback and needs other
more appealing way, people Gain information about customers –
methods of communication
will be more interested to They need to gain information about the changing
to go with it
look at it needs of the customers.
Graphs and charts may be They need to understand why customers buy their
Can be used to make written
difficult for people to products and how they use them.
messages clearer, to illustrate
understand, message may be Anticipate changes in customer needs –
the point Identify new trends in customer demands or gaps
misunderstood
in the market.
Markets change because consumer spending patterns
2.13. Communication Barriers change, this might be due to:
Trends and fashions change – for a period of time it
Communication Barriers – things that prevent efficient might be fashionable to have a specific product (i.e.
communication Fidget Spinner) but a month later no one buys them
Problems with the sender: when language is too difficult,
Advancement in technology – new products provide
speaks too quickly/not clearly, communicates wrong
the latest technology so older versions (i.e. iPads or
message computers) don’t have high sales
Overcome by: using understandable language, making Unemployment/Wages – Economies with high
sure message is a clear as possible by asking questions to unemployment rates/low wages will not have high
make sure message was understood
sales of expensive products
Problems with the medium: message may be lost/not
Ageing population – different ages are interested in
seen by receiver, wrong medium used (i.e. important different products (i.e. anti-ageing creams)
message on noticeboard), if message is being passed Changing customer needs are important to businesses.
along – it might get distorted They must identify these changes and respond in order to
Overcome by: sender asking for feedback/receiver always
stay successful
sending feedback that message is received, selecting the
Some markets have become more competitive because:
appropriate channel to send message
Globalization – products are sold all over the world
Problems with the receiver: not listening/paying Transportation – it is cheaper, quicker and easier to
attention, receiver doesn’t trust the sender/doesn’t want send products around the world now
to do it
Internet – customers can now search for products or
Overcome by: emphasizing importance of message, ask
services and buy from somewhere else around world
for feedback to ensure it was understood, using direct For a business to stay competitive, it must:
communication

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Maintain good customer relationships Identify a market segment whose needs are not being
Keep improving its existing products fully met and fill the gap (first in market)
Bring out new products to keep customer’s interest
Keep costs low 3.4. Market Research
3.2. Market There are 2 types of businesses:
Product-oriented business – a business that focuses
Market – the total number of customers, potential mainly on the product itself
customers and other sellers of a product/service Market-oriented business – a business that focuses on
There are two types of market: market research and find out what the customer
Mass market – where there is a very large number of wants BEFORE a product is developed
sales of a product type Market research is important because a business needs
to know how many people would be willing to buy the
Advantages Disadvantages product, this is to see how profitable it would be
Sales are very high Lots of competition Market Research – gathering information about
Can benefit from economies consumers' needs or preferences in a market
High costs of advertisement There are 2 main types of market research:
of scale
PRIMARY RESEARCH (field research)
Many similar products so it
Opportunities for growth SECONDARY RESEARCH (desk research)
may not meet specific needs
(large sales)
of all customers Primary Research - Gathering of ORIGINAL data by talking
There are many variations of directly with customers/potential customers
products so risk is spread Process:
Purpose of market research
Niche market – a SMALL (usually specialized) segment Decide on the most suitable method of market
(part) of a mass market research
Decide the size of sample and who is going to be
Advantages Disadvantages asked?
Avoid competition with big Small – limited number of Carry out the research
businesses sales Analyze the data and results
Specific needs of customers Usually specialize in just one Summary of the research
are focused. Advantage over product, if product has low Primary research includes:
mass market demand, it will fail Questionnaires
They may be conducted face to face, by telephone,
For example, the tie industry is a mass market, but a internet.
business that makes ties out of crocodile skin is a niche Online surveys may also be carried out.
market Advantages:
Detailed qualitative information can be
gathered.
3.3. Market Segmentation Customer’s opinion can be obtained.
Online surveys may be cheaper and easier to
Market segments – a sub-group of a market in which the
collate the results.
consumers have similar characteristics or preferences
They can be linked to prize draws and
A market can be segmented by:
encourage people to fill them.
According to age
Disadvantages:
Socio-Economic group – grouping people according to
If not filled properly, may mislead the business
how much they are paid
as there may not be accurate answers.
Location – where people live (people that live in wet
Lots of time and money needed.
areas will buy more waterproof clothing than those Collating and analyzing data also need a long
who live in dry areas)
time
Gender – men and women products differ
Interviews – person will interview other person and
Lifestyle – how many children a person has, religion,
ask questions
habits, etc. Advantages:
Benefits of market segmentation:
The interviewer will be able to explain the
Business aims all of its marketing efforts to the
questions if not understood
specific segment, making marketing costs efficient
Detailed information about the interviewee
Since less money is spent on marketing, more profit
can be gathered
Disadvantages:

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The interviewer may lead the interviewee to Benefits Limitations

answer in a certain way You do not get specific
Time consuming Cheaper than primary as
results for a certain product
Expensive research has already been
or service, you get broad
Samples – A group of people who are selected done by others
results
(randomly) to answer (i.e. questionnaire)
There is some information
When deciding who to ask to fill a questionnaire or Data may be outdated or
(i.e. economic forecasts or
who to interview, a sample would have to be incorrect as it was collected
population size) that can’t be
selected. It can be by others
obtained by primary research
A random sample – It means that every member
of the population has a chance to be selected. Might not have the specific
They are selected at random. Everyone has a information
chance to be picked.
A quota sample – People are selected on the basis Regardless on which type of research a business chooses
of certain characteristics. They are able to find out to use, the accuracy of the research data depends on:
views of a specific group. How carefully the sample was drawn up
Focus Groups - How the questions in questionnaires/interviews were
It is where groups of people agree to provide written to make sure honest answers were given
information about a specific product. The sample itself and its size. By using quota sampling
It will help sales and development. you might get more reliable results
These groups may even test a product explaining The bias – some secondary research will be biased
the likes and dislikes (i.e. articles on newspapers) which means the
Can provide detailed information information might be unreliable
Time consuming Age of the data – older data might be inaccurate
Expensive
May be biased 3.5. Marketing Mix
Observations –
Most inexpensive way of gathering information. Marketing Mix – all of the activities that are involved when
Gives only basic figures marketing a product or service
Doesn’t include reasons for the choices The marketing mix can be summed up as the 4 Ps:
It can be in the form of: Product
Recording Price
Watching Place
Audits Promotion
Secondary Research – You should always mention the 4 Ps when answering
Information that has already been collected and is question about Marketing Mix!
available for others
This information can be obtained either from
3.6. Product
INTERNAL SOURCES or EXTERNAL SOURCES.
Internal Sources – within the firm’s own records: sales
The product is the most important element in the 4 P’s
departments, customer records, finance department
Most companies are market oriented and spend most
and CUSTOMER SERVICE department
lots of money in market research
External Sources –
Some products are sold to consumers and some to other
Government statistics - a detailed source of
businesses.
general information
They are usually grouped:
Newspapers - useful articles about the general
Consumer goods
economy state
Consumer services
Trade association - information about business in
Producer goods
the industry
Producer services
Market research agencies - specialist agencies who
Different types of goods are marketed, produced and
carry out the research on company’s behalf where
developed in different ways.
in commission is paid
Promotion of a consumer goods will be much different
Internet - easily accessible source. Paper based
than that of a producer good
sources can also be found
Producing the right amount of product is an important
part of marketing mix:
Benefits Limitations
They need to satisfy customer needs and wants.
It must be of right quality and price

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Cost of production must enable a price that is suitable Then it is introduced or launched in the market. Sales at
for customers as well makes a profit to the business. first will grow slowly as not everyone is aware about the
Design of the product is very important. The quality of product. Informative advertising will be used to promote
the product must match the price. the product until it is well – known.
Sales will start to grow rapidly. The advertisements
Development of new products change to persuasive ads to encourage brand loyalty.
Prices might be reduced at this time as there are
Benefits – competitors. Profits are made and are used to cover
USP – unique selling point development costs.
Diversification Maturity – sales increase slowly. There is high competition
Allows business to expand into new and existing and lots of advertisements have to be done. Profits are
markets the highest.
Drawbacks – Saturation - there are stable profits. No new competitors.
Costs of carrying out market research and analyzing Competitive pricing is used and prices are reduced.
the findings Profits begin to fall as sales reduce.
Cost of producing trial products including waste Decline – the product is removed out of the market as
materials there are new products introduced and the business
Lack of sales if target market is wrong might be in losses. Advertising is stopped.
Loss of company image if the product fails to meet
consumer wants

Importance of brand image

Selling a product directly to a consumer is much easier

and helps them inform customers the products quality.
Nowadays, mostly manufacturers sell them to retailers
who the pass it on to the end consumers.
To make customers know about the product the
How stages to plc influence marketing
manufacturers give their product a unique name, brand decisions
name, and advertise relating to the brand.
Branded products are sold at high rates as they are Introduction –
Product – newly launched product
expected to be of high quality.
Customers may have brand loyalty if they like the Price – price skimming or penetration pricing
Place – limited range of exclusive shop (if price
product’s quality and price.
Brand image is very important when attracting new skimming is used)
Promotion – informative advertising
customers.
A brand will have a whole image which will be reinforced Growth –
Product – remains the same
by advertisements.
Price – raise prices is penetration pricing was used
Role of packaging Place – increase the number of outlets, e-commerce
Promotion – establish a strong brand identity by
Having the right packaging is very important as it plays a promotional activities.
key role in attracting customers. Maturity/saturity –
Packaging gives production to the product and doesn’t Product – plans for product changes begin
allow it to get spoilt. Price – lower prices to competitive
It allows a product to be easily used. Place – full range of distribution channels used
It needs to be suitable for transportation. Promotion – sales promotion techniques to
It is also used for promotion. encourage repeat purchases
The color and shape help attracting the customer. Decline –
Labels on products carry vital information. Product – changes made to extend the life cycle
It promotes the brand image. Price – lower prices
Place – sell through low-cost outlets
Product life cycle (PLC) Promotion – re launch the product as an extension
strategy
First the product is developed. The prototype will be
tested in the market. Before its launch. There are no sales Extending product life cycle
during this time.
Introduce new variations into the original product
Sell into new markets

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Make small changes to the product’s design, cover, color It is when price is set to match consumer
Sell through additional retail outlets expectations and perceptions of a product
Introduce a new, improved version of the old product It may involve charging high prices for high quality
Use a new advertising campaign goods
It may involve charging the price below a whole
3.7. Pricing number
Low prices for basic necessities may give a good
It is important to select an appropriate price to impression of being good value of money
complement a brand image; a value for money brand Ensures sales are made
should have a low price. Sales revenue may be lost
The business must constantly monitor what its Competitors may follow, low effect
competitors are charging for their products to make sure Dynamic pricing
its prices remain constant. It means charging different customer groups,
A business can adopt new pricing strategies for: different prices for the same product because
To break into a new market they have different demand levels
To increase market share Made it easier to adopt with the growth of online
To increase profits marketing
To make sure all costs are covered and a particular High revenue and profits
profit is earned Increased costs

Pricing methods Price elasticity of demand

There are 5 main types of pricing methods: Price Elasticity – It is a measure of responsiveness of
Cost-plus pricing: demand to a change in price
It involves estimating how many of the product PED is affected to the no of substitutes available ⦁ Price-
will be produced, then calculating the total cost of Elastic Demand is when the % change in demand is
producing this output and adding a percentage GREATER than the % change in price i.e., prices increase
mark – up for profit. by 5% but then sales decrease by 10%. Therefore, there is
The method is easy to apply. falling revenue for the business
You could lose sales if the selling price is a lot Price-Inelastic Demand is when the % change in demand
higher than your competitors’ price. is LESS than the % change in price
Total cost /output+ % mark up. This means you can increase the price of the product a lot
Competitive pricing: without the demand changing (i.e., oil & petrol because
High sales as prices are at a realistic level people have to buy it)
To decide prices, research needs to be done, it
costs time and money 3.8. Place – Distribution Channels
Penetration pricing
It is when the price is set lower than the Product should be available when and where customers
competitors’ prices in order to enter a new market need them
It ensures sales are made Wrong place, low sales and profits
It ensures the new product enters the market Place must be convenient for consumers
Low profits
Price skimming There are 4 main distribution channels:
It is when a high price is set for a new product on
Manufacturer sells products directly to consumer (i.e. car
the market
components to car factory)
Established a brand image
Established the product of good quality
Costs of R&D maybe covered
It may pull off some potential customers due to Advantages Disadvantages
high prices Impractical because
Promotional pricing Very simple consumers don’t usually live
It is when a product is sold at a very low price for a near factories
short period of time
Not good for products that
Help get rid of unwanted stock Suitable for products that are
can’t be sent easily by post
May raise sale, if they were falling sold straight out of factories
(may be expensive to ship it)
Low profits, low sales revenue
Psychological pricing
There is a lower price for
Not cost effective
consumer (cuts retailer)

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Advantages Disadvantages Selling of goods and services through the internet

Benefits to the business:
Direct contact with
customers Cheaper
Customers encouraged to buy in bulk
Business-2-Business e-commerce is cheaper
Producer sells to retailers which sell to consumers: (i.e.
Wider options for customers, brand image and loyalty
farms selling food to big supermarkets)
Problems to business:
Website must be maintained
High distribution cots
No direct contact
Advantages Disadvantages Returns – higher costs
There is no direct contact Stock system will be needed
Manufacturer sells lots of with customers which makes Benefits to consumers:
stock to retailer It hard to create customer No need to go out
loyalty Wide options
Easy comparison
Cheaper transportation costs
Payment through net banking
because all products go to
Easy access to imported goods
one place
Low prices
Lower storage costs for the Problems to consumers:
manufacturer Internet needed
High chances of fraud and theft
Producers sell to wholesalers – which buy in bulk and Products can’t be physically examined
then divide their stock into smaller quantities and sell No direct contact
them to retailers
Selecting which distribution channel to use

Type of product
Advantages Disadvantages
Is it technical?
Reduces storage costs for More expensive to buy from How often is it purchased?
small retailers because small wholesaler than from How expensive is it?
quantities are sold manufacturer How perishable is it?
Small quantities so transport Wholesaler might not have all Where are customers located
costs are low the products a retailer wants Where do competitors sell
Wholesaler can give feedback
Takes longer to get to
on what sells well to
consumer 3.9. Promotion
producer
Huge gap between Promotion gives info about the 4P’s
manufacturer and customer Essential when trying to increase/ create brand loyalty
May stock competing Promotion includes:
products Advertisements –
Above the line
TV, newspaper, internet
A manufacturer hires an agent (person or business) that
will sell products on behalf or manufacturer Sales promotion
Below the line
Free gifts, coupons, samples
Used for short periods
Advantages Disadvantages
Agents know the most Aims of promotion
Manufacturer loses lots of
profitable places & prices to
control on the way the To raise awareness about a firms’ products
sell in other markets that
product is sold to customers Encourage customers to make a purchase
manufacturers may not know
Increase sales
Agents will provide advice on
Inform people about particular issues, used by the govt
best ways to survive new Higher costs for consumers
Introduce new products in the market
markets
Create brand image
Improve company’s image
E-commerce Compete with competitors

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Advertising Works for local events, daily necessities

Cinemas, DVDs –
There are 2 types of advertisements: Visual image
Informative Advertisement – where the promotion of Cheap
a product focuses on giving information about a Effective
product (i.e. the benefits of the product) Limited audience
Persuasive Advertisement – where the promotion of a Leaflets –
product focuses on persuading the consumer that Cheap
they really need the product and they should buy it Wide audience
The advertising process: Permanent
Set objectives May not be read and missed
Decide the advertising budget Works for local events
Create an advertising campaign Internet –
Select the media to use High info
Evaluate the effectiveness of the campaign Instant orders
Direct mail is cheap
Types of advertising media May not highlight the website
Limited internet access
Television – High competition
Reaches millions of people Security issues
Can be shown attractively Works for clothes, books
Can be targeted at a specific audience Product placement –
Very expensive Associated with image
No written record Specific target audience
Works for food, clothing, technology Expensive
Radio – May have negative effects
Cheaper than TV Works for expensive products
Reaches to many people
Can use songs Sales Promotion
No visual support
Expensive Sales Promotions – when incentives (i.e. special
No written record offers/sales) are used to increase sales (short term)
Maybe unclear
Not a wide target audience Types of sales promotion
Works for local services, events
Newspaper – Price reductions –
Cost effective Includes coupons
Hard copy available Linked to loyalty cards
Detailed info can be provided Encourages consumers to try products and become
Reaches out to millions customers
Can be targeted at specific audience Gifts –
May not be attractive Small gifts to encourage purchases
Works for banks, cars, etc. Main aim to get customers to buy at regular intervals
Magazines – BOGOF –
Attractive Multiple purchases are encouraged
High quality Competitions –
Can be targeted at a specific audience Packaging can allow customers to enter competitions
Expensive Encourages sales
Published monthly/ weekly Expensive prices ⦁
Works for expensive perfumes, medical equipment Point of sale display –
Posters – Place where the product is sold
Permanent Special display
Cheap After sales services –
Attractive For expensive products, good after services
Seen by everyone encourages consumers to buy their product
Prone to vandalism Free samples –
No detailed info Can be handed out to shops to encourage sales
Can be missed Maybe delivered at home

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Advantages of sales promotion Advertising on own website

No extra costs
Can promote sales in losses Control adv
Encourages new customers Change info quickly
Encourages customers to buy greater quantities Attractive
Try new products High info
Choose your brand over competitors High costs
May not be located
Marketing Budget High competition

Marketing budget is the financial plan for marketing

3.11. Marketing Strategy
product/brand for a period of time
When deciding which type of promotion to use,
It is a plan to combine the right combination of the 4
marketing budget is an important factor
elements of the marketing mix for a product or service to
Choose the most cost-effective method
achieve a particular marketing objective
This is where small business struggle compared to big
Marketing strategy developed depends on:
businesses, because their budget is so much smaller.
Size of market
Number and size of competitors
Factors influencing type of promotion
Marketing objectives
Target market
Stage of PLC
Finance available
Nature of product
Marketing objectives may include:
Cultural issues involved in international marketing
Increasing sales
Media used must depend on:
Improve the existing product
Literacy rate
Increasing sales of a new product
Poverty rate
Availability of radio and cinema Maintaining/ increasing market share
Increasing sales in a niche market ⦁ Increase market
Nature of target market
share/maintain market share
For example: A product is made, priced reasonably, and
3.10. Promotion meets the consumer needs, but there is no promotional
element. No one will buy it because people don’t know
Public relations and sponsorship about its existence
Or if a product is made that doesn’t meet consumer
It is concerned with promoting a good image of the brand needs, so it won’t sell regardless of the price set
Ways to increase public awareness: It is crucial to have all elements working together in order
Sponsor events linked with good causes to influence consumer decisions (buying the product)
Donate in charities

Technology & Marketing mix 3.12. Legal Controls in Marketing

New technology gives greater opportunities to market There are many laws in different countries to protect
goods consumers from businesses taking advantage of their
The 4 P’s might change lack of knowledge or lack product information
Internet allows businesses to understand customer These legal controls include (in the U.K.):
habits Weights and measures
Selling underweight items or using inaccurate
Social media and website equipment’s to weigh goods is illegal
Sale of goods
Advertising through social media: Supplying goods of bad quality/ in an
Target specific demographic group unsatisfactory condition is illegal
Guarantee it reaches customers Supply of goods and services act.
Cheap Producing and selling goods in an unhygienic
Reach people of all ages place is illegal
Quick responses to market changes Distance selling regulations
Have to pay for pop ups A consumer should have a minimum of 7 days
If advertising is annoying, reduce sales cooling period (a consumer should have 7 days to
Lose control change their mind about purchase they made)
Maybe altered, reducing business reputation Trade descriptions

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Supplying a good/ service which is unsafe/ not fit Problem Method to overcome
for the purpose is illegal Licensing: the business gives
Giving false info or misleading claims is illegal
permission for a local
Misleading consumers about the true price is illegal
Transport costs are business to sell goods under
Making false claims about special deals and offers is
expensive its name, so they do not have
illegal
to physically import all the
Offensive or indecent ads are illegal products
Complying with all legal controls can raise total costs of a
business by:
Localizing Existing Brands:
Goods/ services may have to be redesigned to ensure where a business still has the
quality and safety
same brand image but
Cultural Differences
Ads may have to be altered adapts it to the market it is in
Some promotion techniques may have to be changed
(i.e. McDonalds cooking
May have to change packaging vegetarian meals in India)
Prices may have to be controlled and altered
Increase employment
4. Operations management
3.13. Entering New Markets Abroad
4.1. Production of Goods and Services
The globalization of businesses has been increasing over
the years, there are opportunities & problems to this: Production – the making of a product or service to satisfy
consumer wants and needs
Opportunities Problems It involves adding value to a business’s products
Growth potential in other A business combines the inputs/economic
Lack of knowledge of resources/factors of production to produce a more
countries: countries are
competitors or consumer valuable output (this could be a good or a service)
developing and population
habits The ‘inputs’ include:
incomes are increasing
Land – For factories or for materials
Markets in original country Cultural differences: for
Labour – Employees
might be saturated (sales are example, alcohol won’t sell
Capital – Money/finance
low) well in middle east
Enterprise – Managers
Exchange rates: in some
Can produce products in Businesses want to combine all of these inputs efficiently
countries their currency isn’t to keep costs low to increase profits
abroad and learn about its
stable so price of importing For a business to be competitive, it must combine its
market to increase sales
goods increase resources effectively, reduce disposal costs, total costs
Trade barriers are lowered in and raise profits
Transport costs are more
most countries so it is Labour-Intensive Production – where lots of workers are
expensive
cheaper to enter markets used rather than machines to make goods. Usually done
in countries with low wages so that it is more efficient.
However, there are many methods to reduce and Capital-Intensive Production – where businesses use
overcome the problems of entering a new market: machines/robots rather than workers. Usually done in
developed countries where the wages are high.
Problem Method to overcome
Joint-Ventures: by working Operations department
together/merging with local
businesses in the same Operations department’s role is to take inputs and
market, a business will gain a change them into outputs for consumers
Lack of knowledge (& Cultural lot of important knowledge Operations manager is responsible for making sure raw
Differences) about the culture & market \n materials are available and are made into finished goods
Franchising: letting people Most manufacturing businesses have
from the market abroad Factory manager- responsible for quality and quantity
which have local knowledge of products
to choose location of shop Purchasing manager – responsible for providing the
required materials and equipment
Research and development manager – responsible for
design and training of new products

Productivity

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Productivity – It is a way of measuring a business’s Defects - when goods have faults/defects that require
efficiency them being inspected/fixed wastes time
Productivity = quantity of output/ quantity of input Advantages of lean production
Businesses often want to measure the productivity of Less storage costs
labor Quick production
Labour productivity = output / no. of employees Better use of equipment
Increased productivity leads to lower inputs used to Less money tied up in inventory
produce the same level of output or same number of No returns
inputs used to create greater number of goods Greater health and safety
As employees become productive, per employee output Cut some processes that aren’t important
rises, costs of production falls Low costs lead to low prices due to higher
Many ways to increase productivity: competition and high profits
Improve factory layout to reduce time waste and raise
efficiency 4.2. Lean Production
Introduce automation
Improve labor skills by training
Types of Lean Production
Improve quality control
Improve employee motivation Kaizen
Improve inventory control Just-in-time inventory (JIT)
Benefits of increasing efficiency: Cell production
More output compared to inputs
Lower costs per unit (AKA Average cost) Kaizen
If there is more output, maybe less workers needed,
less people to pay wages Kaizen means continuous improvement in Japanese
If there are less people working, raising their wages Its main focus is to eliminate waste
will increase motivation and so productivity The ideas are got by holding frequent meetings with
workers where they discuss about problems and their
Inventory solutions
Advantages –
Why do businesses hold inventory? High productivity
To ensure enough inventory is available to satisfy Less space needed for production
demand, inventory levels must be controlled Work in progress is low
Inventory includes: Improved layout of factory may lead to combine jobs.
Raw materials This will reduce labor demand
Work in progress
Finished goods Just in Time
When inventory reaches a certain point, they must be
reordered to bring the inventory to max level. It involves eliminating the need to hold inventories
Inventory must be reordered before it gets too low Supplies arrive just at time they are needed
If inventory levels are high, costs of production will be Low storage costs
high and opportunity costs will also be high Quick sales
Quick money received
Lean production To operate in JIT, businesses need to have reliable
suppliers and an efficient ordering system
Variety of techniques to cut down wastes and raise
efficiency Cell Production
It tries to reduce production time
Types of wastes: This is where the production process is divided into
Transportation - when the goods are being moved separate units, each making an identifiable part of the
unnecessarily → fuel price, may get damaged good
Overproduction - leads to high storage costs and High motivation
possible damage to goods while in storage. Less chance of strike
Over processing - when sophisticated machines are High efficiency
being used to do simple tasks High boredom
Waiting
Motion - any action made by an employee that does
4.3. Methods of Production
not relate with the production of goods wastes time
Unnecessary inventory
3 main methods of production:

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Job Production – products made one at a time Features Benefits Limitations

Batch Production – a quantity (batch) of a product is Cars, drinks,
made, then a batch of another product is made electronics, any If machine breaks
Flow Production (mass) –large quantity of products Works 24/7, no
mass-made down, whole
made in a continuous process need for labor
products are made production stops
Job Production:
this way

Features Benefits Limitations No need for

moving goods
Often labor
Products are made Good for ‘one-off’ around (all made in
intensive,
specifically to order products the same place)
expensive
Meets exact
Each order is Production takes Factors influencing which production method to choose
requirements of
different longer Nature of product
customer
Size of market
Varied work, Nature of demand
Eg. bridges, ships,
increases Any errors made Technological changes
cakes, cinema,
employee are expensive to fix Automation – when equipment in factory is controlled
films, suits
motivation by a computer to do mechanical processes (i.e.,
Ability to charge Materials are more painting car). Only workers are to ensure it runs
higher prices expensive smoothly
No possibility of Mechanization – when production is done by
purchasing machines but operated by people. Used to do difficult,
economies of scale precise or dangerous tasks. Work 24/7, quicker and
more accurate.
Computer Aided Design (CAD) – software that helps
Batch Production:
design or re-style products quickly, allows technical
Features Benefits Limitations sketches to be very detailed
Similar products Flexible work, can Machines must be Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM) – when
are made in change products reset to do computers monitor production and control
machines/robots
batches easily different batches
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) – wen
Ex. bakery: makes Semi-finished
software that designs the products is integrated with
one type of bread, Gives some variety products may need
the machines that produce (CAM + CAD)
then one type cake, to worker’s jobs to be transported
Using technology keeps business ahead of
furniture, clothing around (+ cost)
competition, costs falling, prices falling and quality
Need space for rising
More variety, more stocks of raw
consumer choice material (high Electronic payments methods
storage costs)
High work in EPOS (electronic point of sale) – it is used at checkouts
progress inventory where barcodes are scanned and displayed on the
Expensive and time receipt. The inventory is automatically changed and
reordered when the reorder level is reached
taking
EFTPOS (electronic funds transfer point of sale) – it is
where an electronic cash register is connected to the
Flow Production:
retailer’s bank accounts and the money is directly
Features Benefits Limitations transferred when the shopper’s bank info is entered

Large quantities o a High output, capital

Very boring for New technology
product are intensive more
employees
produced efficient Advantages of new technology
Ingredients start at High productivity
High cost of
one end & flow to Higher training given
Costs are low inventory of output
the other end, Motivation rises as the quality of work increases
& raw materials
ready to be sold Higher job satisfaction
Better quality products
Customer demand will be, high sales

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High customer satisfaction As scale of production rises, LRAC fall

Brand loyalty They are factors that lead to a reduction in average costs
Quick communication as a business’s size increases
Low costs, high profits Types of economies of scale:
Disadvantages of new technology Purchasing economies -
High unemployment When a business buys in bulk, it tends to receive
Expensive discounts decreasing the price of each good
High risks Marketing / selling economies –
Low motivation When the company advertises for goods it will pay
Replacement and maintenance costs are high the same amount to advertise a greater number.
Therefore, when marketing for a higher output,
4.4. Costs and Scale of Production unit costs fall decreasing ATC
Financial economies –
Banks tend to lend to larger companies with low
Need to measure costs
rates of interest as they borrow high amounts and
So that it is compared with revenue and can be used to their collateral value is high
calculate profit/ loss Managerial economies –
To decide the price Large firms have opportunities to employ
Costs of buying raw materials, land can be compared specialists who will help reduce wastage, increase
Accurate cost info is very important to managers for efficiency and productivity
future planning and decision making Technical economies –
Large firms can use latest technologies which are
Business Costs efficient

Fixed (overhead) Costs (FC) - 4.6. Diseconomies of Scale (DEOS)

Costs which do not change with output in the short
run. As scale of production rises, LRAC rise
Also known as overheads or indirect costs They are factors that lead to an increase in average costs
Fixed Cost = Total cost – Variable cost as a business grows beyond a certain size
Examples of Fixed Costs: Types of diseconomies of scale:
Rent of factory: even if you produce lots of Poor communication
products, the rent price will be the same Low morale –
Insurance: you set the insurance cost before-hand Large businesses have many employees and are
Bank fees: bank fees are a set price; they don’t not everyone is connected to the top
change depending on the products produced management, reducing their motivation levels
Management Salaries: they are set regardless of Slow decision making –
production Large businesses have longer chains of command
Staff cost (Security) due to which info and instructions take long to
Variable Costs (VC) – reach the desired person, slowing communication,
Costs which vary directly with output slow decision making
Also known as direct costs
Variable cost = Total cost – Fixed cost
4.7. Break-Even Charts
Examples of Variable Cost:
Raw materials: the more you produce, the more
Break even charts show how costs and revenues of a
materials you need
business change with sales. They show the level of sales
Electricity & Gas: Energy is paid by use. if you are
the business must make in order to break even
producing more, more electricity is being used
Breakeven level of output indicates the minimum amount
Shipping cost: Making more products means you
of goods a business must produce in order to earn a
have to ship more items and shipping is paid by
profit
weight
The break-even point is where:
Total Cost – Fixed and variable costs combined
Total Cost = Sales Revenue
Average Cost (Per Unit) – total cost of production
Where the revenue line intersects the total cost
divided by the total output. Referred to as Unit
Breakeven point (BEP) = no profit, no loss
Cost
BEP = Total fixed cost / CONTRIBUTION PER UNIT
Contribution per unit = Selling price per unit - variable
4.5. Economies of Scale (EOS) cost per unit

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Sales revenue is the income of a business from sales of It establishes the brand image
goods or services in a period of time. It builds brand loyalty
To draw a break-even chart, you must include: It maintains a good reputation
Fixed Costs line It will help to increase sales
Variable Costs line Attracts more and new customers
Total Costs line If quality is not maintained, businesses will:
Sales Revenue line Lose customers to other brands/competitors
Anything before the break-even (BE) point is loss Have to replace faulty products or repeat poor service
Anything after the break-even (BE) point is profit which raises costs for business
‘y’ axis measures money amounts (cost & revenue) Have a bad reputation because people who had bad
‘x’ axis shows the number of units produced or sold experiences will tell other people, etc. Leads to lower
sales & revenue

Quality Control

Quality Control – Checking for quality at the end of the

production process, whether it is a product or a service.
Quality control is a traditional way to make sure that
products leave the factories with no defects
The jobs of people in quality control departments are to
Total cost is variable cost line starting from fixed cost take samples at regular intervals to check for errors.
If the total cost increases, then the BE point increases and If errors are found, the whole batch of production might
total cost’s line becomes steeper have to be redone.
If revenue increases, then revenue line becomes steeper Their job is also to prevent any production errors before
and so the break-even point decreases they happen during production, which will lead to money
Benefits of break-even charts: loss
Managers can read of the graph if the company Sometimes, businesses bring a mystery customer to test
expects profit or loss, and can see how much out the service to check if the quality is as expected
profit/loss the will have at any level of output Advantages of Quality Control:
They can attempt different scenarios and see the Eliminates faults/errors before the customer receives
impact it will have on the profit or loss of the product or service
business. It lets managers try out different Less training is required for the workers
possibilities to find out which one is the best. (i.e. Drawbacks of Quality Control:
increasing the selling price, increasing production) Expensive, as employees need to be paid to check the
It can be used to show the SAFETY MARGIN – the product or service
amount by which sales exceed the break-even point. Identifies the fault but not how and why it occurred so
For example: if a business’ break-even point is at 400 it is difficult to remove the problem
units and they’re producing 600 units, their safety Increased costs if products have to be scrapped or
margin is 600 – 400 = 200. reworked or service repeated
Limitations of break-even charts:
Break-even charts assume that all products made will Quality Assurance
be sold. It does not show the possibility that
inventories may build up if they are not sold Quality Assurance –checking for the quality standards
Fixed costs only stay the same if the scale of throughout the production process
production stays the same (doubling the output will It will make sure quality standards are set and then it will
also increase the fixed cost because they must need apply these quality standards throughout the business
bigger factory, more machinery, labour, etc) Advantages of Quality Assurance:
Break even charts assume that costs and revenues Eliminates faults/errors before the customer receives
can be drawn with straight lines, which doesn’t product or service
happen in real life. Fewer customer complaints
It assumes costs and revenue increase at a constant Reduced costs if products don’t have to be scrapped
rate or reworked or service repeated
Drawbacks of Quality Assurance:
Expensive to train employees to check products
4.8. Achieving Quality Production Relies on employees following instructions of the
standards set by company
Quality – to produce a good or a service which meets
customer expectations
Total Quality Management (TQM)
Quality is important for businesses because:

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Total Quality Management (TQM) – the continuous If goods and raw materials are very heavy then
improvement of products and processes by focusing on transportation costs will be high. Then a company
quality at each stage of production may want its factory to be located near the
Many companies use Total quality management. supplier.
It tries to “get it right the first time” and have no defects External economies of scale
It focuses on ensuring 100% that the customer is always When two firms support each other or work
satisfied. Customer is not just the final user, it also together, they will be able to respond quickly to
includes other people and departments within the any important decisions to be made or any
business breakdowns.
This means that quality needs to be maintained Availability of labour
throughout the business and no faults should occur. Every manufacturing business requires labour.
Advantages of total quality management: If a business requires only skilled labour then it
Quality is built into each part of the production. It will try and locate near a place where people with
becomes a habit for the employees various skills live.
Eliminates virtually all faults/errors before the If a business requires unskilled labour then it will
customers receives. be located in a place when wage rates are low and
No customer complaints so the brand image is unemployment is high.
improved Government influence
Waste is removed and efficiency increases which When a government wants to encourage
means less money is wasted (higher profits) businesses to locate in a particular area, it will
Drawbacks of total quality management offer state – funded grants, to encourage firms to
very expensive to train employees to check the move there
product or service at every stage of production High unemployed area, it may provide grants to
Relies on employees following the ideology of TQM businesses to locate there
Transport and communication
4.9. Location Decisions Businesses need to be closer to transport systems
Exported products, ability to reduce transport
Businesses look up for locations when: costs
New business Reduces time taken
Present location is unsatisfactory Power and water supply
Change in business aims and objectives Availability of power is very important
Expansion Some businesses need to have reliable power
Factors that influence the choice of location of a sources to continue production
MANUFACTURING business: Some production processes require a reliable
Production methods and location decisions water source
Production methods play a significant role in Climate
deciding the location of a business. Factors that influence the choice of location of a SERVICE
Job production – the business will be small and SECTOR business:
won’t have much effect on competitors there. Customers
Location of suppliers won’t have affect much on Services which require direct contact, must be
the business. Ex. A bakery located near the customers
If there is a large-scale production, then Services where personal contact isn’t required,
competitors in that area will be highly affected and location doesn’t affect
the business will prefer closer suppliers as raw Technology
materials will be in a huge amount and Technology has allowed e commerce so location
transportation costs maybe high if supplier is too doesn’t play a vital role
far. Personal preference of owners ⦁ Owners often decide
Market the business’s location
When a product is heavier than its raw materials, Availability of labour
then businesses decide to locate its factory near If a business is labour intensive it must locate in
the markets rather than the supplier as a business areas where labour is easily found like towns and
will find it much cheaper to do so. cities
Due to advances in transportation facilities the Climate
distances between factories and markets of heavy Near to other businesses
products doesn’t play a vital role. Some service/ businesses serve large companies
Perishable products need to be delivered quickly. and so should be able to reach them immediately,
Raw materials/ components therefore they must locate closer to them
Rent/ taxes

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If services don’t require personal contact, they can subsidies, lower taxes. They may do this to provide
locate in places with lower rents and tax rates new skills and increase employment
Factors that influence the choice of location of a Trade and tariff barriers – If trade barriers are high,
RETAILING business: the business’s chance of locating there would reduce
Shoppers costs
Retailers want popular areas as they attract
customers
It depends on the type of product 5. Financial information and
Expensive – place where high income people live
or visit regularly decisions
Nearby shops
Being located near a shop which is frequently 5.1. What does a finance department
visited means people may shop in between while
visiting other shops do?
A place with high competition attracts more
customers as they have greater choice Record financial transactions
Customer parking availability/ nearby Prepare final accounts
Convenient and nearby parking lots will encourage Cash flow forecast
people to visit your shop Make important decisions
Availability of suitable vacant premises Provide info to managers
If proper location isn’t available, a company can’t
locate there 5.2. Why does a business need finance?
Access of delivery vehicle
Businesses try to find places near transport Finance is money which is needed to meet the day – to –
businesses to gain easy access to delivery vehicles day expenses of a business. This is known as capital.
Rent/ taxes Capital is needed for:
Popular area, high demand, high rent Starting up a business
Less popular, low demand, low rent Capital which is needed to buy the factors of
Security production and inventories so that a firm can
A place prone to theft may reduce a business’s begin trading. It is known as startup capital.
chances to locate there Expansion
Insurance companies may not insurance such The amt needed to expand a firm. It can be done
companies by: additional assets, takeover/ merger, new
Legislation products, new markets.
Some countries may have laws restricting trade in Increase working capital
some parts It is known as the life blood of the business.
Factors influencing decision of which country to locate It is divided into:
operations in: Capital expenditure: money spent on non –
New market overseas - when a business sees an current assets.
increase in sales overseas, it may decide to Revenue expenditure: money spent on day to
move/relocate there, instead of transporting products day, recurring expenses.
there There are 2 types of finance needs:
Cheaper Source of material – if the raw material runs Short-Term Finance Needs: Finance needs to pay
out, the business must either bring in alternative things that last less than a year, (working capital) -
supplies from somewhere else or relocate to new includes wages, rent
country with these raw materials, it also might be Long-term Finance Needs: long term investments
cheaper than transporting it (that last more than 1 year). Money to buy Fixed
Difficulties with the labour force and wage costs – if Assets (i.e., buildings)
business is located in country where wages keep
rising, business may decide it is more profitable to
5.3. Sources of Finance
relocate to country where wages are lower
Rents/taxes considerations – if other costs such as The main sources of capital include:
rent or taxes increase, this might cause business to
Internal Sources – Obtained by business itself
relocate to countries where it is lower External Sources – Obtained from outside business
Availability of government grants and other incentives
- If governments want to increase foreign investment Internal sources of finance
and job opportunities, then they will provide grants,
Retained profits –

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Profit left in the business after shares are distributed. Micro finance –
Also known as ploughed back profits. Mostly banks don’t give loans to poor people
Doesn’t have to be repaid Special institutions have been set up which lend poor
Doesn’t incur interest people
New business can’t use it High interest rates
Small firms won’t be able to gain enough money Greater risk for the lender
Reduces owners’ payments
Sale of existing assets – Short term VS long term sources
Assets not needed can be sold to earn money.
Better use of unwanted capital Short term
Doesn’t increase debts of a business
Overdrafts –
Takes time
The bank gives the business the right to overdraw
Not available for new firms
their bank account
Could have been used during expansion
Flexible form of borrowing – varies each month
Sale of inventories –
High interest
Reduces opportunity cost
Cheaper than loans in short run
Reduces storage costs
Variable interest rates
May disappoint customers if sudden change in
Bank may ask the repayment with a short notice
demand is not met
Trade credit –
Owner’s savings –
It is when businesses delay the payments to suppliers
Quick availability
Interest free loan
No interest is paid
Reduces cash outflows in the short run
Savings may be low
May not provide discounts
Increases risks of owners
Factoring of debts
External sources of finance Long term

Issue of shares – Bank loans –

Permanent source of capital They are payable over a fixed time period
Doesn’t need to be paid back Hire purchase –
No interest It allows a business to buy a fixed asset over a long
Shareholders expect dividends period of time with monthly payments which include
Ownership of the company may get shared interest
Bank loans - Doesn’t have to find a large cash sum to purchase the
A sum of money obtained from a bank which must be asset
repaid with interest Cash deposit is paid at the start of the month
Quick, easy to arrange High interest rates
Available for varying length of time Leasing –
Large companies receive low interest rates if large It allows a firm to use an asset but doesn’t have to
sums are taken purchase it
Must be repaid with interest Doesn’t have to find a large cash sum to purchase the
Collateral security must be given asset
Selling debentures – Maintenance is taken care by leasing company
Debentures a certificate that is issued to a debenture High costs
holder for the money they lent which has to be repaid Issue of shares –
within a span of 20 – 25 years. Only available to limited companies
Long term finance Long term loans or debt finance
High interest Debentures
Factoring of debts –
Debt factors are specialist agencies that buy the Factors when choosing source of finance
claims on debtors of firms for immediate cash.
Availability of immediate cash The main factors considered in making financial choice:
The risk of collecting the debtors becomes the factors Size of business & Legal Form (type of business):
not the business’s Public limited companies have larger choice of
Firm doesn’t receive 100% amount sources of finance because they pay less interest (less
Grants and subsidies – risk)
Don’t have to be repaid Amount of capital required: if you need just a little
Given with strings attached money you won’t issue new shares

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Purpose of capital & time period: The general rule is Cash flow forecasts are just little charts with values
that the finance source should match the finance comparing 2 different time periods (months/years etc.)
need: Net Cash Flow – The difference between the cash inflow
If use of capital is long-term, source should be long- and outflow (inflow – outflow)
term (same with short term)
Existing Loans (risk and gearing ratio): if a business
already took out lots of loans, banks will think it is too
risky to finance

5.4. Cash-Flow Forecasting & Working Uses of cash flow forecast

Capital
Cash flow forecasts are useful because:
Cash is a Liquid Asset – it can be immediately available to Starting up a business
spend on goods & services The first few months are very crucial to every
Cash Flow – the cash inflows (money received by business as owners don’t realise the amount of
business) & outflows (money paid) over a period of time cash needed due to which they fail
Businesses need to spend to labour, land, and
Cash inflow – money coming in the business
Sale of goods capital. They even have to advertise and promote
Sale of assets extensively
Payments to debtors Many owners don’t understand the importance of
Borrowing money cash flow in a business due to which they fail.
Investors Keeping the bank manager informed
A cash flow forecast will help a business receive a
Cash outflow – money going out of the business
Purchase of goods loan
Purchase of noncurrent assets The bank manager needs to be aware when the
Payments of salaries amt is needed, for how long, when it will be repaid
Repaying loans Managing an existing business
Trade payables A cash flow forecast will help a business receive a
loan
Cash flow cycle The bank manager needs to be aware when the
amt is needed, for how long, when it will be repaid
It shows the stages between paying out cash and Managing cash flow
receiving cash Businesses with high bank balance can use their
Stages: ⦁ Cash needed to pay for cash effectively in other areas
Materials, wages
Goods produced How to overcome cash flow problems?
Goods sold
Cash received Short term solutions
Larger it takes for the cash flow cycle to be completed the Increasing bank loans will inject more cash into the
greater should be the working capital
business but both interest and loan will have to be paid
Cash flow is not the same as profit
Delaying payments to suppliers will decrease cash
Profit consists of goods sold on credit whereas cash flow
outflows in the short run but supplier may refuse to
is the amount of cash sales a business made in a month.
provide discounts or supply
When profitable businesses run out of cash it is known as Reducing credit period may help a business increase
insolvency.
short term cash inflows but customers may switch to
Due to:
competitors
Overtrading
Delaying purchase of fixed assets will reduce cash
Long credit time
outflows but in the long run a company may lack
Less credit time received
efficiency as they don’t have up – to date technology
Many fixed assets purchased
Long term solutions
Cash flow forecast
Attracting new investors
Cash-Flow Forecast – an estimate of future cash inflows Cutting costs and increasing efficiency using lean
and outflows. production
A cash-flow forecast shows the expected cash balance at Develop new products
the end of each month:

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20,000 in cash to pay costs.

5.5. Working Capital
Credits can vary from a week to a year, it is ‘promised’
It is the capital available to a business in the short run to cash but not physical, and can’t pay for costs.
So, in this case, if the business makes 40,000, and the
pay for day – to – day expenses
costs are 15,000 it will make 25,000 in gross profit
Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities (theoretical profit), but only 5,000 in net profit

It is the life blood of the business Understanding Income Statements

It assists in identifying the credit reputation of a business
Working capital can be in the form of: A business account that records all the incomes of a
Cash business and all the cost payed over a year – to see if it is
Value of debtors making profit.
Value of inventory It will be used by managers, banks and other investors to
Overall success depends on the working capital position see if a business is making profit:
Working capital should be handled properly because it To compare with previous years - if it is greater than
shows investors & banks how efficient a business is and the year before
its financial strength To see if it is higher than competitors
The main features of an income statement include:
5.6. Income Statements Revenue
Costs
Accounts are the financial records of a firm’s transactions Gross Profit – the profit made after costs of goods
Accountants are professionally qualifying people who sold are taken away from sales revenue
have responsibility of keeping accurate accounts and Net Profit (AKA ‘Profit’) – the profit made after taking
producing final accounts away all expenses and overhead costs (other
Final accounts are produced at the end of financial year expenses)
and give details about the profit/ loss made over the year Retained Profit – the net profit after taking away taxes
and the worth of the business and payments to owners – which is reinvested back
Profit is the money left over after total costs have been into the business
subtracted from the sales revenue.
Profit type Equation
The simple equation for profit:
Profit = Sales revenue – total costs GROSS PROFIT Sales Revenue – Costs of goods sold
Profit can be made by: Gross Profit – Overhead Costs
NET PROFIT
Increasing the sales revenue, so that it is higher than (wages, electricity, rent, marketing)
the production costs RETAINED PROFIT Net Profit – (tax + dividends)
Reducing the production costs
Income statements are very important in decision making
Importance of profits in a business
If a business is thinking to relocate a factory, they will
Profit is very important, especially for the private sector
make a forecast income statement in both locations and
companies (not owned by government)
compare
Reward for enterprise
Entrepreneurs have special qualities and they must
earn reward for that 5.7. Statement of Financial Position
Reward for risk taking
Shareholders and investors take risks when they Statement of Financial Position – a document that shows
provide capital, profits act as a reward for those risks the value of the business’ assets and liabilities in a point
Payments act as incentives to invest more and make in time
the business profitable Assets – Items of value owned by a business
Source of finance Liabilities – Debts owed by business
Profits after payments can be used to fund expansion There are 2 types of assets:
Current Assets – (Short-term Assets) Items owned by
Indicator of success
Profits show that investing can be profitable but business for less than 1 year i.e. Raw material, cash
losses show that investment must not be made Non-Current Assets – (Long-term Assets) Items owned
Profit ≠ Cash by business for more than 1 year i.e. Buildings, land,
Profit can be in the form of cash, but it can also be in the company cars
form of credit (customers will pay later) There are also 2 types of liabilities:
Current Liabilities – (Short Term Liabilities) Debts
If a company makes 40,000 in sales, but only 20,000 is in
cash and the other 20k is in credit. The business only has owed by business for less than 1 year i.e. Bank

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overdrafts, wages Profitability Ratios:

Non-Current Liabilities – (Long Term Liabilities) Debts Gross Profit Margin (%) – how good a company is at
owed by business for more than 1 year i.e. Long-term converting sales into gross profit. A percentage GPM
bank loans, creditors (money that business owes to (%) = 100 × Gross Profit / Sales Revenue
suppliers) Net Profit Margin (%) – how good a company is at
The Total Equity (AKA Shareholders’ funds) is how much a converting sales into net profit. A percentage NPM (%)
business is worth. (only for Limited companies) = 100 × Net Profit / Sales Revenue
Shareholders’ Funds = Total Assets – Total Liabilities Return on capital employed – how profitable a
The shareholders’ funds is the total amount of money company is compared to the amount of money used
invested in a business by the shareholders/owners RoCE (%) = 100 × Net Profit / Capital Employed
If the total equity of a business has increased/fallen, the One profitability ratio isn’t useful by itself. You need to
shareholder’s stake of the company will be worth use all the profitability ratios and compare it with
more/less, respectively previous years of the business.
Liquidity Ratios:
Format of SOFP Current Ratio – how good a company is to pay off its
Fixed assets xxx current liabilities with its current assets Current Ratio
Current assets xxx = Current Assets / Current Liabilities
Total assets xxx Acid Test Ratio – measures the ability of a company to
pay off its liabilities without depending on the sales of
Non current liabilities xxx current assets−inventories
inventory Acid Test Ratio = currentliabilities ​

Current liabilities xxx The acid test ratio is used to measure if a business is
Equity: likely to survive in the future
Share capital xxx The good and bad values of these ratios:
Profit/loss account xxx
Gross Profit Margin (%) No exact value, you must
Total liabilities + equity xxx compare with: Competitor
Net Profit Margin (%)
businesses, previous years, the
From the statement of financial position, you can ROCE (%) targets set by the business
calculate the Working Capital.
Current Ratio Should be above 1.5 to be safe
Working Capital = Current Assets - Current Liabilities
You can also calculate the Capital Employed – the long- Should be above 1, unless you
term capital invested in a business are dealing with cash sales in
Acid Test Ratio
Capital Employed = Non-Current Assets + Total Equity which it can be above 0.75 (cash
Total Equity = Shareholders’ funds is liquid - pays of liabilities easily)

Interpreting balance sheets Having lots of stock may mean that the company might
be illiquid because inventories are hard to convert to cash
Shareholders can see the value of their stake easily
They can analyze how expansion is paid for Liquidity is very important for a business:
Working capital can be calculated If they can’t convert their assets into cash, they won’t
Working capital = current assets – current liabilities be able to pay their suppliers (current liabilities)
Capital employed can be calculated Not paying suppliers will force them to stop trading to
Capital employed = shareholders’ funds + noncurrent pay back their debts
liabilities
Calculate ratios 5.9. Users of accounting information
5.8. Analysis of Accounts Managers
They will have access to much detailed and frequent
Using all of the documents and information from cash accounting information
flow forecasts, balance sheets and income statements They will help them keep control over the
you can rate the performance of a business performance of each product
Analysis of accounts is interpreting these They will be able to identify which business aspect is
accounts/documents to see how a business is doing doing well and which has a poor performance
To rate a company’s performance, you can use 5 ratios Help decision making
There are 2 types of ratios: Ratios are a quick way for managers to compare their
Profitability Ratios – how profitable a business is ratios with other businesses and previous accounts
Liquidity Ratios – how able a business is to pay its Shareholders
short-term debts (current liabilities)

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Shareholders and potential investors want to know Low inflation

how big profit/ loss the company has made
They will want to check the profitability and liquidity Inflation – The increase of average prices of goods &
ratios and to decide whether shareholders have to services
buy more shares or not Rapid inflation may lead to:
They will want to know the worth of the business A fall in value of money, fall in real incomes
Creditors/ trade payable Wage price spiral
It will indicate the total value of debts the business Fall in international competitiveness as prices will be
has to pay back high
The cash position of the business Businesses may not want to expand and create jobs
Liquidity ratios indicate the ability of the company to Living standards will fall
pay back its debts Low inflation rates will act as an incentive for firms to
Banks produce and encourage them to expand
Risk of illiquid, no lending
Government Low unemployment
To check the tax revenue, whether the firms are
paying the right taxes When people want to and have the ability to work but
Workers and trade unions can’t work, then they are said to be unemployed
They will have to want to access whether the future of Unemployed people don’t produce goods and services,
the company is secure or not output of the country will be lower
Access the profits to help unions improve wages and It involves an opportunity cost as government has to pays
working conditions of employees greater unemployment benefits which could be used
Other businesses – competitors improve education and reduce living standards
The managers will compare their profitability and
liquidity with other business Economic growth

Limitations of accounting records and ratio If an economy’s total output rises, it is said to be
experiencing economic growth
analysis
GDP is the total value of goods and services produced in
Managers have access to all accounts data, external users an economy
don’t have all information Economic growth may cause employment to rise,
Ratios are based on past accounting data, may not increasing living standards and reducing poverty
indicate future performance A fall in GDP can lead to:
Accounting data over time will be affected by inflation Unemployment
Different companies may use different ways of Fall in average living standards, as poverty rises
accounting Less investment
Economies go through the ‘Business Cycle’:

6. External influences on
business activity
6.1. Government Economic Policies &
Objectives
Governments want 4 main economic objectives:
Low Inflation: Low prices of goods & services, so
people will buy more, more money in economy
Low Unemployment: High % of people working so
Growth: GDP is rising, unemployment falling,
that they don’t rely on government funds
businesses succeeding & higher living standards
Economic Growth: growth of the GDP (Gross Domestic
Boom: Higher living standards so people start
Product) of a country – more goods and services being
spending more money, so prices increase – business
produced and sold
costs will also rise
Balance of payment (of Imports & Exports): the
Recession: people become uncertain about their jobs
difference between the imports and the exports of a
so they don’t spend money. Many workers lose their
country balance out (BoP = Exports – Imports)
jobs because of lack of demand & profit in a business

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Slump – A long-term, serious recession: How it affects

Unemployment will be very high, GDP has decreased Tax What it is business
a lot and many businesses will not survive and go activity
bankrupt
People have
less
Balance of Payments
disposable
income
Balance of payments is a record of one country’s financial Tax on people’s incomes
(money after
transactions internationally – \n You can either have a
tax). They
Governments will aim for equality in balance of payments set tax (i.e. 20% of
Income tax (direct would have
that is exports equal imports income)
tax) less money
Higher imports than exports lead to budget deficit orProgressive income tax,
to spend on
Higher exports than imports lead to budget surplus where richer people pay
goods or
Problems of budget deficit: - higher taxes.
Government can run out of foreign currency reserves services.
and will have to borrow
Businesses
Exchange rate depreciates – the price of our currency have less
falls as compared to the other currency revenue.
If tax rates
increase:
6.2. Government Economic Policies
Harder for a
business to
There are 3 main ways governments can influence the
expand (less
economy (AKA economic policies):
profit) less
Government expenditure Tax on profits made by
Profits Tax (direct money to
Changing tax rates businesses (a set
tax) reinvest back
Interest Rates percentage)
into
Government Expenditure is how the government spends
business,
the money made from taxes. It is usually spent on
education, defense, healthcare, public transport, etc.… Fewer people
Companies that are involved in these markets/sectors will start
above will benefit. i.e. a bus manufacturing company will their own
benefit if government spends more on public transport
business
Spending more on these markets will boost economy in a Prices of
country (more jobs created, more demand) goods will
There are 2 types of taxes: increase so
Tax added to prices of
Direct Taxes – taxes paid directly from incomes (of less people
Indirect Tax (VAT) goods & services (varies
individuals as wages or as business as revenue) will buy them
within types of products)
Indirect Taxes – VAT, taxes added to prices of goods – Less
Out of these 2 types, there are 4 common taxes that demand for a
affect business activity: business

How it affects
Tax What it is business
activity

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How it affects Business activity can impact the environment in many

Tax What it is business different ways, including:
activity Air pollution made by factories & transportation
Water & land pollution from improper waste disposal
Local
Increase carbon emissions – global warming
businesses
Most business decisions lead to benefits and costs. There
will have
are private and external benefits and costs
more
Private costs & benefits are costs that a business pays for,
demand
and the benefits the business gains
because
External Costs – costs paid by society, rather than the
there less
Tax on imported goods business (as a result of business decision)
imported
from other countries. \n External Benefits – gains to society, rather than the
goods,
Import Tariffs & Import Quota is business (as a result of business decision)
Importing
Quotas (indirect) a physical limit to the The possible external costs and benefits of a business
raw materials
amount of products that decision might include:
from abroad
can be imported.
will be much External Costs External Benefits
more
Environment is harmed from Jobs are created, economy is
expensive –
waste products boosted
products will
be more Pollution may damage the Other companies might move
expensive – health of people in, more services
sell less Less energy Better infrastructure
Increased traffic Better living standards
6.3. Interest Rates
these externalities change depending on the decision.
The interest rate is the amount charged for borrowing Sustainable development – development that does not
money from a bank compromise the living standards of future generations
In most countries, the interest rates are fixed by the Businesses can contribute to sustainable development by
government doing 4 main things:
the % of the interest rate is called the monetary policy
1. Using renewable energy (wind, solar)
The effects to business activity due to having higher
2. Recycling & reusing their waste
interest rates include: 3. Using less natural resources (lean production)
Less profit for companies that already took out a loan
4. Developing environmentally friendly products &
- less/slower expansion of a business.
packaging (i.e. biodegradable packaging)
Entrepreneurs thinking of starting business might not
be able to afford to take out a loan People & consumers pressure companies to think more
If consumer loans (i.e. mortgages) increase, people environmentally. There are many reasons and ways
will have less disposable income – less demand for businesses give the environment a higher priority:
goods Pressure groups - a group of people who want to change
Higher exchange rates of currency policies/decisions of businesses or the government.
Businesses might respond to all of these policies by: Pressure groups acting on unethical decisions made by a
business will lead to a consumer boycott - consumers not
Policy Business Response buying their products
Lowering production costs to Environmentally friendly businesses can use the fact that
Higher income tax be able to sell goods for lower they are environmental as a marketing advantage
prices
Focusing on the domestic How and why it
Type of pressure What it is
market, Buying materials from responds
Higher tariffs (on imports)
local companies rather than
from companies abroad
Reduce investment for business
growth, Lower prices of goods
Higher interest rates
for consumers, Sell assets for
cash to reduce loans

6.4. Environmental & Ethical Issues

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How and why it Benefits Disadvantages

Type of pressure What it is
responds Easier to find workers
a group of people
who want to
6.5. Business and the International
change policies /
Lots of public
decisions of Economy
support, Very bad
businessesThey
Pressure group brand image & Globalization –the world becoming more interconnected
lead to consumer
reputation, Loss in leading to increasing worldwide trade & people moving
boycotts -
sales
consumers not The reasons for globalization include:
buying their More Free-Trade Agreements – imports/exports
products between countries that pay no tariffs
Government Easier, cheaper and faster transportation between
Laws passed by making certain It is more expensive countries
Government activities illegal (i.e. to manufacture E-commerce allows products to be bought from all
over the world
dumping waste)
Industrializing countries (i.e. India & China) can
If a business
produce products at very low prices
produces more
pollution than the Costs of business The opportunities and threats of globalization to a
Fines
government allows, increase business include:
they pay heavy
fines. Opportunities Threats
Increasing foreign
Governments sell ‘permits’ to companies that allow it to Businesses can sell abroad, competitors importing their
pollute the environment up to a certain level increasing sales products, leading to less sales
Firms that pollute less than the government allows, can (& profit)
sell their permit to companies that pollute more Opening factories or offices
This motivates businesses to pollute less, to earn money Workers in home country
abroad – can be cheaper to
Ethics – “doing the right thing” - the moral principles might leave for higher wages
produce, but it is expensive
Most businesses have to face many ethical decisions, they in other countries
to set up
have to decide whether to act ethically or have higher
Importing materials from More foreign companies set
profits
abroad – can be cheaper but up operations in the home
Unethical decisions include:
transport costs can be too country of the business,
Employing child workers, even though it might not be
high more competition
illegal in some countries
Buying supplies that lead to damage of the Importing goods from abroad
environment and selling it in home country
Paying managers large bonuses while having their
workers in minimum wage & poor conditions Sometimes governments introduce import tariffs and
Offering bribes to people to gain information quotas to protect local businesses – this is called
Different companies have different ethical standards Protectionism
because people have different moral codes They believe that by reducing the number of foreign
Businesses may respond to ethical issues by following competitors and goods (that would have much lower
their moral code and “doing the right thing” prices), there will be less unemployment and higher
These decisions have benefits and disadvantages: incomes
However, by doing this, it is harder for local businesses to
Benefits Disadvantages import materials and export their goods abroad
Consumers appreciate the
efforts made by the company
Higher costs of production 6.6. Multinational Companies (MNCs)
and so they buy more from
them Multinational Company = Transnational Company
Higher prices – might lead to A multinational company is a company that has factories
Creates good publicity or service operations in more than one country
less demand
In some places families It is not just selling products abroad, it is having
Less risk of lawsuits depend on their children to operations abroad
earn money The benefits of a business becoming international:

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Benefits to the business Benefits to the country (i.e. 1€ = 1.2$ → 1€ = 1.1$) – it can buy less of another
Producing goods at lower currency
Jobs are created The exchange rate of a currency is influenced by 2 things:
costs
Demand for the currency: if many people want to buy
Investments in development
Closer to resources (i.e. oil) the currency the price will increase because there is a
of infrastructure in country
‘limited’ number of currency (appreciate)
Closer to market More exports Supply of currency: if the central bank prints more
Avoid expensive taxes of money, the supply increases but the demand is still
import of goods (i.e. Korean Tax – more money to the same so the value is lower (depreciation)
cars (KIA) being produced in government Exchange rates can affect businesses by:
EU to benefit from free trade)
Spread risks (if there are low If it Appreciates: If it Depreciates:
Increased product choice for
sales in one country and high Import prices rise: your
consumers Import prices fall: since your
sales in another) currency is worth less so you
currency can buy more of the
need more to buy other
other currency
However, there are potential drawbacks to the country: currencies
Less sales for local businesses, might go bankrupt Export prices rise: your Export prices fall: it is worth
‘Repatriation of profits’ – profits are sent back to currency is worth more so it less so other currencies can
home country and doesn’t benefit country located is more expensive for other buy your currency for les of
Business has lots of influence on government – they currencies to buy it theirs
can threaten to leave the country
They can use up scarce resources in the country This means that if the currency Appreciates:
The product’s price in other countries will increase
6.7. Exchange Rates Business will make more profit
Business can lower the price and still make the same
Exchange Rate – the price of one currency in terms of amount of money as before – it is more competitive
another currency
If the currency depreciates:
For example, 1 Euro is equivalent to 1.2 Dollars
Currency Appreciation – when the value of a currency The products price in other countries will decrease
less profit will be made
increases (i.e. 1€ = 1.2$ → 1€ = 1.7$) - it can buy more of
Business needs to raise the price to make the same
another currency
amount of money as before – less competitive
Currency Depreciation – when the value of a currency
decreases

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Business Studies (0450)

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
CHEMISTRY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY

Boiling Evaporation

1. States of Matter happens at a set temperature

occurs at any temperature
below the boiling point and
called the boiling point above the freezing point
1.1. Solids, Liquids and Gases (liquid)
occurs throughout the liquid only occurs at the surface
States of Matter are the different forms in which matter
relatively faster process a slow process
can exist
The three states of matter are: Solid, Liquids and Gases
Condensation
Properties of Solid, Liquid and Gases
Condensation is the process by which a gas converts into a
liquid. It happens at the same temperature as the boiling
Solids Liquids Gases
point.
take the shape take the shape
have a definite
Shape of their of their As temperature decreases, the energy of particles will
shape
container container decrease, making it move more slowly.
moderate to Condensation and Freezing are both energy-given out
Density high low
high reactions.
don’t have a
have a fixed have a fixed fixed volume - Freezing, Melting and Sublimation
Volume
volume volume expand to fill
1. Melting is the process in which a solid converts to a
the container
liquid. It happens at a set temperature called the
non-fluid in melting point.
Fluidity fluid in nature fluid in nature
nature 2. Freezing is the process in which a liquid converts to a
closely packed solid. It happens at the same temperature as the
closely packed
together, presence of melting point.
together, with
Particle barely any large, inter- 3. Sublimation occurs when a solid has enough energy to
barely any
Space inter- molecular convert into a gas or gas converted into a solid.
inter-
molecular spaces
molecular
spaces 1.3. Cooling and Heating Curves
particles are
immobile; particles are Cooling Curves
particles can
Particular however, they mobile and
move past one
Movement can vibrate move 1. On cooling, the particles of a gas move slower and
another
about their randomly slower and the gas contracts
fixed positions 2. The particles are now closer together, and inter-
particles are molecular bonds start to form between them once the
particles are particles are
Particular arranged condensation point is reached
arranged arranged
Arrangement regularly in a 3. The temperature of the substance stops falling; the
irregularly irregularly energy released by bond formation cancels out the
lattice
energy lost due to cooling
4. Once all the gas has turned into liquid, the
1.2. Changes of States temperature starts to fall again, and the liquid begins
to contract until the freezing point is reached
Boiling and Evaporation 5. At the freezing point, inter-molecular bonds between
the liquid molecules start to develop to form a solid
Boiling and Evaporation are both endothermic processes:
6. At the freezing point, the temperature remains
Boiling and Evaporation are processes which involve the constant until all of the liquid has solidified since the
conversion of a liquid into a gas. energy released due to bond formation cancels out
the energy lost due to cooling
Both processes allow molecules to move further apart
from each other.
The following curve is obtained if this phenomenon is plotted -
the cooling curve:
Boiling Evaporation

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Heating Curves 1.4. Effects of Temperature and

Pressure on Gas
1. On heating, the particles of a solid start to vibrate
faster and faster in their mean positions, and the solid
Gases are compressible. By changing the pressure acting on
begins to expand
them, their volume may be influenced.
2. Once the melting point is reached, the inter-molecular
bonds between the particles begin to breakdown 1. An increase in external pressure produces a
3. The temperature of the substance at this point contraction (decrease) in volume. The gas is said to be
remains constant until all the solid has turned into a compressed.
liquid because the energy received by the system is 2. A fall in external pressure produces an expansion
cancelled out by the energy used to break (increase) in volume. The gas is said to be
intermolecular bonds decompressed.
4. Once all the solid has turned to liquid, the temperature
starts to rise again, and the liquid begins to expand The volume of gases may also be influenced by temperature.
until the boiling point is reached The temperature of a gas affects its internal pressure and,
5. At the boiling point, the intermolecular bonds between thereby, its volume.
the liquid molecules start to break down to form gas
1. When temperature increases, the gas molecules have
6. At the boiling point, the temperature of the substance
increased kinetic energy and hit the walls of their
remains constant until all of the liquid has vaporised
container more often and with greater force. This
since the energy absorbed by the substance is
causes an increase in internal pressure and an
cancelled by the energy used for the breakdown of
increase in volume.
intermolecular bonds
2. When the temperature decreases, the gas molecules
The following curve is obtained if this phenomenon is plotted - have decreased kinetic energy and hit the walls of
the heating curve: their container less often and with attenuated force.
This causes a decrease in internal pressure and a
decrease in volume.

1.5. Diffusion
Diffusion: the net movement of particles from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower concentration as a
result of their random movement until equilibrium is reached.

The rate of diffusion is most rapid in gases > liquids >

solids.

1.6. Effect of Relative Molecular Mass in

Diffusion

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The rate at which gases diffuse differs and depends on The atom is mostly space with a positively charged
the gas molecules' mass. nucleus consisting of protons and neutrons in the centre
At the same temperature, molecules with a lower mass and electrons in the space around the nucleus (held
move faster on average than those with a higher mass. together by the electrostatic force of attraction between
them and the positively charged nucleus)
The HCL and NH3 Experiment The characteristics of neutrons, protons and electrons are
as follows:
The experiment involved placing a cotton wool plug soaked in
hydrochloric acid (HCl) at one end of a glass tube and a Subatomic particle Relative Mass Relative Charge
cotton wool plug soaked in ammonia (NH3) at the other. Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
The tube was left undisturbed for some time, during which
Electron 1/1840 -1
the gases diffused towards each other. The diffusion rate was
measured by observing the distance travelled by each gas
Since electrons and protons have opposing and equal
after a fixed time. It was found that ammonia, with a lower
charges, the atom’s overall charge is neutral.
molecular mass, diffused faster than hydrochloric acid, which
Neutrons have the purpose of holding the nucleus
has a higher molecular mass.
together. The larger the nucleus gets, the more are the
neutrons required to hold the nucleus together
Conclusion: Ammonia has a smaller Mr than hydrochloric
acid, so ammonia has a greater rate of diffusion. Therefore,
the white ring of ammonium chloride forms near the
hydrochloric acid.

2.3. Proton and Nucleon Number

The Proton Number (Atomic Number) is the number of

2. Atoms, Elements and protons in the nucleus of an atom.

It is unique to each element. It is denoted by the letter “Z”.

Compounds For a neutral atom, the number of protons and electrons

are equal; therefore, the proton number (Z) also
corresponds to the number of electrons.
Atom: The smallest particle of matter made of protons, The Nucleon Number (Mass Number) is the total number
neutrons and electrons of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
The following format is shown below:
2.1. Elements, Compounds and
Mixtures
Elements: Group of atoms that share the SAME number of
protons. It cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical methods.
Compounds: Two or more elements chemically bonded
together.
Mixtures: Two or more elements not chemically bonded
together.

2.2. Atomic Structure

2.4. Electronic Configurations of
An atom comprises three subatomic particles: protons,
neutrons and electrons. Elements & Ions

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Atoms have electrons that orbit around a central nucleus, and

2.7. Ions and Ionic Bonds
these orbits are referred to as electron shells.

The energy levels of the shells increase as their distance Cations: Positive Ions
from the nucleus increases. Anions: Negative Ions
The first shell has a max capacity of 2 electrons, while the Ionic Bonds: strong electrostatic attraction between
subsequent shell can hold up to 8. oppositely charged ions (metals + non-metals)

For this syllabus, we only need to know the general full Ionic Compounds Dot and Cross Diagram
electronic configuration as (2.8.8)
(a) Group VIII noble gases have a full outer shell
(b) the number of outer shell electrons is equal to the group
number in Groups I to VII
(c) the number of occupied electron shells is equal to the
period number

2.5. Isotopes
Isotopes: different atoms of the same element that have the
same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

The isotopes of an element have the same chemical

properties because they contain the same number of Typical ionic compounds are usually giant lattice structures
outer shell electrons and therefore have the same with a regular arrangement of alternating positive and
electronic configuration. negative ions.
Radioisotopes: certain isotopes such as Carbon-14 and
Using an X and a dot in your drawings will help
Tritium have a nucleus so heavy that they are radioactive
differentiate the two ions.
in nature. Their nucleus is unstable and breaks up
spontaneously.

2.6. Relative Atomic Masses

Most elements exist naturally as a mixture of their
isotopes. Using the data on the abundance of these
naturally occurring isotopes, we can calculate the mass
relative atomic mass of the element.
NOTE: for all purposes, the mass numbers of elements
have been rounded off to the nearest whole number;
however, only Chlorine is used with its actual mass
number of 35.5. This is for the sake of simplicity of
Properties of Ionic Compound
calculation
An example for calculating the relative mass and 1. High Boiling and Melting Point: A lot of energy is
abundance: needed to overcome the strong electrostatic forces
between oppositely charged ions
2. Good Electrical Conductivity when molten or aqueous:
As the charges flow, ions can move freely in an
aqueous/molten state.
Ions are not free to move when solid state, as the
charges cannot flow.
3. Ionic Compounds are soluble in water: The positive
and negative ions are attracted to water.
4. Solid in Room Temperature: Regular arrangement of
ions in a lattice with ions of opposite charges next to
each other

Other Properties of Ionic Compound

1. Brittle

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2. Low Volatility

2.8. Simple Molecules and Covalent

Bonds
Covalent Bonding: Pairs of electrons shared between two
atoms leading to noble gas electronic configuration (2.8.8)

Covalent Bonds Dot and Cross Diagram

Different Types of Covalent Bonds

1. Single Bonds - e.g., Chlorine

2. Double Bonds - e.g., Carbon Dioxide
3. Triple Bonds - e.g., Nitrogen

Properties of Covalent Compound

1. The intermolecular forces in covalent compounds are

weak but have strong covalent bonds.
2. Covalent Compounds have low melting and boiling
point. They require less energy to break the weak
intermolecular forces (same as attractive forces).
3. Poor Electrical Conductivity - No free electrons or ions
present to carry an electrical current

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2. High Melting and Boiling Points - Strong covalent

2.9. Giant Covalent Structures
bonds within the layers (but the layers are attracted to
Giant Covalent (Macromolecular) Structures: solids with very each other by weak intermolecular forces)
3. Contains Delocalised/Free Moving Electrons
high melting points, where all the atoms are made of pure
4. It can be scratched easily
carbon.
5. Opaque/Black
6. Can conduct electricity due to free-moving electrons
Diamond 7. Soft - Layers can slide easily
8. Layers of hexagonal rings held by weak intermolecular
forces
9. Uses are for lubricant and electrode in Electrolysis

Silicon (IV) Oxide (SiO2)

Properties

1. Each carbon atom is joined with four other carbon

atoms
2. High Melting and Boiling Points - Strong Covalent Properties
Bonds
3. No Delocalised/Free Moving Electrons 1. The structure of Silicon (IV) Oxide is
4. It cannot be scratched easily similar/resemblance to that of a diamond.
5. Transparent colour (Extra information) 2. Hard Structure
6. Cannot conduct electricity due to no free-moving 3. High melting and boiling point - More energy to
electrons overcome
7. Hard in structure 4. Rigid Tetrahedral Structure
8. Giant Lattice Arrangement 5. Does not conduct electricity
9. Uses are for cutting tools
Each Silicon atom is covalently bonded with 4 Oxygen
Atoms
Graphite Each Oxygen atom is covalently bonded with 2 Silicon
Atoms

2.10. Metallic Bonding

Metallic Bonding: the electrostatic attraction between the
positive ions in a giant metallic lattice and a “sea” of

Properties

1. Each carbon atom is joined with three other carbon

atoms

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delocalised electrons. Name Formula Charges

Carbonate CO32- -2

Sulfate SO42- -2

3.2. State Symbols & Word Equations

Balancing equations: A chemical equation is balanced
when there are an equal number of atoms and charges
on both sides of the equation
State symbols:
(s) = solid
(l) = liquid
(g) = gas
(aq) = aqueous solution
Names of compounds
A compound ending with -ide only contains two
Properties of Metallic Bonding different elements
A compound ending with -ate contains oxygen
1. Metallic Bonds have good electrical conductivity:
Delocalised electrons can move through the 3.3. Relative Masses of Atoms and
structures and carry current.
2. High Melting and Boiling Point: More energy to
Molecules
overcome strong forces of attraction between positive
Relative atomic mass (A r): the average mass of the
metal ions and the sea of delocalised electrons &
Vibrate/Transfer Heat isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass of
3. Malleability: Can be hammered into shapes as layers an atom of 12C.
can slide over each other. Relative molecular mass (Mr): sum of relative atomic
4. Ductility: Can be drawn into thin wires masses of all the atoms in one molecule of the compound.

3.4. The Mole and the Avogadro

3. Stoichiometry
Constant
3.1. Formulae A mole of a substance is the amount that contains the same
number of units as the number of carbon atoms in 12 grams
Charges of Elemental Groups of carbon-12

Group Charges A mole is the A r or Mr expressed in grams e.g. 1 mole of

I 1 Carbon-12 is equal to 12 grams.

II 2 It is equal to 6.02 × 1023 particles; this number is called

Avogadro’s constant.
III 3
1 mole also occupies a volume of 24dm3 at room
IV +/- 4
temperature and pressure
V -3
VI -2
3.5. Number of Moles
VII -1
VIII 0 mass
Amount of Substance =
molar mass
​

Charges of Common Ions Amount of Substance (mol)

Mass (g)
Name Formula Charges Molar Mass (Mr) in (g/mol)
Ammonium NH4 + +1

Nitrate NO3- -1 3.6. Number of Moles in Aqueous

Hydroxide OH- -1 Solution

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Moles = concentration x volume It shows the actual number of atoms in one molecule of a
substance.
Moles (mol)
Concentration (mol/dm3) 3.12. Percentage Purity & Yield
Volume (24 dm3)
mass of product (pure)
Percentage purity = mass of compound (impure) × 100
​

3.7. Moles in Gases actual mass obtained

Percentage yield = calculated/theoretical mass × 100
​

Volume = No. of Moles × 24dm 3 at rtp

3.13. Percentage Composition by Mass
3 3
1 dm = 1000cm
(mass of element/molecular mass) x 100

3.8. Concentration Example Question (0620/42/F/M/23)

no. of moles
C oncentration =
volume
​

Moles per dm3

1mol/dm3
Step 1: Calculate the molar mass of (NH4)2SO4
Grams per dm3 , g/dm3
Step 2: Find the mass of Nitrogen
Concentration can be measured and converted into g/dm3 Step 3: Use the formula and multiply by 100.
Step 4: That will be the percentage of the question given.
or mol/dm3 , by multiplying the molar mass of the
compound.
4. Electrochemistry
3.9. Moles Calculation in Acid-Base
Titration Electrolysis: the decomposition of an ionic compound, when
molten or aqueous solution- by passing of an electric current

This is possible due to the presence of mobile

electrons/free-moving electrons
An electrolyte is a molten or aqueous substance that
undergoes electrolysis

Components of Electrolysis Definition

Metal or graphite rods that aid
We will use the formula: the flow of electricity in and out
of the electrolyte
Concentration x Volume (cm^3)/1000 Electrodes 1. Anode: Positive electrode
2. Cathode: Negative Electrode
20 x 0.0500 divide 1000 = 0.001 (PANIC: Positive is Anode,
Negative is Cathode)
3.10. Empirical Formulae Negatively charged ion that
Anion
moves to anode
This is the simplest ratio of the atoms in a compound Positively charged ion that
For example: Cation
moves to the cathode
Molecular formula of ethane= C 2H6
Empirical formula of ethane = CH3 Note: Reactive electrodes participate in the reaction, while
To find out the empirical formula you: inert electrodes (Graphite, Carbon) do not react with the
Make the percent ratio into the simplest whole- cations or anions.
number ratio (NOTE: if given %s, use them as grams)
Divide the coefficients of each element symbol by the
lowest coefficient

3.11. Molecular Formulae

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Blue copper (II) sulfate doesn’t change as the

concentration of Cu2+ ions remains unchanged.
Inert (Unreactive electrodes) are Platinum, Graphite or
Carbon Electrodes, So they don’t react with the ions
during electrolysis.

4.4. Electroplating
Electroplating: the process of coating the surface of a metal
(more reactive) with another metal (less reactive) using
4.2. Reduction and Oxidation electrolysis

Reduction of positive cations happens at the cathode Components:

Oxidation of negative anions happens at the anode Anode: pure metal being used to electroplate the
For example (Ionic Half Equations) object
At the anode: 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e- Cathode: object being electroplated
At the cathode: 2H+ + 2e- → H2 Electrolyte: aqueous solution of the soluble salt of
pure metal (same as anode)
Used to:
Prevent corrosion
Enhance appearance

4.5. Refining Metals

Cathode: a thin strip of pure metal
Anode: impure metal
Electrolyte: Aqueous Salt Solution of metal
Useful Acronyms
Example:
1. REDCATANOX (Reduction is Cathode, Anode is
Oxidation) The refining of copper: Impure copper as the anode and
2. OILRIG (Oxidation is loss, Reduction is gain) pure copper as the cathode; the aqueous copper (II)
3. PANIC (Positive is Anode, Negative is cathode) sulfate helps the copper ions move from the anode to the
4. CMAN (Cathode discharge Metals, Anode Discharge cathode. Here the ions gain electrons and become copper
Non-Metals) atoms, making the pure copper cathode thicker.
1. Reaction at Anode: Cu → 2e + Cu2+ (mass
4.3. Observations in Electrolysis decreases)
2. Reaction at Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e → Cu (mass
Electrolyte At Cathode At Anode increases)
Molten Lead (II) Bromide Lead Bromine
Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid Hydrogen Chlorine
Concentrated Aqueous Sodium
Hydrogen Chlorine
Chloride (Brine)
Dilute Sulfuric Acid Hydrogen Oxygen
Aqueous Copper (II) Sulfate with
Copper Oxygen \n
Graphite Electrodes
Aqueous Copper (II) Sulfate with
Copper Copper \n
Carbon Electrodes

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4.6. Extraction of Aluminum

The main ore of Aluminium Oxide is bauxite
Aluminum (III) oxide (alumina) is dissolved in molten
cryolite (Na3AlF6) – this mixture has a lower melting point
(industrially preferred)

Main
During electrolysis, aluminium ( Al3+ + 3e- → Al ) is produced Chemical Equation: 2H2 + O2 → H2O
Advantages of motor Disadvantage of motor
at the carbon cathode, and oxygen ( 2O2- + 4e- → O2 ) at the
vehicles vehicles
carbon anode.
Renewable source Large fuel tank required
Molten Cryolite Lesser flammability from
Currently expensive
petrol
High temperatures are needed to melt is expensive. Emission Free (No carbon Lesser Hydrogen Filling
Therefore, molten cryolite lowers the melting pollutions) stations
point/operating temperature and increases conductivity.
Non-toxic
Due to the high temperature, the oxygen reacts with the
carbon in the graphite anode to form CO2, so the anode
must be periodically replaced. 5. Chemical Energetics
4.7. Electrolysis of Brine 5.1. Exothermic & Endothermic
Brine is concentrated aqueous NaCl solution Reactions
Ions present: Na+, H+, Cl- and OH-
Chemical reactions involve energy transfer between the
system (the chemical reaction) and its surroundings.
Exothermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction
Heat energy is released into Heat energy is absorbed from
the surroundings the surroundings
Bond making reactions Bond breaking reactions
At the anode At the cathode
Surrounding temperature Surrounding temperature
Made of titanium Made of steel increases decreases
Hydrogen cations reduced to H2
Cl- ions; Chlorine gas
molecules
5.2. Energy Level Diagrams
Unreacted ions (Na+, H+ and OH-) move through porous Energy level diagrams represent chemical reactions that
membrane due to difference in liquid pressure include the relative energies of the reactant and product.
Left Na+ and OH- which form aqueous sodium hydroxide A reaction's energy change (∆H) is represented by the
difference in height between the reactant and its product.
The activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy
4.8. Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells required for the reaction to take place.

Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells: Uses hydrogen and oxygen as Endothermic Energy Level Diagram
the main reactants to produce electricity; the only product
released is water. The system gains energy; higher activation energy is
required: Energy is taken in.

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6. Chemical Reactions
Physical Change Chemical Change
The reaction is easily The reaction is harder to
reversible reverse
The product has no new Chemical product has
chemical properties different properties
Ex. dissolving a solute in a Energy change
solvent [exothermic/endothermic]

Exothermic Energy Level Diagram

6.2. Rates of Reaction
The system loses energy; lower activation energy is
required: Energy is given out. Collision Theory
Successful collisions have enough activation energy to break
pre-existing bonds and form new bonds at the moment of
impact.
Rates of reaction

The measure of the speed of the collision

Calculated by the concentration of reactant used up or
product produced per unit of time
Unit = (mol/dm3)/s

6.3. Concentration
5.3. Bond Energy Increasing the concentration of reactants increases the rate
of reaction
This is the energy required or released when a bond is
Higher-concentration reactants contain more particles
formed or broken respectively. The unit measure of this
per unit volume, increasing the successful collision and
energy is kJ/mol.
reaction rates.
The energy change in a reaction is calculated using the
When the concentration changes in the rate of reaction
following formula:
graph, the collision energy will remain the same, but the
ΔH = Bond Breaking − Bond F orming collision rate will increase (activation energy does not
change).
If the overall heat energy value is negative, the reaction is
exothermic
If the overall heat energy value is positive, the reaction is
endothermic

Example

H2 + Cl2 ⟶ 2HCl
Bond Bond energy (kj/mol)
H-H 436
Cl - Cl 243
H - Cl 432
6.4. Temperature
Bond breaking ⟶ 436 + 243 = 679 kj/mol
Increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction
Bond forming ⟶ 2 (432) = 864 kj/mol
Thus, Increased temperatures lead to increased average kinetic
∆ H ⟶ 679 - 864 = -185 kj/mol energy of particles. Particle movement produces energy
The reaction is exothermic. greater than/equal to activation energy; an increased
successful collision rate leads to an increased reaction
rate.

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6.7. Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that increases the reaction rate by
lowering the activation energy and is left unchanged at the
end of the reaction.

More particles will have an energy greater than or equal

to the activation energy, therefore successful collision
rate increases resulting in an increased rate of reaction
For gaseous reactants, if the catalyst is solid metal, the
catalyst provides a surface for the reaction.
The larger the surface area of the metal catalyst, the
6.5. Surface Area of Solids
larger the area for the reaction to take place; therefore
higher the rate of reaction
Decreasing the particle size increases the rate of reaction

Decreasing particle size increases surface area; more

reactant particles are exposed to collide, so the
successful collision rate increases. This results in an
increased rate of reaction

Enzymes Affecting Rate of Reaction

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions

but remain chemically unchanged.
Enzymes function best at optimum temperature and pH
level; otherwise, they may denature and completely stop
functioning.

Explosive Combustion 6.8. Rates of Reaction Graphs

Fine particles are combustible in the air due to a larger Interpreting graphs:
surface area
A graph with a steeper gradient at the beginning and
The rate of reaction is high, making them explosive reaching a horizontal gradient faster depicts a high rate of
Examples: methane gas in coal mines and flour milling reaction.
Gas Evolved Mass Loss Colour Change
6.6. Pressure
Increasing the pressure in a gaseous system increases the
rate of reaction

The distance between particles is reduced under pressure

There are more particles per unit volume; the successful
collision rate increases, resulting in an increased reaction
rate.
If a gas evolves,
measure the loss in
If a gas evolves,
mass per unit time
measure the
by placing it on a If a colour change,
volume of gas
balance and then measure the time
produced per unit
putting cotton wool taken to turn cloudy
of time using a gas
on top to allow gas
syringe
to pass but not
enter

6.9. Evaluating Practical Methods

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1. Change in Mass method the reactant side. Increasing reactant concentration or

Not suitable for experiments where hydrogen gas decreasing product concentration; equilibrium moves to
is given off (because density decreases, too small the product side.
mass)
2. Easier to set up the gas syringe and obtain reliable Oxidising Agents are Electron Acceptors and
measurements Reducing Agents are Electron Donor.

6.11. Haber Process

N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3 (g) [Exothermic]

Materials (Reactants) in Haber Process

Nitrogen: From the air
Hydrogen: From the reaction between Methane with Steam

3. An inverted Measuring cylinder to collect gas over

water is harder to set up.

6.10. Reversible Reactions

The symbol of reversible reactions are: ⇌
Conditions

The products can then react with each other or Temperature: 450°C
decompose to form the reactant molecules. Pressure: 200 atm (20,000 kPa)
Two equations you should know: \n C uSO4 ⋅ Catalyst: Iron catalyst
Why are these conditions chosen in the Haber Process?
​

5H2 O (blue) ⇌ C uSO4 (white) + H2 O

​ ​ ​

C oC l2 ⋅ 6H2 O (pink) ⇌ C oC l2 (blue) + H2 O

​ ​ ​ ​

1. Pressure is not too high - (Although increased

(anhydrous by heating; hydrated form by adding water) pressure is more yield, however, more pressure will
require more expensive equipment, and it can
Reversible Reaction in a closed system when equilibrium:
explode).
Rate of forward reaction = rate of reverse reaction 2. Optimum temperature - (If lower temperature, more
Concentrations of all reactants and products remain ammonia yield, however too low, the rate is
constant and are no longer changing uneconomical.

6.12. Contact Process

Equilibrium
2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3 (g) [Exothermic]
Le Châtelier’s Principle: if conditions of equilibrium are
changed, the position of the equilibrium moves to oppose Materials (Reactants) in Contact Process
change
Sulfur Dioxide: Burning sulfur or Roasting Sulfide ores
Temperature: Temperature lowered; equilibrium moves Oxygen: From the air
in exothermic direction. Temperature increases;
equilibrium moves in the endothermic direction.
Pressure: Pressure raised; equilibrium moves to the side
with the fewest gas molecules. Pressure lowered;
equilibrium moves to the side with most gas molecules.
Concentration: Decreasing reactant concentration or
increasing product concentration; equilibrium moves to

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Conditions Rules Example

The sum of the oxidation In H2O, the oxidation number
Temperature: 450°C numbers in a compound is of H is +1, and O is -2, (2 x (+1)
Pressure: 2 atm (200 kPa)
zero + (1+(-2)) = 0
Catalyst: Vanadium (V) oxide catalyst
Why are these conditions chosen in the Contact Process? The sum of the oxidation In MnO4- the oxidation
numbers in an ion is equal to number of Mn is +7, therefore
1. Pressure is high - (Increase pressure, more yield) the charge of the ion (1 x (-7)) + (4 x (-2)) = -1
2. Optimum temperature - (If lower temperature, more
sulfuric acid yield, however too low, the rate is
uneconomical. 7. Acids, Bases and Salts
6.13. Redox 7.1. Properties of Acids
Redox: A simultaneous oxidation and reduction reaction
Acid: a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) when
Oxidation Reduction
dissolved in water.
Loss of electrons Gain of electrons Definition of Acids: Proton donors.
Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen Indicators
Loss of hydrogen Gain of hydrogen
Have a pH between 1 (strong) and 6 (weak)
Turns blue litmus red
NOTE: Roman Numerals next to an element’s name are the
Turns methyl orange indicator red
oxidation number of an element in a compound, e.g. Iron (II)
Colourless in Thymolphthalein
and Iron (III). The reaction product formula depends on this.
Reducing agents are oxidised, and oxidising agents are
Weak and Strong Acids
reduced.
1. Strong acids: completely dissociated in aqueous
Identifying Redox Reactions
solution producing lots of H+ ions
1. Oxidation State:
e.g: HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
The oxidation state highlights electron movement in a
2. Weak acids: partially dissociated in aqueous solution
reaction
eg. CuO + Mg → MgO + Cu producing few H+ ions
Cu2+ + Mg → Mg 2++ Cu [oxide is a spectator and is removed
as it doesn’t change its oxidation state] e.g: CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
Here Copper (II) is reduced while magnesium is oxidized; the Chemical properties
reaction is redox
Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen gas
2. Indicators: Acid + base → salt + water
Acidified Aqueous Potassium manganate (VII) is a Acid + metal carbonate → salt + carbon dioxide + water
deep purple oxidising agent; when added to a
reducing agent changes from purple to colourless. 7.2. Properties of Bases
Aqueous Potassium iodide is a reducing; when
added to an oxidising agent changes colourless to Bases: substances which neutralize acids to form salt and
yellow-brown. water only.
Definition of Bases: They are proton acceptors (form OH-
Redox Reactions by Changes in Oxidation Number ions)
Indicators
Rules Example
The oxidation numbers of the Have a pH between 8 (weak) and 14 (strong)
In H2, the oxidation number of Turns red litmus blue
element in their uncombined
H is “0.” Turns methyl orange indicator yellow
state are zero
Turns Blue in Thymolphthalein
The oxidation number of a
In Zn2+, the oxidation number
monatomic ion is the same as
is “+2.” Weak and Strong Alkalis (Soluble Bases)
the charge of the ion.
1. Strong alkalis: completely dissociates in aqueous
solution producing lots of OH- ions

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e.g.: NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Method A: Soluble Salts from Excess Insoluble Bases (metal,
metal oxide, carbonates)
2. Weak alkalis partially ionize in water producing OH-
1. Warm acid (increases the speed of reaction)
ions
2. Add an excess reactant + stir
3. Filter mixture
e.g: NH4OH (aq) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
4. Transfer to evaporating basin
Chemical properties
5. Heat using a Bunsen burner
Base + acid → salt + water (+ CO2 when base is a metal 6. Leave to cool until crystallisation point
carbonate) 7. Wash crystals with distilled water
Base + ammonium salt → salt + ammonia gas + water 8. Dry crystals on filter paper

Method B: Titration
7.3. Neutral
1. Place a known volume of alkali using a volumetric
Neutral substances are pH 7. pipette into a conical flask.
pH scale 2. Add indicator (e.g. thymolphthalein)
pH is the concentration of H+ ions per dm3 of solution 3. Titration: add acid using a burette until the endpoint
has reached
Universal indicator solution is used to determine the pH of
a substance by matching the color change to the pH color 4. Record the volume of acid added
5. Repeat without indicator
chart.
6. Transfer to evaporating basin
7. Heat with Bunsen burner
8. Leave to cool until crystallisation point
9. Wash crystals with distilled water
10. Dry crystals on filter paper

7.4. Types of Oxides

Metal oxides are basic in nature e.g. Copper oxide and
Calcium oxide
Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature e.g. sulfur dioxide
and carbon dioxide
Aluminium, and zinc form amphoteric oxides e.g. zinc
oxide
Oxides that react with neither acids nor bases are neutral
e.g. nitrous monoxide and carbon monoxide
Insoluble Salt
Colours of Transition Metal Compound Precipitation: Insoluble Solid forms between two aqueous
solutions.
Metal Compounds Colour
Copper (II) Sulfate Blue 1. Mix two soluble salts
Copper (II) Oxide Black 2. Filter to remove the precipitate
3. Wash the precipitate with distilled water
Copper (II) Carbonate Green
4. Leave to dry
Manganese (IV) Oxide Black
Iron (II) Salts Pale Green
7.6. Preparation of Salts
Iron (III) Salts Brown or Orange
A salt is a compound formed when a metal replaces all
the hydrogen atoms of an acid.
Preparation of Soluble & Naming salts involves two parts; the name of the metal
and the acid ending
Insoluble Salts eg. calcium + hydrochloric acid = calcium chloride
The Water of Crystallisation is the water molecules
7.5. Soluble Salts present in hydrated crystals.

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Type of Salt Acid used Sulfate ions (SO42-):

Sulfate Sulfuric acid Add dilute nitric acid, then add aq. barium nitrate
Nitrate Nitric acid White precipitate formed
Chloride Hydrochloric acid Sulfite ions (SO32-):
Ethanoate Ethanoic acid Add acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII) and heat
Colour changes from purple to colourless
Halide ions:
Salts can either be soluble or insoluble
Add nitric acid, then aqueous silver nitrate
Soluble Salts Insoluble Salts Chloride (Cl-) White precipitate
All sodium, potassium and
None Bromide (Br-) Cream precipitate
Ammonium salts
All nitrates None Iodide (I-) Yellow precipitate

Chlorides Except for silver and lead

Nitrate ions (NO3-):
Except for barium, lead and
Sulfates Add aqueous sodium hydroxide, then add warm aluminum
calcium
foil
Potassium, Sodium and
All other carbonates Pungent gas produced turns damp red litmus blue
Ammonium Carbonates
Carbonate ions (CO32-):
Sodium, Potassium and
Add dilute hydrochloric acid
Ammonium Hydroxides Nearly all hydroxides
If bubbles/ gas produced turn limewater cloudy, carbonate
(partially calcium hydroxide)
ions present

Identification of Ions and 7.9. Test for Gases

Gases Gas Test and Test Result
Ammonia (NH3) Damp red litmus paper turns blue
7.7. Test for Aqueous Cations Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Turns limewater milky
Chlorine (Cl2) Bleaches red/blue litmus paper
With aqueous Hydrogen (H2) Place lighted splint, squeaky pop
Cations With aqueous NaOH
Ammonia
Oxygen (O2) Place glowing splint, splint relights
Aluminum White soluble
White precipitate, Turns Acidified Aqueous Potassium
precipitate turns
(Al3+) insoluble in excess Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Manganate (VII) from purple to
colourless in excess
colourless
Ammonium Ammonia gas
(NH4+) produced on warming
7.10. Flame Tests
Calcium White precipitate,
Faint or no precipitate
(Ca2+) insoluble in excess Metal Ion Flame Colour
Light Blue precipitate, Lithium Red
Light Blue precipitate, soluble in excess to
Copper (Cu2+) insoluble in excess Sodium Yellow
give a dark blue
Calcium Orange-red
solution
Potassium Lilac
Green precipitate, Green precipitate,
Iron(II) (Fe2+) insoluble in excess insoluble in excess Barium Light-Green

Red-brown precipitate, Red-brown precipitate, Copper (II) Blue-Green

Iron(III) (Fe3+) insoluble in excess insoluble in excess

Zinc (Zn2+)
White precipitate,
soluble and turns
White precipitate,
soluble and turns
8. The Periodic Table
colourless in excess colourless in excess
The Periodic table is a method of classifying elements.
Chromium Green precipitate, Green precipitate, Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
(Cr3+) soluble in excess insoluble in excess number (each proceeding element has one more proton)
Made up of rows called periods and columns called
groups, the position of an element helps determine its
7.8. Test for Anions
electronic configuration.

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Period number: number of electron shells

8.4. Group VII Properties
Group number: number of outer shell electrons
Elements in the same group have similar chemical
Properties Patterns
properties.
States and Colours, at RTP:
Fluorine- Yellow-green gas
Chlorine- Pale Yellow-Green Down the group, size, mass
gas and density increase
Bromine- Red-Brown liquid
Iodine- Grey-Black solid
Down the group, the colour
Poisonous
darkens
Reactivity decreases down the
group,
because it has to gain an
electron,
Diatomic; form halide ions in
so the closer the electron is to
a displacement reaction
the positive nucleus, the more
8.2. Periodic Trends easily it will be gained,
so atoms with fewer shells will
1. The table moves from metals on the left to non-metals react more easily.
on the right. melting point increases down
2. Down a group of metals, elements become more Do not conduct electricity
the group
reactive.
3. With non-metals going down a group, reactivity
decreases. 8.5. Transition Elements
Physical Properties
8.3. Group I Properties
High melting & boiling points
Group I metals: Lithium, sodium and potassium Malleable and ductile
Good conductors of heat & electricity
Chemical Properties Physical Properties High density
Readily react with oxygen and Good conductors of heat and
water; stored in oil electricity Chemical Properties
React violently with chlorine Soft and easy to cut
Act as catalysts
Burst into flames when Form coloured compounds
heated with oxygen[red flame Variable Oxidation Numbers (Iron (II) or Iron (III) )
for lithium; yellow flame for Shiny when freshly cut
sodium; lilac flame for
8.6. Noble Gases
potassium]
Produce soluble white Melting points decrease down Properties Uses
compounds. the group.
Density increases down the
React with water to form Helium-filling balloons
Increase density down the group
alkaline metal and hydrogen
group Monoatomic and colourless Argon – Lamps
gas
M.P. and B.P. increases the group Neon – advertising signs
Predicting the properties of other Group I alkali metals: Don’t conduct electricity
Rubidium, Caesium and Francium [reactivity increases Inert & stable due to full outer
down the group] shell electrons

Element Reaction with Water

Lithium
Floats and gives off hydrogen gas 9. Metals
(effervescence)
Sodium Vigorous Reaction and moves very quickly 9.1. Properties of Metals
Potassium Explosive Reaction, lilac flame
Physical Properties

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1. Good conductors of heat (when molten) and electricity Special

Alloy Made from Uses
2. High melting and boiling points Properties
3. Malleable and Ductile Iron, carbon, Kitchen sinks,
4. High densities Stainless resistant to
chromium and cutlery, surgical
5. Solids at room temperature (except mercury in liquid) steel corrosion/rusting
nickel instruments
Chemical Properties
Due to the irregularity in atom sizes and structure, metal
1. Metals + Acids → Salt + Hydrogen alloys, which stop layers from sliding over each other, are
2. Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide stronger.
3. Metal + Water → Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen This is what the structure of an alloy (a) looks like
4. Metal + Steam → Metal Oxide + Hydrogen compared to a pure metal (b).

Non-Metals
Properties of Non-Metals
Physical Properties

1. Poor thermal conductor 9.4. Reactivity Series

2. Poor conductor of electricity (Except graphite)
3. Brittle and not malleable NOTE: Aluminum - despite its high placement in the reactivity
4. Solids and gases at room temperature (bromine is series, it is seemingly unreactive due to its protective
liquid) aluminium oxide layer.
General Reactivity Series (descending The Chemical
9.2. Uses of Metals order of reactivity) Reactivity of Metals
K - Potassium
1. Aluminium Na - Sodium
Manufacture of Aircraft/Cars (Low density) Ca – Calcium
Food Containers (Resistant to corrosion) Mg – Magnesium Water:
Overhead electrical cable (Good conductor of Al – Aluminum 1. metal + cold water
electricity/ductile) C – Carbon → metal hydroxide +
2. Zinc Zn – Zinc hydrogen
Galvanizes Iron = coats it to stop it from rusting Fe – Iron 2. metal + steam →
(protective coating) Pb – Lead metal oxide +
Alloys – brass/bronze H – Hydrogen hydrogen
Batteries Cu – Copper
Sacrificial Protection Ag – Silver
3. Copper
Au – Gold
Electrical Wiring (Good conductor of
Everything above hydrogen can Oxygen:
electricity/Ductile)
displace hydrogen from its acid, and metal + oxygen →
hydrogen cannot reduce its oxides. metal oxide
9.3. Alloys and their Properties Dilute acids:
In a metal and acid
Alloy: a mixture of two or more metals or a metal and non-
reaction, the
metal
Metals above carbon, their oxides hydrogen atom in the
Alloys are useful because they are harder and cannot be reduced by carbon acid is replaced by the
stronger/useful than pure metal; they can also resist metal atom to form a
rusting with air and water. product of salt and
hydrogen
Special
Alloy Made from Uses
Properties Copper, Silver and Gold cannot react with Dilute Hydrochloric
Stronger and Electrical acid because its too unreactive
Brass Copper and zinc more resistant to fittings, car
corrosion/rusting radiators 9.5. Displacement Reactions

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In these reactions, metals compete for oxygen or anions

Oxidisation is the loss of electrons

Reduction is the gain of electrons
The more reactive metal will displace the less reactive
metal from oxygen or an anion.
If the more reactive metal has oxygen or an anion, no
reaction occurs
The bigger the difference in reactivity between the two
metals, the faster the reaction

Example: Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Here magnesium is oxidised while the oxygen atom is
reduced

9.6. Corrosion of Metals

Rusting: the corrosion of iron and steel to form rust (hydrated
iron (Ill) oxide) via oxidation
The barrier method is due to the zinc layer preventing
exposure to air and water and sacrificial protection due to
zinc being more reactive than iron, corroding in preference to
iron.

9.7. Extraction of Metals

Process of separating a particular metal from its
compound; metal ore
Ore is more difficult to ‎decompose from gold to
The conditions for rusting to occur: potassium (expensive)

1. Water Metal Extraction Method

2. Air containing oxygen K - Potassium
Na - Sodium
Equation for Rusting of Iron Ca – Calcium Reduction via electrolysis
Mg – Magnesium
Iron + Water + Oxygen → Hydrated Iron (Ill) Oxide Al – Aluminum
4Fe (s) + 2H2O (l) + 3O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3·H2O (s) Carbon
Zn – Zinc
Two Ways of Preventing Rust Fe – Iron Reducing by Carbon
Pb – Lead
1. Barrier Method
Hydrogen
Coating a material to prevent the iron/steel from
being in contact with water and oxygen (Painting,
Cu – Copper
Greasing & Plastic Coating) Ag – Silver Occur naturally
2. Sacrificial Method
Au – Gold
When more reactive metals corrode to less
reactive metals, they lose electrons in preference 9.8. Extraction of Iron
to iron.
Ore haematite (Fe2O3) + Impurities
Galvanisation of Iron Burning of coke (Carbon) to provide heat and produce
carbon dioxide
It is the protection of iron and steel objects by coating them
Ore is crushed and mixed with carbon and limestone (CaCO3)
with a layer of zinc.
and transferred into the blast furnace
C + O2 → CO2 (exothermic)

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C + O2 → CO2 (exothermic) 7. Phosphate from fertilisers and detergents (leads to

deoxygenation of water and damage to aquatic life
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 (thermal decomposition)
(Eutrophication)
CO2 + C → 2CO

2. Carbon monoxide reduces Iron(III) oxide from the ore

to iron
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
3. The Calcium oxide reacts with impurities like silica to
form slag (a waste product)
CaO + SiO2→ CaSiO3 + CO2
4. Uses of slag include making roads and cement

10.3. Treatment of Domestic Water

Supply
1. Water is pumped into screens to remove solid,
The remaining waste gases that leave the blast furnace are
insoluble impurities.
Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, and Nitrogen.
2. A sedimentation process making small clay pieces
stick together and are then removed.
10. Chemistry of the 3. The water then undergoes filtration through layers of
sand and gravel to remove larger, insoluble debris.
Environment 4. Carbon is also added into filtered water to remove
taste and odour.
5. The chlorination process adds chlorine gas bubbled
10.1. Chemical Tests for Water into the water to kill bacteria and other microbes; the
acidic effect on the water is reversed by adding an
Type of alkali, sodium hydroxide.
Test Positive result
test
Anhydrous Cobalt (II) Uses of Water
Chemical Turns from blue to pink
Chloride
Home Industry
Anhydrous Copper (II) Turns from white to
Chemical Drinking, cooking and Water jet cutting and water
Sulfate blue
washing blasting
Test Melting and Boiling M.P at 0℃ and B.P at
Physical In car radiators, for gardens
Point 100℃ As a solvent in refining ores
and plants
Distilled Water is used in practical chemistry rather than Generating hydroelectricity
tap Water because it has fewer chemical impurities.
10.4. Fertilisers
10.2. Natural Sources of Water
Fertilisers: Substances added to the soil and taken up by
Water is an important source in the natural world. However, plants to increase crop yield.
with the changing world and massive urbanisation. Our water Substances contain inside fertilisers are Ammonium Salts
may contain substances such as: and Nitrates.

1. Dissolved Oxygen (this is important for aquatic life)

2. Metal Compounds (Provide essential minerals for life -
however, some are toxic)
3. Plastics (harm aquatic life)
4. Sewage (contains harmful microbes which cause
diseases)
5. Harmful microbes
6. Nitrates fromfertiliserss

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Pollutant Source Negative impact

Incomplete Binds with
combustion of haemoglobin,
Carbon
carbon-containing constricting oxygen
monoxide (CO)
fuels (ex. Internal supply in cells; leads
combustion engines) to fatigue/ death
Complete
Increased global
Carbon Dioxide Combustion of
warming leads to
(CO2) Carbon Containing
climate change.
Fuels
Decomposition of
Increased global
vegetation and waste
Methane (CH4) warming leads to
gases from digestion
climate change.
in animals
N.P.K - Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium Fertilisers are Combustion of fossil
Sulfur Dioxide
found inside fertilisers, essential to improve plant growth. fuels which contain Causes acid rain.
(SO2)
sulfur compounds
Functions of Elements Causes respiratory
High temperatures
problems and
1. Nitrogen - Makes chlorophyll and protein. Promotes Nitrogen Oxides that trigger a
photochemical smog;
healthy leaves (NO2) reaction between N2
contributes to acid
2. Phosphorus - Promotes healthy roots and O2 (from air)
rain
3. Potassium - Promotes growth and healthy fruits and
flowers
Damages brain and
Lead Combustion of
nerve cells in young
Compounds leaded fuels
Reaction with any alkali substance (except ammonia) children
displaces ammonia from its compound, for example:
Calcium hydroxide + Ammonium chloride → Calcium chloride
Greenhouse Gases Impact on Global
+ Ammonia + Water
Warming
10.5. Air Quality and Climate
1. Short wavelength radiation from Sun reaches the
The pie chart below presents the components present in Earth's surface
2. Some thermal energy is absorbed and heats
clean air:
oceans/lands
Primary: Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%) 3. Earth radiates some thermal energy as longer
Secondary: Noble gases (mainly Argon) and Carbon wavelength radiation
Dioxide (1%) 4. Greenhouse gases absorb some of the infrared
radiation and re-emit in all directions
5. Some infrared radiation comes back to Earth's
surface, and this reduces the heat loss to space and
leads to global warming

10.6. Pollutants in Air

Pollutant Source Negative impact

To reduce the effect of climate change:

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Planting trees Sharing similar chemical properties

Reduction in livestock farming
Less use of fossil fuels Essential Terminology
Increased use of hydrogen and renewable energy (e.g.
wind, solar) 1. Functional Group: an atom or group of atoms that
determine the chemical properties of a homologous
To reduce the effect of acid rain occurring: series
2. Structural Isomers: compounds with the same
Reduced emissions of sulfur dioxide by using low-sulfur
molecular formula but different structural formula.
fuels 3. Saturated Compounds: molecules in which all carbon-
Flue-gas desulfurisation with calcium oxide (removing
carbon bonds are single bonds.
sulfur dioxide from plastic combustion)
4. Unsaturated Compounds: molecules in which one or
Use of catalytic converters in vehicles
more carbon-carbon bonds are not single.

10.7. Photosynthesis 11.2. Fuels

Photosynthesis: the reaction between carbon dioxide and
Common fossil fuels include: coal, natural gas [main
water to produce glucose and oxygen in the presence of
constituent: methane] and petroleum
chlorophyll and using energy from light.
Petroleum: a mixture of hydrocarbons (Carbon and Hydrogen
Word Equation: Carbon Dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen
ONLY) which can be separated into useful fractions by
Balanced Chemical Equation:
fractional distillation
6CO2 + 6H2O → C 6H12O6 + 6O2
Going down the fractions

10.8. Catalytic Converters Increasing chain length

Increasing temperature
1. Present in car exhausts; contains transition metal Lower volatility
catalysts of platinum and rhodium Increase Boiling Points
2. Aids redox reactions to neutralize toxic pollutants Increase Viscosity (harder to flow)
formed as a result of incomplete fuel combustion: (a)
Carbon Monoxide (b) Nitrogen Oxides (c) Unburned Petroleum Fraction Uses
hydrocarbons Refinery gas heating and cooking
3. Reaction equations: Gasoline fraction fuels for cars
(a) 2CO+ O2 → 2CO2 Naphtha fraction chemical feedstock
(b) 2NO+ 2CO→ N2+ 2CO2 Kerosene/Paraffin fraction jet fuel
(c) C 8H18 + 12½O2 → 8CO2 + 9H2O
Diesel oil/Gas oil fraction fuel in diesel engines
fuel in ships and home heating
Fuel oil fraction
11. Organic Chemistry systems
Lubricating fraction lubricants, waxes and polishes

11.1. Organic Formulae, Functional Bitumen making roads

Group and Terminology Complete & Incomplete Combustion

Suffix Compound type Complete Combustion

-ane Alkane A complete combustion reaction with any organic compounds
-ene Alkene will produce Carbon Dioxide and Water as its product. The
general equation is:
-anol Alcohol
C XHY + O2 → CO2 + H2O
-anoic acid Carboxylic acid
-yl/-anoate Ester Incomplete Combustion
An incomplete combustion reaction with any organic
Homologous Series: a group of organic compounds that have compounds will produce Carbon Monoxide and Water as its
similar chemical properties due to being part of the: product. The general equation is:
C XHY + O2 → CO + H2O
Same Functional Group
Same General Formula
Differing from One member to the next by a CH2 unit 11.3. Alkanes
Displaying a trend in physical properties

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Alkanes: saturated hydrocarbons [single carbon bonds] that e.g. Cracking of ethane will give ethene and hydrogen
are generally unreactive; however, they do undergo
combustion reactions
General formula = C nH2n+2
Methane: CH4 (n=1) Ethane: C 2H6 (n=2)

Propane: C 3H8 (n=3) Butane: C 4H10 (n=4)

Butane → Ethane + Ethene ; C 4H10 → C 2H6 + C 2H4

How to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated

hydrocarbons?
Substitution Reaction Using Bromine water (orange-brown):

Alkanes go through substitutional reactions, where the atom Saturated: remains orange (unreactive)
of another element under UV light replaces the hydrogen Unsaturated: turns colourless/decolourises
atom. (Photochemical)

The presence of UV light is to provide activation energy 11.5. Alkenes’ Addition Reactions
CH4 + Cl2 → (light) → HCl + CH3Cl / CH2Cl2 / CHCl3 / CCl4 Alkene addition reactions only form one product.
Compounds = chloromethane/di/tri/tetrachloromethane
1. With Bromine: (the test for saturation - orange brown-
colourless)
11.4. Alkenes e.g. ethene (g) + bromine (aq) → 1,2-dibromoethane (l)
2. With steam (hydration): forms alcohols with heat
Alkenes: unsaturated hydrocarbons [at least one double bond
(300°C), pressure (60atm/6000kPa) and an acid
between 2 carbon atoms]
catalyst (phosphoric acid)
Have isomers: same molecular formula but different e.g. ethene (g) + steam (g) ⇌ ethanol (l)
structural formula (placement of double bond shifts), e.g. but- 3. With hydrogen (hydrogenation): a double bond breaks
1-ene and but-2-ene
down to form an alkane with a heat of 200 degrees
General formula = C nH2n
and a catalyst (nickel)
Functional group: C=C bond e.g. ethene (g) + hydrogen (g) → ethane (g)
(n=1) Ethene:C 2H4 (n=2)

11.6. Alcohols
N/A General formula = C nH2n+1OH
Functional group: OH
Methanol: CH3OH(n=1) Ethanol: C 2H5OH(n=2)
Propene:C 3H6 (n=3) But-1-ene:C 4H8 (n=4)

Catalytic Cracking
Propanol: C 3H7OH (n=3) Butanol: C 4H9OH (n=4)
Thermal decomposition reaction, in which an alkene (and
sometimes hydrogen) are produced from an alkane.
Hydrocarbon is heated, and vapours are passed over a
catalyst (alumina or silica)
Cracking always produces a short-chain compound with a
C=C bond (matches the supply of fractions with demand
and produces alkene for feedstock.)

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Carboxylic acids react with alcohols (with an acid

Methods of Production
catalyst/Heat) to give esters, in a condensation reaction, for
example:
Fermentation of Aqueous Catalytic Addition of
Glucose (for Ethanol) Steam to Ethene Ethanoic acid + ethanol ⇌ ethyl ethanoate + water
The ethene reacts with (alcohol = -yl & carboxylic acid = -oate)
steam (reversibly) to form Carboxylic Acids also have different structural isomers.
Yeast is added to dissolved ethanol in the following
glucose. \n Products: ethanol, conditions: 300°C, 60 atm 11.8. Polymers
carbon dioxide and the (6000 kPa) \n Catalyst -
Temperature between 25-35 °C phosphoric acid [while low Large molecules are built up from small units known as
for optimal enzyme activity. temp. Gives better yield, monomers.
high temp. is used for a Monomers are a single unit of a substance.
faster rate of reaction]
The slow reaction produces a
The fast reaction produces
dilute solution that requires
pure ethanol. Continuous
processing. Can only be
production (no batches)
produced in batches
Produces greenhouse gas (CO2) No greenhouse pollutants Polymers can have different linkages depending on the
Uses non-renewable type of polymerisation and monomer
Uses renewable resources
resources (crude oil)
Example:
Small units (monomers) Linkages
Uses of Ethanol:
Polyester (PET) Ester
Solvent in glues, printing inks & perfumes Polyamide & Protein Amide
Fuel

Plastics (PET)
11.7. Carboxylic Acids
Plastics (polyethylene terephthalate) are made from
General formula: C nH2n+1COOH polymers. However, they are not biodegradable. (NOTE: PET
Functional group: COOH can be hydrolysed back to monomers and re-polymerised)
Ethanoic Acid: CH3COOH
Methanoic Acid: CH2O2 (n=1)
(n=2)

Propanoic Acid: C 3H6O2 (n=3) Butanoic acid: C 4H8O2 (n=4)

Environment Challenges caused by Plastics

1. Disposal in Landfill sites

2. Accumulation in Oceans
3. Formations of toxic gases from burning

11.9. Properties of Polymers

Ethanoic acid:
It can be moulded under heat and pressure due to its low
Weak acid with high pH and low dissociation
density
Formed by:
Low conductivity (retain heat)
Bacterial Oxidation of Ethanol (Vinegar Production)
Resistant to corrosion
With acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII)
Non-biodegradable and lead to plastic waste
(Good Oxidising Agent)

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main structure you should know is:

11.10. Addition and Condensation
Polymerisation
Addition Polymerisation

This only occurs in monomers that contain double carbon

(C=C) bonds
Polymers produced using alkene monomers
12. Experimental Techniques
Forms only a polymer molecule
Poly(ethene): is a polymer produced from ethene by
and Chemical Analysis
addition polymerisation
12.1. Measurement
Use Structure
Plastic bags and
gloves, clingfilm (low
Double bond splits, and the polymer is formed. (Polymers
Poly(ethene) density), mugs, bowls,
have no double bonds)
chairs, dustbins (high
density)
Condensation Polymerisation

When two different monomers are linked together with Variable Unit(s) Apparatus
the removal of a smaller molecule, usually water (forms Time min/sec Stopwatch
one H20 molecules per linkage). Temperature ºC Thermometer
1. Nylon (polyamide) is made from a dicarboxylic acid Mass grams Balance
monomer and a diamine monomer (a compound
with an NH2 functional group). Forms amide
Measuring Volume in Liquids
linkage.
Approximate measure to most accurate measure.
Measuring Volumetric Pipettes Burettes
Name
Cylinder (fixed volumes) (variable volume)
2. PET (polyester) is made from a dicarboxylic acid
monomer and diols (alcohol with an -OH functional
group). Forms ester linkage.

11.11. Protein & Natural Polyamides Image

Proteins act as the natural polyamides formed from amino

acids monomers.
General Structure of Amino Acids:

Measuring Volume in Gases

Proteins:

Proteins contain the same linkages (amide links) as nylon

but with different units from amino acid monomers. Their

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A gas syringe is used to measure the volume of

gases gradually

12.5. Crystallisation
Used to separate dissolved solid from a solution

The solution is heated to increase concentration (solvent

12.2. Mixture of Substances evaporates)
A drop of solution is placed on a slide to check for crystal
Mixture: A mixture is a substance made from two or more formation
other substances not chemically bonded together The solution is left till it reaches the crystallisation point.
Crystals are filtered from the solution, washed with
Solution: A mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a
solvent distilled water, and dried between the filter paper.
Solute: A substance that dissolved in a solvent
Solvent: A substance that dissolves a solute
Saturated Solution: A solution containing the maximum
concentration which cannot be dissolved further at a
given temperature.

12.3. Acid-Base Titration

A method of quantitative chemical analysis where an acid is
added slowly to a base until it has been neutralised. 12.6. Simple Distillation
Used to separate a solvent from a solution

The impure liquid is heated in a round bottom flask

When it boils, the steam rises into the attached condenser
Condenser cools the steam to a pure liquid, and it drops
into the beaker
A thermometer is placed to ensure the highest boiling
point is not exceeded.

In Acid-Base Titrations, we must add a few drops of indicator

(passes the endpoint) to check whether there are colour
changes in the chemical reaction.
Colour in Colour in Colour in
Indicators
Acid Neutral Base
Thymolphthalein Colourless Colourless Blue
Methyl Orange Red Orange Yellow
12.7. Fractional Distillation
12.4. Filtration
Used to separate miscible liquids
Used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid
Mixture is heated
The mixture goes through a funnel with filter paper into a Substances, due to their different boiling points, rise in
flask. different fractions.
Insoluble residue remains in the funnel A mixture of gases condenses on the beads in the
Filtrate flows through the funnel and gets collected in the fractional column.
flask or test tube or a beaker

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The beads are heated to the boiling point of the lowest Distance moved by substance
Rf Value =
substance so that the substance being removed cannot Distance moved by solvent
​

condense on the beads.

The other substances continue to condense and will drip Locating Agents
back into the flask.
The beaker can be changed after every fraction Used to make colourless chromatograms visible
Dry paper in the oven
Spray it with locating an agent
Heat it for 10 minutes in the oven

12.9. Separation Techniques

Can be done by dissolving one in an appropriate solvent
Then filter one and extract the other from the solution by
evaporation
12.8. Chromatography If one solid is magnetic, it can use a magnet, e.g. sand and
iron fillings
Used to separate substances in a solvent with different
Component Component
solubilities. Technique Example
1 2
1. Drop the substance onto the start line (pencil) drawn Solid Solid Use a solvent Sand and Salt
on chromatography paper. Use Filtration -
2. Paper is placed in a beaker with solvent; the paper Insoluble Separating the Copper (II) Oxide
must touch the surface of the solvent (water or Liquid
Solid solid and the and Water
ethanol) while the line must be above the liquid. residue
3. The solvent travels up the paper.
Crystallization -
4. Different solubilities lead to different travel rates (high
Soluble Liquid is Copper (II) sulfate
solubility -> high travel rate) Liquid
Solid evaporated to from water
The stationary phase is the material on which
leave the solid
separation takes place
The mobile phase is the mixture you want to Distillation (2
Ethanol & Water
separate, dissolved in a solvent.
Liquids) or
Liquid (Simple), Crude
Liquid Fractional
(Miscible) Oil (Fractional
Distillation (More
Distillation)
than two liquids)

12.10. Purification
Interpreting simple chromatograms:
Chromatograms are the visual outputs on the Purity in Substances
chromatography paper
Number of rings/dots = number of substances Assessing purity
If two dots travel the same distance up the paper, they
Pure substances Have a definite, sharp m.p./b.p.
are the same substance.
The pure substance only gives one spot. Impure substances Have a lower m.p and a higher b.p
Retention Value:
Used to identify a substance, calculated by the formula: This assessment of substance purity is important, especially
in food consumption, as its intake can be dangerous.
db b

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Chemistry

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ZNOTES.ORG

UPDATED TO 2020 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
FRENCH
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE FRENCH

Verb Meaning

1. The Infinitive Se promener To take a walk (To walk oneself)

S’habiller To dress up (To dress oneself)
Se brosser To brush
1.1. Infinitives Se dépêcher To hurry up (To hurry oneself)
The infinitive is the original form of the verb
All verbs either have an –er, -ir or –re ending.
Example: aller, avoir, regarder, manger, jouer
2. Tenses

1.2. Negative Infinitives 2.1. Present Tense

Formation: Both present and present continuous tenses in English

are conveyed in one single tense in French.
Negation + Infinitive Remove -er/-ir/-re from the ending of the verb to form the
present stem
Note: Both negation words must come before the Add the ending from the table below.
infinitive
-er -ir -re
Examples:
Je -e -is -s
Ne…pas + fumer → Ne pas fumer (Not to smoke)
Je t’ai dit de ne pas fumer. (I told you not to smoke) — Saying Tu -es -is -s
ne fumer pas is incorrect and could be interpreted as the Il/Elle/On -e -it
imperative ne fumez pas. Nous -ons -issons -ons
Vous -ez -issez -ez
1.3. Past Infinitives Ils/Elles -ent -issent -ent

Refers to something that has happened in the past

Example: regarder → regard (present stem)Tu (regard +
es) = Tu regardes (You are watching or You watch)
Formation:
Note: irregular verbs do not follow this pattern
(aprˋe s) + avoir or ê tre + past participle
Example: Après avoir mangé… (after having
2.2. Present Perfect Tense
eaten…)Après être arrivé…(After having arrived)
Used to express an action completed in the past
Note: avoir/être will be used depending on weather the
verb takes avoir or être in the past perfect tense Formation:

1.4. Reflexive Infinitives Subject + Auxiliary verb + Past participle

All verbs either take avoir or être as auxiliary verbs
When a reflexive verb is in its infinitive form, it retains its
ending (er, ir, re) Verbs that take être as auxiliary:
An additional se is placed before the infinitive
Note: se becomes s’ when the infinitive starts with a vowel (DR & MRS VANDERTRAMP → acronym to memorise)
and a silent h Verb Meaning Past Participle
Common Reflexive Verbs in their infinitive form include: Devenir To become devenu(e)(s)
Verb Meaning Revenir To return revenu(e)(s)
Se réveiller To wake up (To wake oneself up) Monter To climb monté(e)(s)
To get out of bed (To get oneself Rentrer To come back rentré(e)(s)
Se lever
out of bed) Sortir To go out sorti(e)(s)
To go to bed (To put oneself to Venir To come venu(e)(s)
Se coucher
bed) Arriver To arrive arrivé(e)(s)
S’endormir To fall asleep Naître To be born né(e)(s)
To take a shower (To shower Descendre To go down descendu(e)(s)
Se doucher; Se baigner onself); To take a bath (To bath
Entrer To come in entré(e)(s)
oneself)

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Verb Meaning Past Participle J’ai perdu mes clés (I lost my keys) (mes clés is feminine
Retourner To give back retourné(e)(s) plural) → Je les ai perdues (I lost them)

Tomber To fall tombé(e)(s)

Common verbs with irregular past participles
Rester To remain/stay resté(e)(s)
Aller To go allé(e)(s) Infinitive Meaning Past Participle
Mourir To die mort(e)(s) Être To be été
Partir To leave/depart parti(e)(s) Faire To do; To make fait
Avoir To have eu
All the past participles verbs taking être must agree with Voir To see vu
the subject/noun in number and gender.
Savoir To know su
All reflexive verbs take être as auxiliary
Add (e) for feminine singular, (s) for masculine plural, (es) Connaître To know connu
for feminine plural — nothing is added for masculine Lire To read lu
singular Croire To believe cru
Devoir To have to (must) dû
Example: sortir → sorti
Elle + (être in present tense) + (past participle) Pouvoir To be able to (can) pu
= Elle est sortie (She went out) Pleuvoir To rain plu
Vouloir To want voulu
Forming the past participle for verbs taking avoir Vivre To live vécu

Remove the verb ending (-er/-ir/-re) and add the following Recevoir To receive reçu
endings: Décevoir To disappoint déçu
Dire To say; To tell dit
Verb ending Suffix
Prendre To take pris
-er -é
Mettre To put mis
-ir -i
Rire To laugh ri
-re -u
Ouvrir To open ouvert
Offrir To offer offert
Note: verbs taking avoir as an auxiliary do not agree with
the noun in gender and number unless there is a direct
object mentioned previously in the same sentence. 2.3. Imperfect Tense
Example: manger → mangé Used to express a continuous/habitual action done in the
Nous + (avoir in present tense) + (past participle) past
= Nous avons mangé (We ate or We have eaten)
Formation:
Past Participle Agreements with Avoir
Conjugate the verb in present tense nous form
Not only can verbs taking être can agree with the Remove the nous ending to form the imperfect stem
subject/noun in gender and number, but verbs taking Add the ending from the table below.
avoir can too in certain conditions Note: the ending does not change for different verb types
When the direct object pronouns (le/la/les) or a direct (-er/-ir/-re)
object are introduced before the past participle, the
participle must agree with the direct object. Ending
Add (e) for feminine singular, (s) for masculine plural, (es) Je -ais
for feminine plural — nothing is added for masculine Tu -ais
singular Il/Elle/On -ait
Note: The direct object pronouns le/la change to l’ when it
Nous -ions
is met with a vowel
Vous -iez
Examples: Ils/Elles -aient
J’ai choisi les chiens (I chose the dogs) (les chiens is masculine
plural) → Les chiens que j’ai choisis (The dogs that I chose) Example: jouer → jouons → jou (imperfect stem)
Il m’a donné une trousse (He gave me a pencil case) (une Il (jou + ait) = Il jouait (He used to play or He was playing)
trousse is feminine singular) → Il me l’a donnée (He gave it to Example: finir → finissons → finiss (Imperfect stem)
me) Je (finiss + ais) = Je finissais (I used to finish or I was finishing)

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2.4. Immediate Future Tense 2.6. Past Perfect Tense

Used to express actions that are going to occur in the Used to refer to an action in the past before a time in the
near future past which is already referred to

Formation: Formation:
Subject + Imperfect tense (avoir or être) + Past participle
Subject + Aller + The infinitive
Remember DR & MRS P VANDERTRAMP
Example: Apprendre (to learn)
Vous + (aller in present tense) + (infinitive) Example: manger → mangé (past participle)
= Vouz allez apprendre (You are going to learn) = J’avais mangé (I had eaten)

2.5. Future Tense 2.7. Conditional Tense

Used to express actions that will happen sometime in the Used to talk about a hypothetical/imagined
future or actions that will certainly happen reality/probable action

Formation: Formation:

Subject + Future stem + Suffix Subject + Future stem + Imperfect endings

To form future stem, use -ir and -er verb infinitives Note: Irregular future stems also apply here
For –re verbs, remove the -e Example: jouer → jouer (future stem)
Il + jouer + ait = Il jouerait (He would play)
Subject Suffix
Je -ai 2.8. Recent Past Tense
Tu -as
Il/Elle/On -a Used to express an action which has just been completed
Nous -ons Formation:
Vous -ez
Ils/Elles -ont Subject + venir + de + infinitive verb
Example: Je + (venir in the present tense) + de + (infinitive)
Example: descendre → descendr (future stem)= Nous = Je viens de regarder la télé (I just watched the TV)
descendrons (We will go down)

There are also irregular stems in the future that must be

remembered. Common ones include:
3. Imperative
Infinitive Meaning Irregular Stem Used to give orders and requests, provide
recommendations and advice and prohibit actions
Être To be ser-
Only exists in tu, nous & vous forms
Avoir To have aur- Informal singular: tu form of the present tense.
Aller To go ir- (For –er verbs, take off the –s.)
Faire To do; To make fer- Formal singular or Informal plural: vous form of the
Savoir To know saur- present tense.
First person plural: nous form of present tense (e.g. let’s
Vouloir To want voudr-
go)
Pouvoir To be able to (can) pourr-
Voir; Envoyer To see; To send verr- ; enverr- Example:
Recevoir; Décevoir; Parle ! (Talk!)
To receive; To Parlons ! (Let’s talk!)
Devoir; (and other recevr- ; décevr-
dissapoint; To have to Parlez ! (Talk!)
verbs that end in - ; devr
(must)
evoir)
Common irregular verbs in the imperative
Mourir To die mourr-
Venir; Tenir (and Infinitive Tu Nous Vous
other verbs that end To come; To hold viendr- ; tiendr- Aller Va Allons Allez
in -enir) Avoir Aie Ayons Ayez

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Infinitive Tu Nous Vous Infinitives Sentences Translation

Être Sois Soyons Soyez Tonner Il tonne It is thundering
Savoir Sache Sachons Sachez Faire Il fait mauvais The weather is bad
Vouloir Veuille Veuillons Veuillez
Note: The verb faire is usually used to describe weather,
3.1. Forming the imperative with reflexive verbs even though it means ‘to do’
Example: Il fait chaud. (It (the weather) is hot)
Follows the same formation rule as the normal verbs Other common expressions include:
Disjunctive pronouns toi, nous and vous are added at the Il y a … (There is/are)
end and joined with a hyphen Ex. Il y a des serpents ! (There are snakes!)
Informal singular: add toi Il faut … (You/We/One must/should)
First person plural: add nous Ex. Il faut protéger l’environnement. (We must
Formal singular or Informal plural: add vous protect the environment.)

Example:
Réveille-toi ! (Wake up!) 5. Present Participle
Réveillons-nous ! (Let’s wake up!)
Réveillez-vous ! (Wake up!) Used to express the -ing form of the verb
Used to express an action that is happening
3.2. Negating the imperative simultaneously with another action
Never takes subject (je, tu, il…)
Formation:
Formation:
Ne + Verb in the imperative + 2nd part of the negative
En + V erb in nous form ( without − ons) + (−ant)
Example:
Example:
Ne parle pas ! (Don’t talk !)
manger → mangeons →mange
Ne parlons pas ! (Let’s not talk!)
= En mangeant (while eating)
Ne parlez pas ! (Don’t talk!)
Je regarde la télé en mangeant du gâteau (I'm watching the
When negating the imperative with reflexive verbs, the TV while eating cake)
reflexive pronouns te, nous and vous replace toi, nous and
Note: Do not confuse with present tense. Present tense
vous
can also be translated like this:
The reflexive pronouns are placed in between the Ne and
Je parle → I am talking.
the verb in the imperative
Informal singular: add te
First person plural: add nous 6. Negative
Formal singular or Informal plural: add vous

Example: Ne… pas is the most common negative. It means ‘not’.

Ne t'inquiète pas ! (Don’t worry!) Most negatives form a sandwich around the main verb.
Ne nous inquiétons pas ! (Let’s not worry!) Example:
Ne vous inquiétez pas ! (Don’t worry!) Vous ne mangez pas de viande (You do not eat meat).
Remember: ne becomes n’ before a vowel or silent h
Note: te contracts to t’ when there is a vowel or a silent h
after it. MORE NEGATIVES…
Negatives Meaning Examples
Not anymore, no Je ne travaille plus
4. Impersonal Verbs Ne…plus
longer (I don’t work anymore).
Je ne vois rien
They cannot be used with other subject pronouns except Ne…rien Nothing, anything
(I can’t see anything).
il, not even elle or on
Je ne vais jamais à la
Here are some verbs that are used with weather:
piscine
Ne…jamais Never
Infinitives Sentences Translation (I never go to the
swimming pool).
Pleuvoir Il pleut It is raining
Neiger Il neige It is snowing
Geler Il gèle It is freezing

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Negatives Meaning Examples The subject and the object inverts their position in the
Je ne connais personne à sentence
Ne… Paris Formed by placing what you or someone misses as the
Nobody, anybody subject of the sentence followed by the subject as the
personne (I don’t know anyone in
indirect object
Paris).
Je ne regarde que des Examples:
Ne…que Only films
(I only watch films). Tu me manques. (I miss you.)
Je ne vais ni au cinéma ni The translation You miss me for this example is
incorrect
au théâtre
Ne…ni…ni Neither…nor Je te manque. (You miss me.)
(I neither go to the cinema
The translation I miss you for this example is incorrect
nor to the theatre).
Paris me manque. (I miss Paris.)
Ne… Je n'ai aucune idée
No Vous allez nous manquer. (We are going to miss you.)
aucun(e) (I have no idea). Antoine manque à Dominique. (Dominique misses
Ne…nulle Je ne vais nulle part Antoine.)
Nowhere, anywhere
part (I am not going anywhere).

Note: Ne…aucun(e) agrees to the gender of the noun, but 8. Nouns

not the quantity
8.1. Gender
7. Infinitives With All nouns have either a masculine or a feminine gender.
Prepositions The articles, verbs, adjectives and pronouns agree with
the noun in gender and number

The following verbs require à/de before them at all times:

8.2. Plural Noun Formation
Verbs requiring à Verbs requiring de
S’attendre (S’)arrêter Generally, plural nouns are formed by adding -s at the
end of words
S’amuser Décider
Ex. le chat → les chats
Apprendre Essayer
Most singular nouns that end with -eau, -eu, -au become
Commencer S’occuper plural by adding -x
Consister Se souvenir Ex. le tableau → les tableaux (painting)
Continuer S’approcher Ex. le cheveu → les cheveux (hair)
Encourager Promettre Ex. le noyau → les noyaux (pit of a fruit)
Common exceptions for the rule include: pneu (tire)
S’intéresser Refuser
and bleu (blue)
Réussir Regretter Most singular nouns that end with -ou become plural by
Servir Rêver adding -s
Ex. le sou → les sous (penny; not to be confused with
Example: sous meaning under)
Il commence à comprendre. (He is beginning to understand.) Other common singular nouns like: bijou (jewelry) ,
chou (cabbage) , genou (knee) and hibou (owl) become
Some infinitives can have à, de or nothing and have plural by adding -x
different meanings All singular nouns that end with -s, -x and -z do not change
when becoming plural
Example:
Ex. le cas → les cas (case)
Tu viens à parler de la fête (You end up talking about the
Ex. le prix → les prix (price)
party)
Ex. le gaz → les gaz (gas)
Tu viens de parler de la fête (You just talked about the party)
Most singular nouns that end with -al become plural by
Tu viens parler de la fête (You come to talk about the party)
changing into -aux
Ex. l’animal → les animaux (animal)
7.2. Manquer à Other common singular nouns like: carnaval (carnival)
and festival (festival) become plural by adding -s
Is a regular -er verb meaning to miss Some singular nouns that end with -ail become plural by
Has a special property when used with the preposition à adding -s and some change into -aux

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Common examples that add -s include: chandail Adjectives New Form Example
(sweater) , détail (detail) and portail (doorway) Beau Bel Un bel arbre
Common examples that change into -aux include:
Fou Fol Un fol été
travail (work)
Nouveau Nouvel Un nouvel ami
Distinct Plurals Vieux Vieil Un vieil homme

There are some nouns that have no rules and have

distinct difference between singular and plural versions
9.2. Comparative
Common examples include:
plus (que) = more (than).
Un œil → Des yeux (eye)
Ex. Je mange plus lentement que toi. (I eat more slowly
Monsieur → Messieurs
than you)
Madame → Mesdames
moins (que) = less (than).
Mademoiselle → Mesdemoiselles
Ex. Il parle moins vite que moi. (He speaks less quickly
than me)
9. Adjectives and Adverbs aussi (que) = as (as).
Ex. Elle chante aussi bien que moi. (She sings as well
as me)
9.1. Adjective Agreement An adjective or an adverb must come after plus, moins or
aussi.
Adjectives must agree in number and gender with the
noun that they describe. Mieux, Meilleur, Pire and Plus mal
To make an adjective feminine singular → add -e
To make an adjective masculine plural → add -s Mieux (better) is the comparative form of bien
To make an adjective feminine plural → add -es Ex. Il joue bien → Il joue mieux que toi. (He plays better
These rules apply to regular adjectives than you)
Adjectives that end with -s or -x do not change their form Plus mal (worse) is the comparative form of mal
in the masculine singular and plural Ex. Il joue mal → Il joue plus mal que toi. (He plays
Adjectives that end with -eux or -eur worse than you)
Change to -euse in the feminine singular Meilleur (better) is the comparative form of bon(ne)
Change to -euses in the feminine plural Ex. Ce plat est bon→ Ce plat est meilleur que le tiens.
However, there are exceptions where (This dish is better than yours)
An additional e is added Pire (worse) is the comparative form of mauvais
Ex. supérieur, inférieur, intérieur, extérieur etc. Ex. Ce plat est mauvais → Ce plat est pire que le tiens.
It changes to -rice (This dish is worse than yours)
Ex. directeur, acteur, etc.
Adjectives that end with -eau add -x in the masculine 9.3. Superlative
plural
Adjectives that end with -al Formation of superlatives:
Change to -aux in the masculine plural
However, there are exceptions where it changes to Le/La/Les + noun + Le/La/Les + plus/moins + ad
-als
Ex. fatal, final, glacial, etc. or
Adjectives that end with -er change to -ère in the feminine
singular
Le/La/Les + plus/moins + adjective + noun
Adjectives that end with -et change to -ète in the feminine Note: They are not interchangeable
singular Adjective placement determines which superlative form
Adjectives that end with -f change to -ve in the feminine to use
singular If the adjective comes after the noun, the first one
Adjectives that end with consonants -n, -l or -t change into should be used
the feminine singular by Ex. La question la plus difficile (The most difficult
Doubling up the consonant question)
Adding an additional e If the adjective comes before the noun, the second
Certain adjectives their ends change to -l when the noun it one should be used
precedes starts with a vowel or a silent Ex. Le moins petit parc (The smallest park)
Common adjectives include: When describing something using a superlative the
following formation must be followed:
Adjectives New Form Example

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Le + plus/moins + adjective 9.7. Indefinite Adjectives

Example:
Mon père conduit le plus vite. (My father drives the fastest) Indefinites always come before a noun and agree with the
Elle parle le moins vite. (She speaks the least fast) noun in both number and gender.
Cette maison est la plus grande. (This house is the biggest)
Chaque Each/every (only in singular form)
Note: Le is always with adverbs no matter what Chacun Each one
Le meilleur (the best); Le pire (the worst); Le moindre (the Quelque Some/Any (in questions)
least) Même The same thing
N’importe quel Any
9.4. Quantifiers Pareil The same
Plusieurs Several
Beaucoup de A lot of, many
Tel Such
Moins de Less
Plus de More
Trop de Too much, too many 9.8. Adverbs of place and time
Assez de Enough
These are some of the many adverbs of place and time
Bien Well/ a lot used to describe when an action is taking place
Comme As/ like
Fort Large Tard Late

Peu/ un peu Not much/ little Tôt Early

Si If Dans un moment In a while

Tellement So much Aussitôt Immediately

Tout The whole/the entire Finalement Finally

Très Very Tout de suite Straight away

Trop Too much/ very Toujours Always

Jamais Never
Souvent Often
9.5. Interrogative Adjectives
Rarement Rarely
They are used to ask for more detail than just ‘yes’ or ‘no’ Longtemps (for) a long time
They agree with the noun in gender and number Brièvement Briefly
They mean ‘which’ or ‘what’ Autrefois In the past

Quel Masculine singular Actuellement At present

Quels Masculine plural La veille The day before

Quelle Feminine singular Le lendemain The next day

Quelles Feminine plural Déjà Already

Pas encore Not yet

9.6. Possessive Adjectives

9.9. Common adverbial phrases
These come before the noun and agree with that noun
Remember: mon, ton and son are used before a feminine Dans l’avenir/la passé In the future/past
word starting with a vowel or silent h. En ce moment In a moment

English Masculine Feminine Plural En avance Early

my Mon Ma Mes En retard Late

your (singular, informal) Ton Ta Tes À l’heure On time

his, her, its Son Sa Ses En face Across the way/ in front of

our Notre Notre Nos Sans doute Without doubt/Undoubtedly

your (plural, formal) Votre Votre Vos

their Leur Leur Leurs 9.10. Adjective Placement

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Most of adjectives come after the noun Adjectives (Masculine

Adjecives (Feminine Singular)
Ex. La maison blanche (The white house) Singular)
However, adjectives can also come before the noun Beau Belle
BAGS (Beauty, Age, Good and bad and Size) ← acronym to
Vieux Vieille
remember
Common adjectives that come after the noun include: Fou Folle
Nouveau Nouvelle
Adjective Meaning Gros Grosse
Grand(e) Big/Tall Faux Fausse
Bon(ne) Good Sec Sèche
Jeune Young Public Publique
Petit(e) Small Frais Fraîche
Mauvais(e) Bad Favori Favorite
Vieux/Vieille Old Blanc Blanche
Meilleur(e) Best Doux Douce
Beau/Belle Beautiful/Handsome
Faux/Fausse False/Fake 9.12. Compound Adjectives
Gros(se) Large/Fat
Haut(e) High/Tall Adjectives can exist as multiple words called compound
Bas(se) Low adjectives
Most compound adjectives are invariable meaning they
Joli(e) Pretty
do not agree in number and gender
Même Same
Nouveau/Nouvelle New Example: Les jupes bleu foncé (The dark blue skirts)

However, some compound adjectives can still agree in

Meaning-Dependent Placement number and gender found in:
Dual nationalities
Some adjectives can be placed before or after the noun
Fixed expressions
The meaning changes whether the adjective is placed
before or after the noun
9.13. Adverb Formation
Example: propre (own or clean)
Ma propre chambre (My own bedroom) Adverbs are formed by adding –ment to the feminine
Ma chambre propre (My clean bedroom) singular form of the adjective.
Ex. positif → positive + ment → positivement
Common adjectives of this type include:
(positively)
Adjectives that end with é, -i and -u become adverbs by
Adjectives Meaning before a noun Meaning after a noun
adding -ment to their masculine singular form.
Propre Own Clean Ex. aisé + ment → aisément (comfortably)
Cher Dear Expensive Ex. poli + ment → poliment (politely)
Ancien Former Old Ex. résolu + ment → résolument (firmly)
Dernier Last (of something) Last (recent event) When the masculine singular adjective ends in –ent,
remove the –ent and add –emment.
Next (when it happens Next (upcoming
Prochain Ex. récent → réc + -emment → récemment
again) event)
When the masculine singular adjective ends in -ant,
Même Same Very
remove the -ant and add -amment.
Vrai Real True Ex. étonnant → étonn + -amment → étonnamment
(surprisingly)
9.11. Irregular Adjectives Some adjectives in their feminine singular forms need to
change from -e to and -é in order to become adverbs
Some adjectives have no proper rule that describes the Ex. profond → profonde → profondé → profondément
noun to which it agrees
Found in a lot adjectives that describe nationality 9.14. Adverb Placement
Common irregular adjectives include:
Adverbs can be placed in front or behind the sentence

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Ex. Hier, j’ai rencontré un homme. (Yesterday, I met a These articles mean ‘the’
man). They appear before the noun
Ex. J’ai rencontré un homme hier. (I met a man Example: la femme → the woman
yesterday).
Adverbs can also be placed in the middle of the sentence Le Masculine singular
Ex. Il parle aisément de la fête. (He comfortably La Feminine singular
speaks about the party.) Les Plural
Note: Adverbs cannot be placed in between the
L’ Singular starting with vowel or h
subject and conjugated verb
Note: Adverbs of time (not to be confused with
adverbs of frequency) are not usually placed in the 10.2. Indefinite articles
middle of the sentence
When a composed tense (Ex. passé composé) is used, the These articles mean ‘some’ or ‘a’
adverb is placed in between the auxiliary verb and the They come before the noun
past participle. Note: after negative verb forms, un, une and des change
Ex. Elle a bien écrit la lettre. (She wrote the letter well.) to de
Generally, adverbs used in a negative sentence go after
the 2nd part of the negation Un Masculine singular
Ex. Il ne mange pas vite. (He doesn’t eat quickly.) Une Feminine singular
Some adverbs must always go before the 2nd part of the
Des Plural
negation notably including:
Peut-être (Maybe)
Même (Even) 10.3. Au, à la, à l’, aux
Probablement (Probably)
Généralement (Generally) These mean ‘to the’ or ‘at the’
Certainement (Certainly)
Sans doute (With a doubt) Au Masculine singular
Some adverbs can also go both before or after the 2nd À la Feminine singular
part of the negation, but its meaning changes notably Aux Plural
including: À l’ Singular starting with vowel or h
Vraiment
Ex. Je ne lui ai pas vraiment parlé. (I didn’t talk to Example: au cinema (to/at the cinema)
him/her really.) à la gare (to/at the station)
Ex. Je ne lui ai vraiment pas parlé. (I didn’t really
à l’hôpital (to/at the hospital)
talk to him/her)
aux magasins (to/at the shops)
Toujours
Ex. Je n’ai pas toujours compris ça. (I didn’t
understand it always.) 10.4. Partitive articles
Ex. Je n’ai toujours pas compris ça. (I still didn’t
undestand it.) These articles mean ‘some’ or ‘any’.

Du Masculine singular
9.15. Tout as an Adjective De la Feminine singular
De l’ Singular word beginning with vowel
Simply means all, whole or every
Agrees in the number and gender Des Plural
Placed before the noun and article

Example: Tous les lycées (All the highschools) 11. Interrogatives

Singular Plural
Masculine Tout Tous Common words to start a question:
Feminine Toute Toutes
Qui Who
Que/ Qu’est-ce que What
10. Articles Quand When
Où Where
10.1. Definite articles Pourquoi Why
Comment How

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Combien How much/How many Open-ended questions are questions whose answers are
À quelle heure? At what time? not limited to a fixed response.
They can be formed by adding the question words
Combien de temps ? How long?/How much time?
mentioned:
Lequel Which one? In front of inverted questions
Ex. Que fais-tu ? (What are you doing?)
To ask - Demander; To ask a question - Poser une In front of questions using est-ce que
question Qu’est-ce que tu fais ? (What are you doing?)
You cannot say Demander une question as it is incorrect Note: Que becomes Qu’ when it is met with a vowel
or y.
11.2. Close-ended questions They can also be formed by adding the question words
after a sentence
Close-ended questions are questions whose answers are
limited (Yes or No) Example:
Tu vas où ? (Where are you going?)
Inversion Note: Que at the end of the sentence changes to Quoi

Used in very formal situations Example:

A question is formed when the subject pronoun and the Tu fais quoi ? (What are you doing?) — Tu fais que is incorrect
conjugated switch places and are joined with a hyphen

Example: 11.4. Euphonic Inversion

Joues-tu au foot ? (Do you play football?)
Sont-elles heureuses ? (Are they happy?) Inversions can result two vowels being next to each other
Écoutez-vous de la musique ? (Do you listen to music?) The letter t is added for euphony both in the written and
spoken language
Note: You cannot invert any nouns — instead use the 2nd Applies to only the subject pronouns il, elle and on
person singular subject pronoun according to the gender
of the (noun and invert it with the conjugated verb Example:
il parle → parle-t-il (parle-il is wrong)
Example: elle a → a-t-il (a-il is wrong)
Antoine est-il toujours là ? (Is Antoine still here?) on arrive → arrive-t-on (arrive-on is wrong)

Using Est-ce que Note: This does not apply to conjugated verbs that end
with consonants
Used in friendly/neutral situations
A question is formed when Est-ce que is placed at the
beginning of a normal sentence 12. Demonstratives
Example:
Est-ce que tu joues au foot ?
12.1. Ce, Cette, Ces
Est-ce qu’elles sont heureuses ?
These demonstratives mean ‘this’ and ‘these’.
Est-ce que vous écoutez de la musique ?
They come before a noun and agree with it in number and
gender.
Informal

Used in rather informal situations Ce Masculine singular

A question is formed by placing a question mark at the Cette Feminine singular
end of a normal sentence Ces Plural
When spoken, the pitch of the last word of the sentence Cet Before a vowel/silent h
must be raised to sound like a question

Example: 12.2. celui, celle, ceux, –ci, -là

Tu joues au foot ?
Elles sont heureuses ? Celui and celle are used to specify one particular thing
Vous écoutez de la musique ? from a group.

Celui Masculine singular

11.3. Open-ended questions
Celle Feminine singular

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Ceux Plural Person Singular Plural

3rd Lui Leur
Forms ending in –ci indicate something close to the
speaker (here/this)Example: celui-ci → this one
Forms ending in –là indicate something that’s farther 13.3. Reflexive Pronouns
away from the speaker (there/that)Example: celui-là →
that one Person Singular Plural
1st Me Nous

13. Pronouns 2nd Te Vous

3rd Se Se
13.1. Subject Pronouns
Used with reflexive infinitives
Person Pronoun Meaning Describes an action that takes place upon oneself or upon
each other
1st Je I
These pronouns are used in reflexive verbs and come
2nd Tu You (singular informal) before the main part of the verb.
Example: Se baigner → Je me baigne (I take a bath)
3rd Il/Elle/On He/She/One
In the perfect tense, the reflexive pronoun goes before
1st Nous We the auxiliary verb
2nd Vous You (plural and singular formal) Example: Se coucher → Je me suis couché (I went to bed)
In the negative, the negation surrounds the reflexive verb
3rd Ils/Elles They
and pronoun.
Example: Se coucher → Je ne me couche pas tôt (I don’t go
All verbs are conjugated with these pronouns to bed early)
It is required to use subject pronouns all the time When an object (especially a human body part) is used
Ils is used to describe a group of males and a group of with a reflexive, it does not express possession. Instead it
males and females. uses a definite article.
Elles is used to describe a group of females only. Example: Se brosser les dents → Je me brosse les dents. (I
brush my teeth.)
13.2. Object Pronouns
13.4. Y
Direct Object Pronouns
Y means ‘there’ or ‘it’.
These replace a noun in a phrase. It replaces a thing (but never a person), a place and
They agree with the noun in gender and number words including and comes after à or a preposition
They are placed before the verb followed by a place
Example: Je le mange. (I am eating it) It comes before all parts of the verb.
Example:
Person Singular Plural Il y est allé l’année dernière. (I went there last year.)
1st Me Nous Je ne m’y attendais pas. (I was not expecting that.)
Remember: S’attendre has the preposition à. The example
2nd Te Vous
replaces à ça
3rd Le/La Les

13.5. En
Indirect Object Pronouns
En means ‘of them’, ‘of it’, ‘about it’ or ‘some’.
These replace the names of people that come after the It replaces words of quantity and words including and
preposition à. what comes after de.
They agree with the noun in gender and number. It comes before all parts of the verbs except the
They go before the verb. imperative
Example: Il écrit à nous. → Il nous écrit. (He writes to us) Example: Tu veux du fromage ? Oui, j’en veux bien. (Do
you want some cheese? Yes, I’d like some)
Person Singular Plural
Tu as combien de sœurs? J’en ai trois. (How many sisters
1st Me Nous do you have? I have 3 (of them))
J’en ai parlé hier. (I spoke about it yesterday)
2nd Te Vous

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Remember: Parler with de is used if we’re talking about Masc. sing. Fem. Sing. Masc. plural Fem. Plural
something. The example replaces de ça. Mine Le mien La mienne Les miens Les miennes
Yours (tu) Le tien La tienne Les tiens Les tiennes
13.6. Definite Relative Pronouns His, hers, its Le sien La sienne Les siens Les siennes
Ours Le nôtre La nôtre Les nôtres Les nôtres
Link relative clauses to main clauses so that you don’t
have to repeat subjects and objects Yours (vous) Le vôtre La vôtre Les vôtres Les vôtres
Qui/Que Theirs Le leur La leur Les leurs Les leurs
Qui and que can both be used to refer to people or
things. Example: J’aime bien cette idée, mais que pensez-vous
Qui is used for the subject or indirect object, as well as des leurs ? (I really like this idea, but what do you think
after a preposition. about theirs?)
Que is used for the direct object.
Examples:
13.8. Pronoun Order
J’ai un ami, qui s’appelle Théo. (I have a friend, who
is called Theo) When using object pronouns, it is important to know that
Le chat que j’ai vu était noir. (The cat which I saw, there is a specific order
was black.)
The same type of pronouns cannot be used more than
Lequel once in the same sentence
Means ‘which’ and is used for indirect objects.
Two different pronouns can only be used in a single
Follows some prepositions and is only used when sentence
referring to things, never about people.
The negation part Ne always before everything
Must also agree with the noun’s gender and number. Note: This diagram demonstrate the order only for
Example:
normal sentences excluding the affirmative imperative.
Le livre dans lequel j’ai écrit. (The book in which I The negative imperative still follows this order.
wrote.)

Singular Plural
Masculine Lequel Lesquels
Feminine Laquelle Lesquelles

Dont
Means ‘whose’, ‘of whom’ or ‘which’.
May be used to refer to persons or things.
It does not change its form or agree with anything.
Examples:
Example:
J’ai rencontré un homme dont la femme est Je le lui ai donné. (I gave it to him/her.)
policière. (I met a man whose wife is a Il me les montre. (He is showing them to me.)
policewoman.) Ne me mens pas ! (Don’t lie to me!)
Où
Où means ‘where’, ‘when’, or ‘that’
Used to describe a location However, It is different for the affirmative imperative
Used to describe an action relating to time The disjunctive/stressed pronouns moi and toi are used
instead of me and te. This also applies to imperative with
Examples:
La ferme où j’ai vu ta mère. (The farm where I saw reflexive verbs.
your mother.)
Le jour où nous partons. (The day that we leave) —
Using quand or que instead of où is incorrect

13.7. Posessive Pronouns

They agree with the possessed noun in gender and Examples:
number
Achète-moi une maison ! (Buy me a house!)
They are always preceded by definite articles (le/la/les)
Donne-le-moi ! (Give it to me!)
They replace (possessive adjective + noun)
Parle m’en ! (Talk to me about it!)
Masc. sing. Fem. Sing. Masc. plural Fem. Plural

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Note: moi and toi when met with en and y become me and
13.11. Tout as a Pronoun
te and contract to m’ and t’
Simply means “everything”
13.9. Disjunctive/Stressed Pronouns Does not agree to gender and number
It can be both subject and an object
Person Singular Plural When it is an object, its placement is always after the verb
— after the auxiliary verb in composed tenses
1st Moi Nous

2nd Toi Vous Examples:

Tout me déteste (Everything hates you)
3rd Lui, Elle, Soi Eux, Elles
Je déteste tout (I hate everything)

Note: Soi - oneself

Note: Lui as a disjunctive pronoun is not to be confused 14. Conjunctions
with Lui as a indirect object pronoun
Disjunctive Pronouns have various important uses
concerning:
14.1. Co-ordinating Conjunctions
Emphasis
Ex. Moi, j’aime bien les fleurs. (As for me, I love They connect two grammatically equivalent words or
phrases (e.g. two phrases, two words)
flowers.)
Objects of a preposition Example: Jean et Pierre sont intelligents. (Jean and Pierre
are intelligent)
Ex. Je suis avec toi. (I am with you.)
Ex. Il court plus vite qu’eux. (He runs faster than
them.) Car For, because
Compound subjects Donc So
Ex. Toi et moi (nous) sommes contents. (You and I Ensuite Next
are happy.) Et And
Ex. Elle et toi (vous) êtes contents. (You and her
Mais But
are happy.)
Ex. Lui et elle (ils) sont contents. (Him and her are
Ni Nor
happy.) Ou Or
Note: The verb must be conjugated to the correct Ou bien Or else
person. Puis Then
Emphatic/Intensive Pronouns
The pronoun can be used to create words like
yourself, themselves, myself, etc. 14.2. Subordinating Conjunctions
Add même after the pronoun — joined with a
hyphen They link a dependent clause with an independent clause
Example: Il a réussi parce qu’il a beaucoup travaillé. (He
Ex. Toi-même (Yourself)
Used to further emphasise succeeded because he worked a lot.)
Ex. Le président lui-même était là. (The
president himself was there.) Comme As, since
The imperative Puisque As, since
Lorsque When
13.10. Indefinite Relative Pronouns Si If
Parce que Because
Link relative clauses to main clauses, but do not have an Pourquoi Why
aforementioned specific object
Quand When
Ce qui/Ce que
Means ‘that’ or ‘what’ — not to be confused the
interrogative ‘what’ 14.3. Emphatic Co-ordinating
Ce qui replaces the subject
Ce que replaces the direct object
Conjunctions
Examples:
et…et both…and
Je ne sais pas ce qui se passe. (I don’t know what is
happening.) ni…ni neither…nor
Je fais ce que je veux. (I do what I want.) ou…ou either…or
ou bien…ou bien either…or

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soit…soit either…or
plus…plus the more…the more Some prepositions agree with the gender and number of
the noun.
moins…moins the less…the less
These translate to ‘at’, ‘in’, or ‘to’ depending on
parfois…parfois sometimes…sometimes circumstances

Note: plus…moins and moins…plus is also possible Au Masculine singular noun

À la Feminine singular nouns
14.4. Conjunctive Adverbs À l’ Singular nouns starting with vowel or h
Aux Plural nouns
Words or phrases that are used to link up paragraphs,
ideas and clauses.
15.2. Prepositions for Countries & Cities
Conjunctive Adverbs Meaning
(Tout) D’abord; Pour In/To
First of all; Firstly
commencer
Enfin; Pour finir; Pour conclure In conclusion; Finally; Lastly Preposition For Examples
Et puis; Après; Ensuite Then; Next; Afterwards Masculine
Au Au Sénégal; Au Vietnam
countries
Par exemple For example; For instance
En Feminine countries En France; En Inde
Pourtant; Cependant;
However; Yet; Nevertheless; Aux États-Unis; Aux
Néanmois; Toutefois; Par Aux Plural countries
Nonetheless Philippines
contre
D’ailleurs Incidentally À Cities À Paris, À New York
Par ailleurs; En plus; De plus;
In addition; Additionally; Note: Regardless of the country’s gender, if the country
En outre
starts with a vowel or a silent h, En is always used.
Au contraire On the contrary
On one hand…On the other Example: L’Iran (Masculine) → En Iran
D’un côté…De l’autre côté
hand
From
,
Preposition For Examples
Du Masculine countries Du Mexique
15. Prepositions Feminine countries;
De/D’ De Russie; D’Allemagne
cities
15.1. Prepositions of Place Des États-Unis; Des
Des Plural countries
Philippines
Prepositions Meaning
Sur On Note: Regardless of the country’s gender, if the country
Sous Under starts with a vowel or a silent h, D’ is always used.

Devant In front of Example: L’Angola (Masculine) → D’Angola

Derrière Behind
Note: A small group of cities have articles where it agree
Avec With
with the rules for countries, notably including:
Dans In Le Caire (Cairo — The capital city of Egypt)
En In (Abstract sense) La Paz (The capital city of Bolivia)
Chez At the home of
Près de Near 15.3. Prepositions of Time
Loin (de) Far (from)
À côté (de) Nearby; Next to Prepositions Meaning
Entre Between En In (months; seasons;)
Autour de Around Dans In
À gauche (de) Left; To/On the left (of) Depuis Since/For
À droite (de) Right; To/On the right (of) Pendant For/During
Au centre/milieu de In the centre/middle of Pour For (duration in the future)

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Prepositions Meaning Tu n’as pas fumé depuis 2 ans. (You haven’t smoked for two
Il y a Ago years.)

Avant Before Note: In the first example, the present tense is used in
Après After French, but in English it’s the present perfect.
Note: In the third example, the present perfect is used
Note: En, when used to talk about seasons, turns to Au because the action of not smoking is not completed yet.
when the word starts with a consonant. This does not
apply to months. Pendant

Used mainly in the past and the future tense in French

15.4. Prepositions of Movement Describes a duration of an action that:
has started and has finished
Prepositions Meaning
is going to/will happen in the future
Vers Towards
À To; At; In Examples:
J’ai eu une réunion pendant 20 minutes. (I had a meeting for
De From
20 minutes.)
Par By (the way of) Il va faire les courses pendant 2 heures. (He is going to get
Jusqu’à Until groceries for 2 hours.)
Elles voyageront pendant 3 semaines. (They will travel for 3
weeks.)
15.5. Other Prepositions
Pour
Preposition Meaning
Contre Against Used mainly in the future tense
Malgré Despite Describes a duration of an action that is going to/will
Sans Without happen
Sauf Except Examples:
Selon According to Il va faire les courses pour 2 heures. (He is going to get
Sur/À propos de About groceries for 2 hours.)
Grâce à Thanks to/Because of Elles voyageront pour 3 semaines. (They will travel for 3
weeks.)
À cause de Due to/Because of
En plus/De plus On top of that
Au sein de Within
15.7. En and Dans as Prepositions of
Parmi Among Time
Au lieu de Instead of
Pour In order to
En

Used only in the present and past tense

Note: Grâce à has a more positive connotation, whereas À
Describes an action that is completed in a certain amount
cause de has a more negative connotation. of time

15.6. Depuis, Pendant, Pour Examples:

Tu marches à l’école en 20 minutes. (You walk to school in 20
Depuis minutes.)
J’ai fait mes devoirs en une heure. (I did my homework in an
Used mainly in the present, present perfect and imperfect hour.)
tense in French
Describes a duration of an action that started in the past Dans
and is still ongoing in the present
Used only in the future tense
Examples: Describes an action that is going to/will happen
J’apprends le français depuis 2013. (I’ve been learning French
Examples:
since 2013.)
Il jouait au foot depuis une heure quand il a plu. (He was Je vais nager dans 5 minutes. (I am going to swim in 5
minutes.)
playing football for an hour when it rained.)

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Il achètera une grande maison dans 10 ans. (He will buy a big Numeral Cardinal Ordinal
house in 10 years.)
12 Douze Douzième
13 Treize Treizième
15.8. Cardinal Directions 14 Quatorze Quatorzième
15 Quinze Quinzième
Cardinal Direction Meaning
16 Seize Seizième
Nord North
17 Dix-sept Dix-septième
Sud South
18 Dix-huit Dix-huitième
Est East
19 Dix-neuf Dix-neuvième
Ouest West
20 Vingt Vingtième
Note: All cardinal directions are masculine and they can 21 Vingt-et-un Vingt-et-unième
also be used as an adjective however, it does not agree in 22 Vingt-deux Vingt-deuxième
gender and number. 23 Vingt-trois Vingt-troisième
To form more specific cardinal directions add Nord or Sud
24 Vingt-quatre Vingt-quatrième
then followed by Est or Ouest separated by a hyphen
25 Vingt-cinq Vingt-cinquième
Nord + Est → Nord-Est (North East) 26 Vingt-six Vingt-sixième
Nord + Ouest → Nord-Ouest (North West) 27 Vingt-sept Vingt-septième
Sud + Est → Sud-Est (South West)
28 Vingt-huit Vingt-huitième
Sud + Ouest → Sud-Ouest (South West)
29 Vingt-neuf Vingt-neuvième
30 Trente Trentième
16. Numbers, Quantity, Time 40 Quarante Quarantième
50 Cinquante Cinquantième
16.1. Numbers 60 Soixante Soixantième
70 Soixante-dix Soixante-dixième
Numbers 21,31,41,51,61,71 follow this pattern:
80 Quatre-vingt Quatre-vingtième
21 → vingt-et-un
Numbers from 70 to 79 follow this pattern: 90 Quatre-vingt-dix Quatre-vingt-dixième
75→ soixante-quinze 100 Cent Centième
Numbers from 80 to 99 follow this pattern: 1000 Mille Millième
87→quatre-vingt-sept 1000000 Million Millionième
98→quatre-vingt-dix-huit
1000000000 Milliard Milliardième
Ordinal numbers can be shorten by writing the number
and adding e at the end
Ex. 19e siècle (19th century) 16.2. Expressions of Quantity
Second(e) is only used when the list has only two
elements Beaucoup A lot
Note: Premier is shortened to 1er (masculine) or 1re Assez Enough
(feminine) and Second is shortened to 2d (masculine) or
Un peu A bit
2de (feminine)
Trop Too much
Numeral Cardinal Ordinal Demi Half
1 Un Premier (Première) Moitié Half
2 Deux Deuxième or Second(e) Quart Quarter
3 Trois Troisième Tellement So much
4 Quatre Quatrième Tant So much
5 Cinq Cinquième
6 Six Sixième 16.3. Dates and Times
7 Sept Septième
Date format:
8 Huit Huitième
9 Neuf Neuvième le + day + number + month text(+year)
10 Dix Dixième
11 Onze Onzième

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Ex. le lundi 12 septembre 2003. (Monday, September 12th All fractions are masculine except demi
2003 or Monday, the 12th of September 2003)
Everything is always in lowercase unless it’s at the start of Examples:
the sentence — the article is capitalised Le un(e) demi(e) (one half)
When it is the first day of the month, premier or 1er is deux tiers - (two thirds)
used instead of un or 1 trois quarts (three fourths)
In France they use the 24 hour clock, so 3:15pm would cinquante-deux centième (fifty-two hundredths)
become 15h15 or quinze heures et quart.
Note: There are no mixed numbers in French
Note: heures is plural only when the time is more than
Can also be formed by using only cardinal numbers (un,
one
deux, trois…) or numerals, but adding sur in-between the
When telling the time, use Il est always. Using C’est is
number
incorrect.
Figures will be accepted in the written examination. Examples:
Years are said as regular numbers dix sur vingt (ten over twenty or ten out of twenty)
Example: 2020 → Deux-mille-vingt 99 sur 100 (99 over 100 or 99 out of 100)
Days of the week

Days Meaning
16.5. Quantity vs. Duration Words
Lundi Monday There are two words that meaning to Year, Day, Morning
Mardi Tuesday and Evening, divided into quantity and duration words.
Mercredi Wednesday Quantity words deal with units of time and are always
Jeudi Thursday masculine
Duration words deal with the duration or a length of time
Vendredi Friday
and are always feminine
Samedi Saturday
Dimanche Sunday Quantity Duration Meaning
An Année Year
Months of the year
Jour Journée Day
Months Meaning Matin Matinée Morning
Janvier January Soir Soirée Evening
Février February
Examples:
Mars March
J’ai vécu en France pendant cinq ans. (I lived in France for a
Avril April year.) — Emphasis on the amount of years.
Mai May Elle travaille pendant la matinée. (She works in the morning.)
Juin June — Emphasis on the duration of the morning.
Juillet July
Août August 17. Passive Voice
Septembre September
Octobre October Subject + Conjugated e^tre + Past Participle
Novembre November
Participle has to agree with subject of passive verb
Décembre December
Not often used in French, you are only required to
understand it.
16.4. Fractions
Formed by cardinal numbers (un, deux, trois…) and then 18. Constructions and
followed by ordinal numbers (cinquième, sixième,
septième…) Expressions
Exceptions include:
demi 18.1. Il est vs. C’est
tiers
quart Il est alongside Elle, Ils and Elles are used with only
Ordinal numbers (cinquième, sixième, septième…) must adjectives, not with nouns
agree to the cardinal numbers (un, deux, trois…) by C’est is used with nouns as well as adjectives
adding an s

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Note: Adjectives are always masculine when C’est is used

18.3. Si Clauses
no matter what
Equivalent to if-then sentences in English
Examples:
C’est un chanteur. (He’s a singer.) Describes conditions to be met in order for results to
Il est chanteur. (He’s a singer.) occur

Note: All occupations do not use articles when Il est is Condition Result
Possibility Examples
used — it acts like an adjective. clause clause
Il, Elle, Ils and Elles can also describe nouns, but the noun S’il pleut, je ne sors pas.
must be mentioned before or after to make it clear what ou Je ne sors pas s’il
you are referring to pleut.
Likely Present Present
(If it rains, I don’t go out.
Examples: or I don’t go out if it
Cette maison, elle est vraiment jolie. (This house is really rains.)
pretty.)
S’il pleut, je ne sortirai
Ils sont gentils, les Français. (The French are kind.)
pas. ou Je ne sortirai pas
s’il pleut.
18.2. Idiomatic Expressions Likely Present Future
(If it’s raining, I won’t go
out. or I won’t go out if
There are many expressions that exist using a it’s raining.)
combination of verbs and nouns together using Avoir,
S’il pleut, ne sortez pas.
Faire, Prendre, etc.
ou Ne sortez pas, s’il
Common expressions that use Avoir :
pleut.
Likely Present Imperative
Expression Meaning (If it’s raining, then don’t
go out. or Don’t go out if
Avoir besoin de To need
it’s raining)
Avoir du mal à/avec (à for
To struggle S’il pleuvait, je ne
verbs/avec for nouns)
sortirais pas. ou Je ne
Avoir l’air (de) To appear; To look like sortirais pas s’il pleuvait.
Avoir envie de To feel like Unlikely Imperfect Conditional (If it was raining, I
To have the intention of; To wouldn’t go out. or I
Avoir l’intention de
plan wouldn’t go out if it was
Avoir l’impression de To have the impression of raining.)

Expressions that use Faire : 18.4. Quand clauses

Expression Meaning Equivalent to using when in English
To be careful; To pay attention Express an event that is taking place in the past, present
Faire attention à
to and future
Faire les courses To get groceries
Quand
Faire le ménage To do the housework Result clause Examples
clause
Faire la vaiselle To wash the dishes
Quand je danse, je me
Faire la cuisine (or cuisiner) To cook
sens heureux. ou Je me
Faire du vélo To bike sens heureux quand je
Faire du sport To play sports Present Present danse.
(When I dance, I feel
Expressions that use Prendre : happy. or I feel happy
when I dance)
Expression Meaning Quand il a plu, je me
Prendre du poids To gain weight promenais. ou Je me
Prendre au sérieux To take (sb) seriously promenais quand il a
Present Perfect (Passé
Prendre soin de To take care of Imperfect plu.
Composé)
(When it rained, I was
Prendre une décision To make a decision
walking. or I was walking
Prendre une photo To take a photo when it rained.)

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Quand Je dois travailler. (I have to work.) I have to work because I’m

Result clause Examples
clause obliged to
J’ai besoin de travailler. (I need to work.) I need to work
Quand je serai riche, j’y
because I’ll die if I don’t
irai. ou J’y irai quand je
serai riche.
Future Future
(When I am rich, I will go 18.8. Saying “Thank you for…”
there. or I will go to
there when I am rich.) There are two ways to say “Thank you for…”
Saying Merci pour…
Note: For the last point in French, both clauses must be in Saying Merci de…
the future whereas in English, it’s the present and the To thank someone for a noun, use Merci pour…
future respectively.
Examples:
Merci pour le dîner. (Thank you for the dinner.)
18.5. Continuous Structure Merci bien pour ton aide ! (Thank you for your help.)

A structure exists that can express and emphasizes To thank someone for an action, use Merci de…, but the
continuity in different tenses, notably the present and past infinitive must be used
imperfect tenses.
Examples:
Formation: Merci d’avoir lu la lettre. (Thank you for reading the letter.)
Merci bien d’être venu ! (Thank you for coming!)
Subject + Être en train de + Infinitive
If the regular infinitive is used, it may mean to ask
Examples: someone to do something.
Je suis en train de manger une pomme. (I’m in the process of
eating an apple. or I’m eating an apple.) Examples:
Elle était en train de jouer au basket. (She was in the process Merci d’accueillir Jodie. (Please welcome Jodie.)
of playing basketball. or She was playing basketball.) Merci de ne pas fumer. (Please do not smoke)

Note: Bien can be added after Merci for emphasis

18.6. Savoir vs. Connaître
Both simply mean “to know” but have very distincts uses
18.9. Sensational Expressions
Savoir is most of the time followed by an infinitive and a
Avoir is used to describe sensations as well as other
subordinating clause
feelings
When Savoir is followed by an infinitive, it means “to
Note: Être cannot be used in place of Avoir in the following
know how to”
expressions
Ex. Je sais parler français. (I know how to speak
French. Expression Meaning
When Savoir is followed by a subordination clause, it
Avoir faim To be hungry
express a knowledge of an action or a fact
Ex. Il sait que tu y es allé hier. (He knows that you Avoir soif To be thirsty
went there yesterday.) Avoir sommeil To be sleepy
Connaître must always be followed a direct object (object, Avoir peur (de) To be scared (of)
person, place etc.) Avoir honte (de) To be ashamed (of)
Ex. Je connais Louis. (I know Louis.)
Avoir mal (à) To be hurt (To hurt a body part)
Ex. Il connait bien le français. (He knows French well.)
Avoir chaud To be warm
Avoir froid To be cold
18.7. Avoir besoin de vs. Devoir
Avoir raison To be right (correct)
Avoir besoin de is used to describe a need or necessity or Avoir tort To be wrong
a necessity to live/exist Avoir de la chance To be lucky
Devoir is used to describe an obligation
Note: Nouns can be used with Avoir besoin de when it is
Age
needed (Ex. an ingredient in a recipe)
The expression “avoir (number) ans” is used to say the
Examples:
age of someone or something
Note: Être cannot be used in place of Avoir

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Example: J’ai 21 ans. (I am 21 years old.)

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French

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ZNOTES.ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2024 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
MATHEMATICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

1. Number
Natural numbers:
used for counting purposes
A∩B is shaded A∪B ‎is shaded
all possible rational &irrational numbers
Integer: a whole number ‎⊂‎‘is a subset of’
Prime numbers:
divisible only by itself and one
1 is not a prime number
Rational numbers: can be written as a fraction
Irrational numbers: cannot be written as a fraction e.g. π
Cube numbers: made from multiplying a rational number
ξ = {a, b, c, d, e} A’ is shaded
to itself thrice.
b∈X
Reciprocals: A number made by raising a rational number
to -1, or 1 over that number
of elements in A

1.2. HCF and LCM ∈ = …is an element of…

\n otin = …is not an element of…
Highest Common Factor and Lowest Common Multiple: A′ = compliment of set A
Ø or = empty set
ξ = Universal set
A ∪ B = union of A and B
A ∩ B = intersection of A and B
A ⊆ B = A is a subset of B
HCF = product of common factors of x and y
A ⊂ B = A is a proper subset of B
LCM = product of all items in Venn diagram
A⊄B = A is not a subset of B

1.4. Indices
Standard form:

10 4 = 10000
10 3 = 1000
10 2 = 100
Prime Factorization: finding which prime numbers 10 1 = 10
multiply together to make the original number 10 0 = 1
10 −1 = 0.1
1.3. Sets 10 −2 = 0.01
10 −3 = 0.001
Definition of sets e.g. 10 −4 = 0.0001
A = { x : x is a natural number} 10 −5 = 0.00001
B = {( x , y): y = mx + c } Limits of accuracy:
C = { x : a ≤ x ≤ b}
D = { a, b, c , … } The degree of rounding of a number
E.g. 2.1 to 1 d.p 2.05 ≤ x < 2.15
Set representations: Finding limits when adding/multiplying: add/multiply
respective limits of values
Finding maximum value possible when
dividing/subtracting: max value divided by/minus min
value
Finding minimum value possible when
A∩B is shaded A∪B ‎is shaded dividing/subtracting: min value divided by/minus max
value
‎⊂‎‘is a subset of’

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Units of speed: km/hr or m/s

1.5. Ratio & Proportion
Units of distance: km or m
Ratio: used to describe a fraction Units of time: hr or sec
e.g. 3 : 1
5
Foreign exchange: money changed from one currency to km/hr × = m/sec
18
​

another using proportion

E.g. Convert $22.50 to Dinars 18
m/sec × = km/hr
$1 : 0.30KD 5
​

$22.50 : 6.75KD
Map scales: using proportion to work out map scales
1km = 1000m
2. Algebra & Graphs
1m = 100cm
1cm = 10mm 2.1. Factorisation
Direct variation: y is proportional to x
Common factors:
y∝x
3x 2 + 6x
y = kx
3x(x + 2)
Inverse variation: y is inversely proportional to x
Difference of two squares:
1
y∝
x 25 − x 2
​

k
y= ​
(5 + x)(5 − x)
x
Group factorization:
1.6. Percentages
4d + ac + ad + 4c
Percentage:
Convenient way of expressing fractions 4 (d + c ) + a(c + d)
Percent means per 100
(4 + a)(c + d)
Percentage increase or decrease:
Trinomial:
Actual Change
P ercentage increase = × 100
Original Amount x 2 + 14x + 24
​

Simple interest:
x 2 + 12x + 2x + 24
PRT
I= x (x + 12 ) + 2 (x + 12 )
100
​

Where, P= P rincipal, R = Rate Of I nterest, and (x + 2)(x + 12)

T = T ime
2.2. Quadratic Factorisation
Compound interest:
n General equation:
A = P (1 + )
R
100 ax 2 + bx + c = 0
​

Where, P= P rincipal, R = Rate Of I nterest, and Solve quadratics by:

T = T ime Trinomial factorization
Quadratic formula
1.7. Speed, Distance & Time −b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

Distance
Speed =
Time When question says, “give your answer to two decimal
​

Total Distance places”, use formula!

Average Speed = Derivation of the Quadratic Formula is the same as saying
Total Time
​

“Make x the subject in ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ”

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ax 2 + bx + c = 0 - Quadratic Formula
e.g. x 2 − x − 6 = 0
Factorize a out
Where a = 1 , b = −1 , c = −6
Plug the numbers in the Quadratic Formula:
a (x 2 + x) + c = 0
b
​

a −b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

Complete the Square

2 Therefore:
a ((x + ) − 2) + c = 0
b b2
2a 4a (−1 )2 − 4 (1 ) (−6 )
​ ​

− (−1 ) ± ​

x=
2 (1 )
​

b 2 b2
a (x + ) − +c=0
2a 4a
​ ​

x1 = 3
​

2
b2 − 4ac
a (x + ) =
b x 2 = −2
​

2a 4a
​ ​

- Complete the Square

2
b2 − 4ac e.g. x 2 + 10x + 5 = 0
(x + ) =
b
2a 4a2 (WARNING! Coefficient of x 2 Must be 1 for this to work)
​ ​

b b2 − 4ac x 2 + 10x + 5 = 0
x+ =±
2a 4a2
​ ​ ​

(x + 5 )2 − 5 2 + 5 = 0
b ± b2 − 4ac 2
x+ =
​

2a
​

4a2 ​
​

(x + 5 ) − 20 = 0

Note: 4a2 is a square number (x + 5 )2 = 20

b ± b2 − 4ac x + 5 = ± 20
x+ =
​
​

2a 2a
​ ​

x = −5 ± 20 ​

−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

Answer is:

Standardized form: x 1 = −5 +
​ 20 , x 2 = −5 −
​ ​ 20 ​

y = ax2 +bx + c
Complete Square form: 2.3. Reciprocal Graphs (Hyperbola)
y = (x + a)2 +b (Where axis of symmetry is x =
−a) Standardized Form:
To find turning point of quadratic equation, complete y = ax ​

the square, then the turning point is: (−a, b)

Ways to solve Quadratic equation: If a is Positive: If a is Negative:
Graphing Method The Line will be in the The Line will be in the
Factorizing 1st &3rd Quadrant 2nd&4th Quadrant
Quadratic Formula
Complete the Square
2.4. Cubic Equation
- Graphing Method – Graph the equation,
see where the it touches the x-axis Standardized Form:
- Factorizing y =ax3 +bx2 +cx + d
e.g. x 2 −x−6=0 Properties:
Highest Exponent of x is 3
x2 − x − 6 = 0 Has a maximum of 2 turning points

(x − 3 ) (x + 2 ) = 0 Turning points are points after which a graph changes its

gradient’s sign, therefore changing direction between up or
x1 = 3 ​

down

x 2 = −2 ​

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CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Using differentiation
dy
dx gives you the gradient of the curve at any point in
​

terms of x
dy
When y = xn , dx ​
= nx n−1
Stationary/ turning point: dy
dx ​ =0
st ′
1 Derivative = dy
dx = f ( x ) ​

d2 y ′′
2nd Derivative = dx2 = f (x ) ​

To determine if stationary point is maximum or

minimum:
2.5. Exponential Graphs
Use 2nd derivative
d2 y
Maximum point: dx2 ​ <0
d2 y
Minimum point: dx 2 ​ >0
Use gradients around the point
Input x values slightly above and below
stationary point and calculate gradient

2.7. Simultaneous Equations

Can be solved either by substitution or elimination
Generally solved by substitution as follows:
Step 1: obtain an equation in one unknown and solve
this equation
Step 2: substitute the results from step 1 into linear
equation to find the other unknown
The points of intersection of two graphs are given by the
solution of their simultaneous equations

2.8. Inequalities
Standardized form:
y = a (b )x Solve like equations
Properties: Multiplying or dividing by negative ⇒ switch sign
a is the y-intercept y
Asymptotes are lines that a curve approaches, but −3 ≥ −7
​

never touches because the curve continues to infinity. y ≤ −7 × −3

In this case, The asymptotes are y = 0 and x = 4
b is the rate of growth y ≤ 21
When 0 < b < 1 , the graph will go downwards from When two inequalities present, split into two
left to right
x < 3x − 1 < 2x + 7
2.6. Gradient of a Curve
x < 3x − 1 3x − 1 < 2x + 7
1
By drawing tangents x> 2
​
x<8
In a straight line, gradient is constant
Curves have varying gradients throughout the graph. 1
To find the gradient at a point:
<x<8
2
​

1. Draw the graph

2. Draw a tangent at the point in the graph, ensuring it 2.9. Linear Programming
only touches the graph at that point (Use a ruler)
3. Find the gradient of the tangent For strict inequalities (<, >) use broken line
For non-strict inequalities (≤, ≥) use solid line
Steps to solve:
Interpret y = mx + c
Draw straight line graphs
Shade

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Solve From O to A: Uniform increase in speed

From A to B: Constant speed (acceleration = 0)
From B to C: Uniform deceleration / retardation

Area under a graph = distance travelled.

Gradient = acceleration.
If the acceleration is negative, it is called deceleration or
retardation. (moving body is slowing down.)
2.10. Sequences
Linear sequences: Find common difference e.g. 3, then 2.13. Functions
multiply by n and work out what needs to be added
Quadratic sequences: Function notation:
Format: an2 + bn + c f : x → 2x − 1
Function f such that x maps onto 2x − 1
Composite function: Given two functions f (x ) and g (x ) ,
the composite function of f and g is the function which
maps x onto f (g (x ))
Work out the values and then place into formula to f (2 )
work out nth term formula Substitute x = 2 and solve for f (x )
Geometric progression: sequence where term has been
fg(x)
multiplied by a constant to form next term
Substitute x = g (x )
−1
nth term of G.P . = ar(n−1) f (x)
Let y = f(x) and make x the subject
a = 1st term r = common ratio

2.11. Distance-Time Graphs

3. Geometry
3.1. Similarity
Similarity can be worked out by the AAA (Angle – Angle –
Angle) rule.
AAA (Angle – Angle – Angle) rule: All the corresponding
From O to A: Uniform speed angles of the triangles must be equal.
From B to C: Uniform speed (return journey)
From A to B: Stationery (speed = 0)

3.2. Congruence
Gradient = speed
SSS (Side – Side – Side) rule: All the three sides of the
triangles must be equal
2.12. Speed-Time Graphs

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Rectangle:

diagonals bisect each other

RHS (Right angle – Hypotenuse – Side) rule : Parallelogram:

There must two right-angled triangles Opposite sides parallel/equal

The length of the hypotenuses must be the same
One of the corresponding sides of each triangle must be opposite angles equal
the same
diagonals bisect each other
SAS (Side – Angle – Side) rule: Rhombus:
There must be an angle and a side present
A parallelogram with all sides
The angle of the adjacent sides must be equal
equal
The two sides of the triangle must be equal

opposite angles equal

diagonals bisect each other

Trapezium:

ASA (Angle – Side – Angle) rule: The sides adjacent to the

equal angles must be of the same length. One pair of sides parallel

Kite:

Two pairs of adjacent sides

equal

diagonals are perpendicular

3.3. Triangles to each other

3.5. Construction
Constructing triangles:

3.4. Quadrilaterals
Rectangle:
Opposite sides parallel/equal
all angles 90°

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3.6. Symmetry
Line of symmetry: Divides a two-dimensional shape into
two congruent (identical) shapes
Plane of symmetry: Divides a three-dimensional shape
into two congruent solid shapes

The number of times shape fits its outline during a

complete revolution is called the order of rotational Corresponding angles are equal
symmetry

Number of Lines of Rotational Symmetry

Shape
Symmetry Order
Square 4 4
Rectangle 2 2
Parallelogram 0 2
Alternate angles
Rhombus 2 2
Trapezium 0 1
Kite 1 1
Equilateral
3 3
triangle
Regular
6 6
hexagon

Properties of circles:
Equal chords are equidistant from the centre
The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through
the centre
Tangents from an external point are equal in length

Co-interior angles add up to 180°

3.7. Polygons
Sum of angles at a point = 360 ∘
Angles on a straight line = 180 ∘
Sum of angles in a triangle = 180 ∘
For regular polygon
∘
External angles = 360n ​

∘
Internal angles = 180 ∘ − 360
n ​

For irregular polygon:

Sum of exterior angles = 360 ∘
Sum of interior angles= 180(n − 2)
Vertically opposite angles are equal

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1
Trapezium= 2 ​ (a + b) h
Circle= πr 2
Sector= πr 2 × θ
360 ​

4.2. Volume and Surface Area

Cuboid
Surface Area = 2(lw + hw + hl)
Volume = hlw
Cylinder
Curved surface area = 2πrh
Volume = πr 2 h
Cone
Curved surface area = πrl
Exterior angle=sum of interior opposite ∠ Volume = 13 (πr 2 h)
​

Sphere
Surface Area = 4πr 2
Volume = 43 πr 3
​

Hemisphere
Surface area = 3πr 2
Volume = 23 πr 3
​

Kite
pq
Surface area = 2 ​

4.3. Units
3.8. Circle Theorem
Volume:

Angle at center = twice

Angle subtended by same arc at
angle on circumference
circumference are equal

Angles in semicircle are

90° Opposite angles in a cyclic
quadrilateral = 180°
Mass:

Tangents from one point

are equal. ‎∠‎between
tangent and radius is 90° Alternate segment theorem

4. Mensuration
4.1. Area
Parallelogram = b × h or AB sin θ
Triangle= 12 b × h
​

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Capacity:

f(x) = 1‎ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓( 𝑥) = 𝑥2

Connecting volume and capacity: f(x) = x3‎ f(x) = 1/x f(x) = 1/x2
1ml = 1cm3
1kl = 1m3
Mass
Density = Volume ​
6. Trigonometry

5. Coordinate Geometry 6.1. Bearings

The bearing of a point B from another point A is:
5.1. Graphs An angle measured from the north at A.
In a clockwise direction.
Gradient of a Straight Line: Written as three-figure number (i.e. from 000° to 360°)
e.g. The bearing of B from A is 050°
y2 − y1
Gradient =
​ ​

x2 − x1
​

​ ​

Equation of Line:

y = mx + c
Find the gradient, m 6.2. Pythagoras Theorem
Find the y -intercept, c
To find hypotenuse
a2 + b2 = c 2

Midpoint of Graph:

x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2
( , )
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
​ ​

Length between two points:

2 2
(x 2 − x 1 ) + (y2 − y1 )
​ ​ ​ ​
​

To find one of the shorter sides

a2 = c 2 − b2
5.2. Sketching Graphs b2 = c 2 − a2
Angle of elevation:
Angle above the horizontal line

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Angle of depression:
Angle below the horizontal line.

∘
cos (x ) = cos (360 − x)

1
Area of a triangle: 2 ab sin c ​

6.3. Ratios
Right angled triangles:
opposite
sin x = hypotenuse → SOH
​

adjacent
cos x = hypotenuse → CAH ​

tan x = opposite
adjacent → TOA
​

Sine and cosine shifted by 90°

Sine has x-intercepts at multiples 180°, and cosine at (90°
+ multiples of 180°)
∘
tan (x) = tan (180 + x)

6.4. Graphs of Simple Trigonometric

Functions
∘ Goes to infinity at 90°, 270°, 450°, …
sin (x) = sin (180 − x) Has x-intercepts at multiples of 180°

6.5. Sine & Cosine Rules

Sine rule:

A B C
= =
sin a sin b sin c
​ ​ ​

Cosine rule
To find the angle given 3 sides

b2 + c 2 − a2
cos a =
2bc
​

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To find side given angle and two sides Translation (T):

a2 = b2 + c 2 − 2bc cos a

7. Vectors & Transformations

7.1. Vectors
When describing a translation, it is necessary to give
Vector quantity has both magnitude and direction the translation vector
E.g. Vectors a and b represented by the line segments, Enlargement (E):
can be added using ‘parallelogram rule’ or ‘nose-to-tail To describe an enlargement, state the scale factor, K
and the centre of enlargement

length of image
Scale factor =
length of object
​

Area of image = K 2 × area of object

If K > 0, both object and image lie on same side of the
centre of enlargement
method’ If K < 0, object and image lie on opposite side of the centre
Multiplication by a scalar: of enlargement
Scalar quantity: has a magnitude but no direction
The negative sign reverses the direction of the vector
Column vector:
8. Probability
Probability is the study of chance, or the likelihood of an
event happening

number of favourable outcomes

P (event) =
total number of outcomes
​

If probability = 0, event is impossible

If probability =1, event is certain to happen
Top number = horizontal component All probabilities lie between 0 and 1
Bottom number = vertical component

Parallel vectors: 8.2. Events

Vectors are parallel if they have the same direction
In general, the vector k ( ab ) is parallel to ( ab )
​ ​
Exclusive events:
Modulus of a vector:
Two events are exclusive if they cannot occur at the same
In general, if x = (m
n ) , ∣x ∣ =
​ (m2 + n2 ​

time

7.2. Transformation
Reflection (M):
When describing a reflection, the position of the
mirror line is essential
Rotation (R):
The centre, angle and direction of rotation are needed
to describe a rotation
A clockwise rotation is negative, and an anticlockwise
rotation is positive

The OR Rule:

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For exclusive events A and B Take the required number from the table and divide
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) by the sum of all values in the row/column of the
condition provided.
Independent events: Remember: P(A|B) and P(B|A) are not the same
Two events are independent if occurrence of one is
unaffected by occurrence of other
The AND Rule:
9. Statistics
P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B)
9.1. Histograms
8.3. Conditional Probability
Probability of an event (A), given that another (B) has
already occurred

Symbol : P (A∣B)

Histogram: Displays frequency of continuous or grouped

discrete data in the form of bars
Bars are joined together and may be of varying width
Frequency of the data is represented by the area of the
bar and not the height
When class intervals are different, area of the bar
represents the frequency, not the height
Frequency density plotted on y-axis, not frequency
Class width = Interval
Frequency density = Height

F requency = Class width × F requency density

9.2. Averages
Calculate using Venn diagram:

Construct the Venn diagram, using sample space of both Mean

events Sum of values
P(A|B) = P(A ∩ B) / P(B)
number of values
​

Calculate using tree diagrams: Median:

The middle value - when the data has been written in
ascending or descending order
5+1
Odd no. of values 2 = 3rd value
​

Even no. of values 6+1

2 = 3.5th value
​

(add two values divide by 2)

Mode:
Construct tree diagram. Most frequently occurring value
Write the outcomes of the first event Range:
Connect both the second and first events outcome Difference between highest and lowest values
Write probability on top of each event’s line Estimated mean of grouped data:
Multiply probabilities on the lines to the required outcome Work out midpoints of each group and multiply by
Note: The probabilities reduce with each step if objects frequency
are replaced Divide by number of values

Calculate using two-way tables:

Column and row headers are the sample space of the 9.3. Cumulative Frequency
two events
Fill in each cell with the correct number of outcomes

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Cumulative frequency is the total frequency up to a given Number of an item ∘

θ= × 360
point Total number of items
​

Inter-quartile range = upper quartile −

lower quartile

9.4. Box-and-whisker plots

Construction
Find median and two quartiles Sum of angles in a pie chart is 360
∘

Draw three lines of equal width along these values

Complete the boxes
Draw ‘whiskers’ extending from the box to the
9.6. Stem and Leaf diagrams
maximum and minimum values.
Stem-and-Leaf diagram is a quick way of summarizing a
Draw two more lines at the ends
range of data.
There is a column known as the stem, contains which
contains unique elements of data formed by removing
last digits of the data.
Keys are used in this diagram

Interpretation:
Median, quartiles and extreme values can be found by
reading on the scale of y-axis
Short boxes mean low IQR and vice versa (2), (3)
Long whiskers mean a lot of extreme values and vice
versa (1) 9.7. Pictograms
Difference in position of boxes represents if data in
one set is overall higher or lower than another data Data is represented in pictures
set. (3) and (4) A key is given to represent the value of a picture.
Variation in lengths of different sections and position
of median show how evenly the data is spread,
compared to other data sets (1) E.g. = 5 people

9.5. Pie Charts Favorite Fast Food of 100 Children

Sectors represent data, and these sectors form a circle.

9.8. Scatter Diagrams
Angle of a sector:
b f

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Displays the correlation between two sets of data

May have positive, negative or no correlation

Line of best fit drawn through points that has an equal

number of points on each side to show the trend

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

1.2. Motion
1. MOTION, FORCES AND Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time.
ENERGY Use the equation
d
v= t Where:
​

1.1. Physical quantities and v is speed

d is distance
measurement techniques t is time
Velocity is defined as the speed in a given direction.
Making measurements (apparatus):
Distance Time Graphs and Speed Time Graphs
Liquids: A graduated measuring cylinder.
A pipette (accurate for one specific measurement)
Time: Stopwatch (reading to 0.1s or better)
Length: Metre rule (graduated in mm)
Micrometer Screw Gauge
Vernier Calliper
Volume: Measuring Length, Width, Height Distance-Time Graphs
Measuring volume by displacement 1 Acceleration
Mass: Top pan balance, precision of 0.1g 2 At rest
3 Deceleration
Vectors and Scalars:
4 Constant Speed
Scalar: has magnitude only
e.g. distance, speed, time, mass, energy and temperature
Vector: has magnitude and direction
e.g. force, weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum, electric
field strength and gravitational field strength
Speed-Time Graphs
1 Increasing Acceleration
2 Constant Speed
3 Decreasing Acceleration
4 Uniform Acceleration
5 Uniform Deceleration
6 Decreasing Deceleration
7 Increasing Deceleration

Acceleration:

Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity per unit of

time.
Δv
a = v−u
Δt = Δt Where:
​

a is acceleration
v is final velocity
u is initial velocity
Δt is change in time

Falling objects:

Acceleration of free fall g for an object near to the surface

of the Earth is constant and is approximately 9.8 m/s².
At the beginning of the paper, the instructions will tell you
to use 10 m/s² or 9.8 m/s². This detail can be very
important.

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Terminal Velocity: Centre of mass:

An object which is falling because of acceleration due to The centre of mass is the place at which all of the object's
gravity through the atmosphere is subjected to two external mass is concentrated. Because gravity works only on one
forces. One force is the gravitational force, expressed as the spot in the item. For regularly formed objects, the centre of
weight of the object. The other force is the air resistance or mass is in the centre.
drag of the object. It is critical to understand where a body's centre of mass is
An object has terminal velocity when those two forces are located, as this dictates the body's stability. When a body is
equal. tilted slightly, the line of action of its weight passes through its
base, it is stable.
1.3. Mass and Weight
Resultant forces:
Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at
Determine the resultant of two or more forces acting along
rest relative to the observer. The mass of a body is a
the same straight line.
measure of the amount of matter in it.
An object either remains at rest (stationary) or continues in a
Weight is a gravitational force on an object that has mass.
straight line at constant speed unless acted on by a resultant
Gravitational field strength g is defined as force per unit
force.
mass.
A resultant force may change the velocity of an object by
The equation for gravitational field strength is :
changing its direction of motion or its speed.
g=W
m ​

Gravitational field strength is equivalent to the acceleration of Springs:

free fall.
Weights (and masses) may be compared using a balance. Sketch, plot and interpret load-extension graphs for an elastic
The weight of an object is the effect of a gravitational field on solid (eg. metal wire) and be able to describe any
its mass. experimental procedures.
The limit of proportionality is a point on a load-extension
graph beyond which the graph is no longer a straight line.
1.4. Density Spring constant is defined as force per unit extension. \n
Recall and use the equation:
Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
The equation for density is: k = Fx ​
Where:
p = mv ​ F is the force or load
With this equation, you can determine the density of a liquid, x is the extension
of a regularly shaped solid and of an irregularly shaped solid k is the spring constant ( N/m, N/cm, N/mm)
which sinks in a liquid. You need to record its mass, then
volume and then substitute it through the equation. Hooke’s Law
Know whether an object floats based on density data. A
higher density means that the object will sink. A lower density F = kx
makes it float. This is called buoyancy. Recall and use the equation F = ma and know that the force
and acceleration are in the same direction.
How to determine whether one liquid will float on F = ma
another liquid based on density data given that the When F is the force in N
liquids do not mix: m is mass in kg
a is acceleration in m/s²
The liquid with a larger density will descend below the other
liquid. Centripetal Force
A liquid floats over the other liquid if it has a lower density.
Describe the motion in a circular path due to a force
1.5. Forces perpendicular to the motion.
In a circular motion, if speed increases, the force needed
A force is a push or a pull. increases (mass and radius are constants).
Forces may produce changes in the size, shape and In a circular motion, if radius decreases, the force needed
velocity of an object. increases (mass and speed are constants). In a circular
Solid friction is the force between two surfaces that may motion, if mass is increased, an increased force is
impede motion and produce heating. required to keep speed and radius constant.
Friction (drag) acts on an object moving through a liquid
or a gas (air resistance). Moments of forces

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Moment of a force as a measure of its turning effect.

The moment of a force is defined as moment = force x
perpendicular distance from the pivot.
Apply the principle of moments to situations with one
force on each side of the pivot, including balancing of a
beam. When there is no resultant force and no resultant
moment, an object is in equilibrium.
Apply the principle of moments in situations with more
than one force on each side of the pivot.
Describe an experiment to demonstrate that there is no
resultant moment on an object in equilibrium.
The stability of an object depends on the position of its
centre of gravity.

Energy transfer diagrams :

1.6. Energy Work and Power
Energy 'stores’ are: kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical,
elastic (strain), nuclear electrostatic and internal (thermal).
Energy is transferred between stores during events and
processes.
Energy is transferred by forces (mechanical work done),
electrical currents (electrical work done), heating, and by
electromagnetic, sound and other waves.

The principle of the conservation of energy.

Sankey Diagrams:
The principle of energy conservation states that energy is
neither created nor destroyed. It may transform from one
type to another.
Energy can only be used by converting it from one form to
another. Unless energy is added from the outside, a system
always possesses the same quantity of energy.
The chemical energy of the batteries is transformed into
electrical energy in a torch, which is then converted into light
and heat. This energy is either absorbed or reflected by the
environment.
Mechanical or electrical work done is equal to the energy
Kinetic energy formula: transferred.
The equation for (mechanical) work done is:
W = F d = ΔE
Units : Joules (J)
Where:
W = Work Done
F = magnitude of the force
d = the distance in the direction of the force

Energy Resources

Useful energy may be obtained, or electrical power

generated, from:
Non-Renewable Energy
Change in gravitational potential energy formula: Renewable Energy Sources
Sources
Fossil Fuels Wind
Oils Tidal
Coal Hydro-electric
Natural Gas Geothermal

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Non-Renewable Energy Power is defined as work done per unit time and also as
Renewable Energy Sources
Sources energy transferred per unit time.
Solar (EM Waves from the W
Nuclear P=
sun)
​

t
- Biofuels ΔE
P= ​

t
Some sources of energy derive their energy from the sun. P = power (watt)
These are: W = work done (J)
ΔE = energy transferred (J)
Coal - formed from dead trees that have used energy T = time (s)
from the sun to produce hydrocarbons that have become
coal under pressure 1.7. Momentum
Biofuels - organic matter that is burned in order to
produce energy Momentum is defined as mass x velocity (kg m/s)
Hydro-electric - energy relies on the sun’s energy to run
the water cycle so energy can be harnessed The equation for momentum is p = mv Where:
Wind - gets heated and rises up and cooler air flows to fill p is momentum
the space m is mass
Solar - Electromagnetic waves from the sun are captured v is velocity
by photocells and turned into energy Resultant force is defined as the change in momentum per
unit time:
Environmental Δp
Renewability Availability Reliability Scale
Impact
F= Δt ​

Wind ✓ high low high on birds ∴ F = mΔv

Δt ​

Solar ✓ high low high low impact Impulse of a force is defined as force x time for which force
Almost no acts:
Geothermal ✓ low high low Impulse = F Δt = Δ(mv)
impact
Biofuels ✓ high high high low impact
The principle of the conservation of momentum:
Hydro- impacts
✓ high high high
electric marine life
General law of physics according to which the quantity called
Tidal ✓ high low low - momentum that characterises motion never changes in an
Greenhouse isolated collection of objects; that is, the total momentum of a
Coal ☓ high high low
gases closed system remains constant.
Radioactive
Nuclear ☓ low high high
substances 1.8. Pressure
Boilers, turbines and generators are used to generate Pressure is defined as force per unit area, and measured in
electricity in a power plant. N/m or Pa. 1 Pa = 1 N/m
The equation for pressure is: p = Fa ​ Where:
p is pressure
F is force
a is area
Pressure beneath the surface of a liquid changes with depth
and density of the liquid. The change in pressure beneath the
surface of a liquid is given by the equation:
change in pressure = density x gravitational field strength x
change in depth

Efficiency: Δp = ρgΔh Where:

Δp= pressure difference in pascals (Pa)
Useful energy output ρ = density in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
Efficiency = × 100 g = gravitational field strength (N/kg)
Total energy input
​

Δh = change in height/height of vertical column (m)

Power:
2. # Kinetic Model of Matter

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Properties of the 3 States of Matter - The molecular In Solids, when temperature increases it makes the
Model particles vibrate faster and expands slightly in volume.
In Liquids, when temperature increases particles move
faster around each other and expand.
In Gases, the volume increases by a large amount.
Increasing internal energy of an object :
Heating
Rubbing
Shaking
Increased Temperature → Increased Internal Energy →
Increase in average kinetic energy of particles

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The mass of the object

The material of the object
The temperature change required
The amount of energy required to change the
temperature of a material depends on its Specific Heat
Particles that make up matter can be made of one or Capacity
more atoms
As particles of gas strike the walls of containers, their ΔE
momentum changes and a force is created which can be c= ​

calculated using :
mΔθ
Where :
ΔP
Fnet = m = mass (kg)
Δt
​ ​

c = specific heat capacity ( J/K g o C )

Temperature has an Absolute Zero : -273℃ ΔE = energy provided ( J )
Brownian Motion is the random motion of particles Δθ = change in temperature ( o C )
suspended in a fluid resulting from their collision with fast
moving atoms or molecules in the fluid. Note : 1 Joule = 1 Watt for 1 sec \n J = W x t (s)

2.1. Pressure and Volume at Constant Melting, Boiling and Evaporation \n

Temperature (Boyle’s Law)
Melting Boiling Evaporation
P , V , T (Constant) Occurs at a fixed Occurs at a fixed Occurs at any
1 temperature temperature temperature
P ∝ P is inversely proportional to V
Speed depends on Relatively fast Relatively slow
​

V
energy supply process process
k
P = Takes place at the Takes place
V Takes place at the
​

∴ k = PV surface of the solid throughout the

surface only
only liquid
P1 V1 = P2 V2
​ ​ ​ ​ No bubbles Bubbles are formed No bubbles
Temperature Temperature Temperature may
Temperature Conversions : remains constant remains constant change
Heat from Heat from
Celcius to Kelvin o C → K : K = o C + 273 External thermal
surroundings or surroundings is
Kelvin to Celcius K → o C : o C = K − 273 energy source
external source enough required

2.2. Thermal Properties and 2.3. Thermal Energy Transfers

Temperature
Conduction Convection Radiation
All Materials expand as they get warmer
It is impossible to restrict the thermal expansion of solids
and liquids

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Conduction Convection Radiation Describe an experiment to show the refraction of light by

Infrared Radiation transparent blocks of different shapes.
Fluid Conductors and Describe the passage of light through a transparent
Thermal material.
Trapped air pockets Electromagnetic
conductors Particle The critical angle is the angle made to the normal in the
prevent convection waves All objects
to Particle denser material when the angle of refraction is 90°.
flow emit and absorb
radiation The equation for critical angle is:

Through movement Fluid with more

It depends on
and vibration of energy rises above
temperature,
delocalised less energy to
colour, surface
electrons \n Not for create convection
area and texture
Vacuums current
Ex : Radiators or Ex : Vacuum of
Ex : Kitchen Pans
heaters space

Radiation vs Colour and Texture

Describe internal reflection and total internal reflection.

Refractive index, n, is defined as the ratio of the speeds of
a wave in two different regions
The equation for refractive index is:

Radiation vs Temperature and Surface Area

Describe the use of optical fibres, particularly in
telecommunications.
Temperature ∝ Surface area ∝ Energy emitted A thin converging lens converges a parallel beam of light.
Thin diverging lens diverges a parallel beam of light.
3. # Light The principal focus (focal point) is the point on the
principal axis where parallel waves passing through the
lens meet.
Light is an electromagnetic wave that is capable of The principal axis is a line of symmetry passing through
passing through free space or through a material medium
the centre of the lens.
in the form of varying electric and magnetic fields.
The focal length is the distance from the centre of the lens
Normal is a line drawn at right angles between the
to the principal focus
boundary of two materials.
How to draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a
The angle of incidence is the angle made by the incident real image by a converging lens.
ray to the normal. The angle of reflection is the angle
Describe the characteristics of an image using the
made by the reflected ray to the normal.
terms enlarged/same size/ diminished,
The image formed by a plane mirror has the following
upright/inverted and real/virtual.
characteristics: same size, same distance from the
Know that a virtual image is formed when diverging
mirror, and virtual. rays are extrapolated backwards and do not form a
The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is
visible projection on a screen.
equal to the angle of reflection.
Draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a
How to use simple constructions, measurements and
virtual image by a converging lens.
calculations for reflection by plane mirrors.
The angle of refraction is the angle made by the refracted
ray to the normal.

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Position of Relative size of Nature of taking into account the fact that the sound has to travel
Position of Image
Object image Image there and back.
Point sized, Real and Sound travels at 343 metres per second in air, 1493
At Infinity At Focus metres per second in water, and 5130 metres per second
very small Inverted
in steel.
Real and
Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Diminished For a healthy human ear, the audible frequency range is
Inverted
20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
Real and Ultrasound is defined as sound having a frequency of
At 2F At 2F Same size
Inverted more than 20000 Hz:
Between F Real and Ultrasound is partially reflected back when it reaches a
Beyond 2F Enlarged
and 2F Inverted border between two media. The remaining waves pass
Huge, very Real and through. A transceiver can produce ultrasound and collect
At Focus F At Infinity the reflected waves to determine the distance of objects
large Inverted
below the surface. Ultrasound is utilised for SONAR and
On the same side of
Between F Virtual and medical imaging without the usage of ionising radiation.
the lens as the Enlarged
and O Erect
object
3.3. General Properties of Waves
Describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass.
A converging lens is used to correct long-sightedness.
A diverging lens is used to correct short-sightedness
The dispersion of light as shown by the refraction of white
light passing through a glass prism.

Wavelength (λ): distance between two crests or troughs,

measured in mm cm or m
Frequency: Number of complete waves that go past a given
point per unit of time.
Know the seven colours (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, Measured in hertz (Hz) 1Hz = 1 complete wave per unit
indigo and violet) of white light, and that frequency second
increases from red to violet and wavelength decreases Amplitude: The maximum particle displacement of the wave
from red to blue. from the undisturbed position, measured in mm cm or m
Visible light of a single frequency or wavelength is Speed: Distance travelled by the wave per unit time,
described as monochromatic. measured in m/s, cm/s or mm/s
Wavefront: A line drawn to represent the peaks of a wave in
3.2. Sound two dimensions. The distance between two adjacent
wavefronts is the wavelength of the wave. Wavefronts can be
Longitudinal waves produced by vibrating sources are used to show some properties of waves.
known as sound waves. Sound waves require a medium to
be transmitted (such as air). Relationship between speed,
Compressions - high pressure ; Rarefactions - low
pressure frequency and wavelength:
Solids transmit sound the fastest, liquids are slower, and
gases are the slowest. wave speed = frequency × wavelength ; v =f ×λ
The louder a sound wave is, the greater its amplitude. Reflection, refraction and diffraction (using water waves in a
The higher the pitch of a sound wave, the higher its ripple tank) :
frequency.
An echo is a reflection of sound waves.
DESCRIBING A METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE SPEED
OF SOUND IN AIR:
Make a noise at a known, significant distance from a solid
wall and record the time it takes for the echo (reflected
sound) to be heard, then use speed = distance/time,

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1 1
Frequency = f=
period (s)
​ ​

T
1 1
Period (s) = T=
Frequency Frequency
​ ​

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they can be transferred by rubbing. E.g. Rubber Charging

4. Electricity and Magnetism insulators by friction

Suspend one of the insulating materials using a cradle

4.1. Magnetism
and a length of string so that the material can rotate
A magnet has a north pole and a south pole. freely Rub one end of the material using a cloth (in order
The magnetism is strongest at the poles. to give it a charge) Now take a second piece of insulating
Unlike poles attract and like poles repel. material and charge that by rubbing with a cloth
A magnetic material is defined as something that can be Hold the charged end of the second piece close to the
magnetised temporarily or permanently. charged end of the first piece: If the first piece rotates
When we refer to a 'magnet', we are referring to a away (is repelled) from the second piece then the
permanent magnet, made of magnetically hard materials. materials have the same charge If the first piece moved
Permanent magnets remain magnetic (hard) whereas towards (is attracted to) the second piece then they have
temporary magnets lose their magnetism (soft). opposite charges
A soft magnetic material can be induced by attracting it to
a strong magnet, however it loses its magnetism once it is
Simple Electrostatic Experiments
removed.
A magnetic field is a region in which a magnetic pole
experiences a force.
The direction of a magnetic field at a point is the direction
of the force on the north pole of a magnet at that point.

Magnetic field lines can be plotted using a compass or

iron filings.
The spacing between the magnetic field lines shows how
strong the field is. As the field lines get further away, the
force gets weaker.
Electromagnetism is explained in the next few lessons.

4.2. Electrical Quantities

Electric Charge (measured in Coulombs)
Attraction and Repulsion of Point Charges
positive or negative
similar charges repel, opposite charges attract
Electrical conductors and insulators Conductors:
materials that let electrons pass through them. Metals
are the best electrical conductors as they have free
electrons. E.g. copper

Insulators: materials that hardly conduct at all. Their

electrons are tightly held to atoms and hardly move, but

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Alternating Current vs Direct Current

Direct Current (dc)

Direct current is produced when using dry cells and

batteries (and sometimes generators, although these are
usually ac)
The electrons flow in one direction only, from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal.
Conventional current flows from the positive to the
negative terminal
Current
Alternating Current (ac)
Current: a flow of charge, the SI unit is the Ampere (A).
An ammeter measures the current in a circuit and is Alternating current typically comes from mains electricity
connected in series and generators
Current is a rate of flow of charge It is needed for use in transformers in the National Grid
In metals, current is caused by a flow of electrons (covered later in this topic)
The direction of electron flow changes direction
regularly
A typical frequency for the reversal of ac current in
mains electricity is 50 Hz

Electromotive Force (EMF)

The energy supplied by the source in driving a unit charge
around a complete circuit.
The maximum voltage a cell can produce is called the
Current follows path of least resistance
electromotive force (EMF), measured in volts.
Conventional current flows in the direction opposite to When a current is being supplied, the voltage is lower
that which electrons flow in. because of the energy wastage inside the cell.
Red = Conventional Current A cell produces its maximum PD when not in a circuit and
Green = flow of electrons not supplying current.

Potential Difference (P.D)

Potential difference, or PD for short, is also known as

voltage.
Voltage is the amount of energy the cell gives the
electrons it pushes out. Voltage is measured in volts (V)
and is measured by a voltmeter (connected in parallel). If
a cell has 1 Volt, it delivers 1 Joule of energy to each
coulomb of charge (J/C).

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Measuring potential difference and voltage

Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter.

Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the component
being tested. The potential difference is the difference in
electrical potential between two points, therefore the
voltmeter has to be connected to two points in the circuit.

Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to current. For a given potential
difference, the higher the resistance, the lower the current.
Therefore resistors are used in circuits to control the current.
The unit of resistance is the ohm Ω.
Current
Resistance (Ω) =
Voltage
​

Factors affecting resistance:

Length
Ω∝L
The electrons have to travel a longer length and thus
encounter more resistance.
Cross-sectional area

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1 Component Symbol Function

Ω∝
A
​

Supplies the
More electrons can flow per unit time, increasing the
Cell electrical energy to
current and therefore decreasing the resistance.
the circuit
Current Voltage (IV Graphs)

As the potential difference (voltage) across a component is

increased, the current in the component also increases. The A battery is more
precise relationship between voltage and current can be Battery
than one cell.
different for different types of components and is shown by
an IV graph:

A power supply is a
device that converts
one voltage to
Power Supply d.c.
another more
and a.c.
convenient voltage
while delivering
(Ohmic Conductor = Resistor) power.
Electrical Energy and Electrical Power Electrical energy is Instrument used to
transferred from the battery or power source to the circuit Ammeter measure electrical
components then into the surroundings. current.
ΔE Instrument used to
1 Watt is 1 J/s P =
measure potential
​

t Voltmeter
P = IV ∴Electrical power = Voltage (V) × Current (A)
difference.
ΔE
IV = ∴Electrical energy = Voltage (V) × Current (A) ×
t Converts electrical
​

Time (s) Lamp

energy to light.
E = V It
Restricts the flow of
The Kilowatt Hour ​ electrical current.
Can be used to limit
Fixed Resistor
This energy is commonly measured in kilowatt-hour (kW h), the flow of current to
which is then used to calculate the cost of energy used. 1 kWh a particular
is the electrical energy transferred by a 1 kW appliance in 1 component.
hour Used to control
Energy in kWh = power in kW x time in hours. current and
Variable Resistor
To convert between Joules and kWh: resistance in a
circuit.

Converts heat to
Thermistor
electrical resistance.
Explanation:
ΔE = Pt ⟹ 1kWh = 1kW × 1h Light-Dependent Converts light to
1J Resistor electrical resistance.
1Watt = and 1kW = 1000W ⟹ 1kW =
​

s Converts electrical
1000J Heater
​
energy to heat.
s
⟹ 1kWh = 1000J × 3600s = 3.6 × 106 J To provide a variable
Circuit diagrams and components potential difference.
Component Symbol Function To split the potential
Potential Divider difference of a
In open position the
power source
Switch circuit is broken so
between two or
no current flows
more components.

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Component Symbol Function Component Symbol Function

A transformer is a A motor is a device
device that transfers that can convert
Motor
electric energy from electrical energy into
one alternating- mechanical energy.
current circuit to one
Transformer or more other A device which only allows
circuits, either Diode
current to flow in one direction
increasing (stepping
up) or reducing Light Emitting
A diode that emits light
(stepping down) the Diode (LED)
voltage.
Electromagnetic
coils are used in 5. Atomic Physics
electrical
engineering, in
applications where 5.1. Nuclear Model of The Atom
electric currents
All matter is made up of atoms.
Magnetising interact with
Coils magnetic fields, in
devices such as
electric motors,
generators,
inductors,
electromagnets and
transformers.
A safety device
which melts to break
the circuit if the
Fuse electrical current
flowing through it
exceeds a specified
value.
The relay permits a
small amount of
electrical current to
control high current
loads. When voltage
is supplied to the
coil, small current
Relay
passes through the The structure of an atom is simple.
coil, resulting in a
larger amount of Alpha Scattering Gold Foil experiment
current passing (Rutherford’s)
through the contacts
to control the
electrical load.
An electric generator
is a device that
converts mechanical
Generator energy obtained
from an external
source into electrical
energy as the output.

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Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear Fusion reactions power the Sun and other stars. In a

The Atom fusion reaction, two light nuclei merge to form a single
heavier nucleus. The process releases energy because the
Nucleus: central part of atom made of protons (positively total mass of the resulting single nucleus is less than the
charged) and neutrons. These two types of particles are mass of the two original nuclei. The leftover mass becomes
called nucleons. They are bound together by the strong energy.
nuclear force.
Electrons: almost massless particles which orbit nucleus
in shells
Proton number: number of protons in an atom
Nucleon number: the number of nucleons (protons +
neutrons) in an atom
The following is the nuclide notation for atoms

5.2. Radioactivity
Detecting radiation

ISOTOPES It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to

radiation
Atoms of the same element that have different numbers Ionising nuclear radiation is measured using a GM Tube
of neutrons e.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon 14. detector connected to a radiation counter.
They have identical chemical properties but can have Count rate is the number of decays per second recorded
different physical properties eg: radioactive by a detector and recorded by the counter. It is measured
in counts/s or counts/min
Nuclear Fission The count rate decreases the further the detector is from
the source. This is because the radiation becomes more
Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom spread out the further away it is from the source
splits into two or more smaller nuclei, because of the addition
of an electron. The fission process often produces gamma
photons, and releases a very large amount of energy.

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- Helium Nucleus \n - - Relative -short wavelength

Relative charge of +2 \n - charge of -1 EM waves \n -
2p and 2n \n -1e− uncharged

Effects of electricity & magnetism on radioactive

emissions, and ionisation caused by them.

Alpha Beta Gamma

Electric Move away from Move towards
No change
fields + particles + particles
Magnetic Use the left hand Use the left
No change
fields rule hand rule
Ionises most Ionises least
Ionises lesser
Ionisation particles due particles because
particles
great mass no charge

Radioactive Decay

During α-decay or β-decay, the nucleus changes to a

different element
Background Radiation The initial nucleus is often called the parent nucleus
The nucleus of the new element is often called the
It is important to remember that radiation is a natural daughter nucleus
phenomenon During α-decay, 2p and 2n is lost and hence the nucleon
Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in number and proton number changes and a new element
outer space is formed.
However, human activity has added to the amount of During β-decay, one neutron from the nucleus changes
radiation that humans are exposed to on Earth. into a proton and electron. The electron is removed from
Background radiation is defined as the radiation that the atom and given out as radiation.
exists around us all the time. During gamma ray decay, the nucleus releases an EM
The sources of it include : radioactivity in air, cosmic rays, wave and rearranges itself internally. No change is made
rocks and buildings, food and drink, medical, nuclear in the number of subatomic particles.
power and testing.

The three types of nuclear emission

Atomic nuclei of most isotopes are unstable.

To become stable they give out radiation. As the radiation
moves away it takes some energy with it. This makes the
nucleus more stable. This is called radioactive decay.
This cannot be controlled by external factors so it is
known as a spontaneous and random event.
The 3 types of radioactive emissions are:

Half Life

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It is impossible to know when a particular unstable

nucleus will decay
But the rate at which the activity of a sample decreases
can be known. This is known as the half-life. Half-life is
defined as:

The time taken for half the nuclei of that isotope in any
sample to decay
Nuclide notation is the notation of an element when it is
The activity of a source is measured in becquerels. (Bq)
written with its proton number and nucleon number. \n A
Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives
nuclear reaction would take place like this.
can vary from a fraction of a second to billions of years in
length
Half-life can be determined from an activity–time graph

The time it takes for the activity of the sample to decrease

from 100 % to 50 % is the half-life
It is the same length of time as it would take to
decrease from 50 % activity to 25 % activity 6. Earth and The Solar
The half-life is constant for a particular isotope
System
Uses of isotopes
6.1. Earth and Other Bodies
Medical procedures including diagnosis and treatment of
cancer The Earth rotates around its axis, which is tilted 23.5
Sterilising food (irradiating food to kill bacteria)
degrees, from West to East and revolves around the sun
Sterilising medical equipment (using gamma rays) in 365.25 days.
Checking the thickness of materials
The Earth has a Southern Hemisphere and a Northern
Smoke detectors (alarms)
Hemisphere divided by the Equator.
Medical and industrial tracers
Hemisphere: half of a sphere; Earth is divided into 2
hemispheres.
Safety Precautions

Minimise the amount of time you handle sources for and

return them to their boxes as soon as you have finished
using them
During use, keep yourself (and other people) as far from
the sources as feasible. When handling the sources do not
point at human tissue, using a pair of tweezers
Store the sources in lead-lined boxes.
Sometimes you can wear lead lined aprons

Nuclide Notation and Nuclear reactions.

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There are 2 basic types of questions: c99eb0c0beb3e19bef78e8bfed6bc564

Countries at the equator do not experience season

changes as the sun hits them at the same angle at all

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times. The dust particles clump together and form the inner
The solar system consists of eight planets: Mercury, rocky planets while gasses orbit the centre farther away
Venus, Earth and Mars are the inner, rocky planets. and form gas giants.
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the outer, gas The centre of the accretion disk starts to form a new star
giants. called a protostar. At this point, gravity is still pulling mass
There are millions of asteroids and meteoroids orbiting together.
the sun, mainly found between Mars and Jupiter.

Comets are balls of ice, dust and gas. They orbit the sun in a
Our Solar System
very elliptical orbit leaving a trail of gas and dust behind.
The Sun makes up about 99.8% of the mass of the solar
However, this is not the tail of the comet because the tail
system. It has a strong gravitational pull keeping al the
always faces away from the Sun.
planets in orbit.

We know from the chapter of circular motion that in order for

an object to move in a circular path, a force needs to act on
the object towards the centre of its orbit.

All the planet’s orbits are elliptical and the measure of

how elliptical it is is called eccentricity.
The centre of orbit is not directly on the sun but close
enough to the centre that we say that we orbit the sun.

Source: IGCSE textbook 0625

The Formation of A Solar System

Our solar system was formed when a molecular cloud
collapsed into itself because of its own gravity. Gasses and
dust particles start to come together getting closer and
faster. They gain speed in a spinning motion. This process is
called accretion. The disk formed by accretion is called the
accretion disk.
https://static8.depositphotos.com/1163607/1070/i/950/depositp
stock-photo-our-solar-system.jpg
The reason all orbits are not perfectly circular is because of
the energy changes during its orbital period.
The star pulls the body of mass towards itself. This pull
generates speed which, we know, will cause the body to move
away from the star. (Increasing speed increases the size of
the orbit.)
There are only two main types of energy we need to consider
in space.

1. Kinetic Energy
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A planet close to the sun has a low GPE but a high KE. A
Gravity pulls heavier particles close together toward the planet far away from the sun has a high GPE and a low KE.
centre. How to calculate orbital speed:
The gasses get hot and pressurised enough to start
The formula for speed is distance/time. We consider the
nuclear fusion.
orbits to be perfectly circular in this situation. The formula
is:
2

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2πr Accretion begins to pull matter in.

Orbital speed = ​

A protostar is formed (refer to previous card for revision)

t
A stable star is born when gravity is equal to the radiation
pressure exerted by the high temperature and nuclear
Universe and Stars fusion.
Radiation pressure - the outward force due to the high
temperature of the star.
6.2. Sun
The Sun produces energy through nuclear fusion of hydrogen
into helium.

It is made of 75% hydrogen, 24% helium and the rest is

made of other elements like oxygen and carbon.
40% of its energy is visible light, 50% of it is infrared
radiation and 10% is ultraviolet.
Matter exists as plasma in the sun’s core which has a
temperature of 15 000 000K, and a surface temperature
of 5800K.
It has a mass of 2 × 10 30 Kg which is often referred to as
solar mass.

Light Year and Distances

http://www.cosmos.esa.int/documents/519784/1188283/Hydros
A light-year is the distance travelled by light in one year. So:
8 be12-4a56-9da8-592533719992?t=1476554115279
one light-year = 3 × 10 m/s × 365.25 days ×
24 hours × 3600 seconds = 9.5 × 10 15 m Life Cycle of a Star Less Than Eight Solar Masses
Astronomers can also use other ways to measure distances.
They can be done using parallax. This is when the stars Like the sun, a stable star fuses hydrogen into helium. This is
appear to move across the sky when we view them from a stable main sequence star. Our sun is 4.5 billion years old
different points on our orbit. and about half-way though its time as a stable star.

Main sequence - stable star that is burning up hydrogen in

its core; once it has used up 12% of its hydrogen it goes
onto another stage of its life cycle.

Once it burns through the hydrogen, it starts to fuse helium.

This requires a higher temperature at the core. It becomes a
red giant which are larger stars with cooler surfaces.
Eventually the core will collapse into a white dwarf star not
exceeding 1.4 solar masses.
It is not hot enough to fuse the elements inside it and cools to
Point A is Earth in the summer and point B is Earth in the become a black dwarf.
winter. The telescope is pointed towards X at point A and the The outer shell is blown off by radiation pressure and
stars are seen. The telescope is pointed in the direction of X becomes a planetary nebula.
at point B - denoted by the dotted line - and shows that the
same stars cannot be seen. The telescope is moved twice the Red Giant - a star that began with fewer than eight solar
parallax angle to see the point Y. masses and is burning helium at its core; the shell of
We can use trigonometry to calculate the distance between hydrogen has expanded and cooled.
the stars and the Earth. White dwarf - the final stage of a star that started with
fewer than eight solar masses after all its fuel has been
used up
Stars and Star Life Cycles
There might be 200 billion stars in the Milky Way. A star starts
out as a protostar. Interstellar clouds are dust clouds that
exist between stars. Molecular clouds are clouds mostly of
hydrogen that is cold and dense enough to collapse and form
stars.

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heavier elements and pushing matter out into space as a

nebula.
After the supernova, the core becomes one of two things:
a neutron star or a black hole.
A neutron star is formed if the mass of the core is less
than about 3 solar masses. It forces protons and
electrons together to form neutrons.
A heavier core will keep collapsing till it becomes so
dense that not even light can escape it. It becomes a
black hole.

https://schoolworkhelper.net/wp-
content/uploads/2010/05/life-cycle-of-star.jpg Spectroscopy
The Life Cycle of A Star Exceeding Eight Solar There are many dark lines in the wavelengths of visible light
coming from the Sun. This is because the cool gas in the Sun’s
Masses
atmosphere absorbs them. A spectrum with these absorption
It begin as a protostar but the core is more massive and hot lines is known as an absorption spectrum.
enough to fuse heavier elements further from the core. The
outer shell expands into a red supergiant.

Red Supergiants - similar to red giants, they form when

stars with at least 8 times the mass of the sun run out of
hydrogen fuel in their core but fusion of hydrogen
continues in their outer shell

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live.com/binaries/asset/image/18408/image/Redshift_of_spectr
The top line represents the absorption spectrum observed in
an experiment in earth and the bottom line is a redshifted
one from a distant galaxy.

Redshift is the shifting of light to the red end of the

spectrum which has longer wavelengths.
Redshift is caused by the Doppler effect

The Doppler Effect

The doppler effect is the rise or fall in pitch as the source of
https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/H58eVHSXEQH37qkPX2qdUC70S6-
the wave moves closer or away from us. Here is an example.
U0kITDK1YQqFDsIe1kN2SRXc5cd66h-
Kyh4n5JZweLHyFi8lSqL0HSpIER3PubnM-
RwIRzk3yVsK88RyJuwaDholouMZFGrQuzShftvpurUk
The layers go in order of outer-most to inner-most:
HYDROGEN, HELIUM, CARBON, OXYGEN, NEON,
MAGNESIUM, SILICON and then IRON.

It is not possible to make elements heavier than iron by

nuclear fusion.
Once all the fuel runs out, the star collapses in a
supernova, providing the energy to fuse the iron into

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( For a detailed understanding, refer the new text book,

Chapter 25, Page 477 - 478 )

Hubble’s Law
The Doppler effect can be used to work out how fast galaxies
are moving away from us. The speed at which galaxies are
moving away from us is proportional to the distance away
from us.

https://www.youphysics.education/wp-
content/uploads/Doppler2.webp

The ambulance is moving at a certain speed towards the

right.
As the siren rings once, the sound wave is produced and
starts to move away from that point.
By the time the siren rings again, the ambulance has
moved.
The ambulance closes that gap between itself and the
wave in front of it.
This causes the second wave to be released closer to the
https://physicsanduniverse.com/wp-
first wave. The waves ahead of the vehicle compress as it
content/uploads/2014/02/Hubble-Law-2010.jpeg
approaches and observer B hears a rising pitch.
The line of best fit is Hubble’s Law:
The wave emitted behind the car is moving in the opposite
V = Ho d where v is the recession speed of the galaxies, d is
direction. The car is moved away before emitting a
​

their distance from us and Ho is the Hubble Constant

second wave.
​

The Hubble constant is the gradient of this graph:

The waves behind the ambulance are further apart giving v
it a receding pitch as the waves are stretched behind the Ho = ​ ​

vehicle. Observer A hears a receding pitch. d

Estimate for the age of the Universe:
The Doppler effect is a property of all waves including light. It d 1
=
is proof that the Universe is expanding and suggests that the
​ ​

v Ho ​

galaxies must have been close together in the past. The reciprocal (inverse) of the Hubble constant is known as
Hubble time because it can be used to work out the age of the
The Big Bang Theory and Cosmic Microwave universe. The current estimate for Ho is 2.2 x 10^-18 per
Background Radiation second.
We know that:
The theory that the Universe had a beginning is the Big distance
Bang Theory which states that the Universe (space, time, time = So: ​

matter, energy) was created at a single point 13.8 billion

speed
d 1
years ago and has been expanding and cooling ever tuniverse = = ​ ​

since. v Ho ​

The Big Bang was not an explosion. The singularity was Therefore the age of the Universe is:
unimaginably hot and dense which has been expanding 1 1
tuniverse = = = 4.5 × 1017 s =
and cooling. Neutral atoms could not form due to the heat 2.2 × 10−18
​ ​

Ho ​

of the early Universe; they would ionise. 14.4 × 109 years

Light continuously scattered around until the universe The Universe began at a single point (called a singularity)
cooled.
about 14.5 billion years ago.
The expansion of the Universe has caused the wavelength
of the light to redshift.

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Physics

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