Sets and Relations

Subject: Mathematics
Module Number: 2

Module Name: Sets and Relations

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 Sets and Relations

Syllabus
Introduction theorems on sets, sets and elements, Venn diagrams, set operations, Algebra of sets,
duality, Classes of sets, Power sets, Real vector spaces and subspaces null spaces, Dimension of
vector spaces, Column spaces, Geometrical vectors in a plane, Vectors in a Cartesian plane, Scalar
multiplications, Euclidean inner product of two vectors, Application of dot and scalar
multiplications, Vectors in three dimensional spaces, Cross product in three dimension, Relations
and its properties, Order relations, Hasse diagrams.

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Aim

The aim of this module is to understand thoroughly the concept of set theory, relations and vector
space and solve the problems.

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Objectives
• Understand the operation on sets, algebra of sets and different types of sets.
• Prove the simple mathematical theorems on sets.
• Illustrate the VENN diagram and solve the problems.
• Learn the concept of vector space, subspace and null space.
• Calculate the length and direction of vectors.
• Apply the concept of geometrical vectors and vectors in a three dimensional space.
• Know what is relations, order relations(partial) and the difference between them. Study the
properties of relations.
• Describe the concept of relation, solve the problems using Hasse diagram.

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Outcomes

At the end of this chapter you are expected to

• Recognize different types of sets, prove theorems on sets. Solve the problems using Venn
diagram.
• Examine a given set is a vector space and decide whether or not a subset of a vector space is a
subspace
• Explain what is meant by null space, column space and row space.
• Make a difference between relations and partial order relations.
• Solve the problems using Hasse diagram.

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Table of Content

• Special Symbols
• Sets and Elements of Sets
• Representation of Sets
• Types of Sets
• Venn Diagram
• Operation on Sets
• Algebra of Sets
• Duality
• Classification of Sets

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Sets and Relations
SPECIAL SYMBOLS

We use special symbols to denote some specific sets. Few such standard symbols are:
• N = the set of natural numbers or positive integers: 1, 2, 3, . . .
• Z = the set of all integers: . . . ,−2,−1, 0, 1, 2, . . .
• Q = the set of rational numbers
• R = the set of real numbers
• C = the set of complex numbers
• Observe that N ⊆ Z ⊆ Q ⊆ R ⊆ C.

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Sets and Relations

SETS AND ELEMENTS OF A SETS:

A set is a well defined collection or aggregate of all possible objects. The objects comprising a set a
set are called elements or members or points of the sets.

Sets are often denoted by capital letters, viz., A, B, C, D, E, etc and the elements of a set is denoted
by small case letters. The number of elements in a set is separated by commas.

e.g. A = {m, n, o}

If m is a member of a set then symbolically we can write it as, m ϵ A.

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REPRESENTATION OF SETS:
• A) Tabular / Roster representation

• B) Set builder representation

A) Tabular / Roster representation: The Set is defined by listing the elements.

Example X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
The above set represents the natural numbers below 10

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B) Set builder representation:

Sets are described by writing the properties possessed by their members.
Example 1) Suppose we want to represent set of natural number below 10, we can describe it in
set builder form as follows.
Way 1: Y ={x: x ϵ N, x<10} OR
Way 2: Y ={x: x ϵ N, x ≤ 9}

Example 2) The set A of all non-negative rational numbers with square less than 2 will be written
as
A= {x: x ϵ Q, x ≥ 0, x2 < 2}

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TYPES OF SET:

1) Subset: Suppose every element in a set A is also an element of a set B, that is, suppose a ∈ A implies a
∈ B. Then A is called a subset of B. We also say that A is contained in B or that B contains A. This
relationship is written
A ⊆ B or B ⊇ A

2) Equal sets: Two sets are equal if they both have the same elements or, equivalently, if each is contained
in the other. That is:
A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A

3) Proper subset: If A ⊆ B and A ≠ B, then we say A is a proper subset of B (sometimes written A ⊂ B).

4) Singleton set: If a set contains only one element then it is called as singleton set.
For example: A = {2}, B = {g}. Here the set A and B are singleton set.

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5)Null OR Empty set: The set which does not contain the element at all is called the Null set. It is denoted
by ф.
6) Universal set: All sets under investigation in any application of set theory are assumed to belong to some
fixed large set called the universal set which we denote by U

7) Disjoint Sets:
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they have no elements in common.

For example, suppose A = {1, 2}, B= {4, 5, 6}, and C = {5, 6, 7, 8}

Then A and B are disjoint sets as they have not a single element in common.
similarly, A and C are disjoint.
But set B and C are not disjoint since B and C have (5 and 6) both the elements in common.

Note that if A and B are disjoint, then neither set is a subset of the other (unless one is the empty set).

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Properties:
1) Every set is a subset of itself.
2) An empty set is a subset of every set.
3) Suppose every element of a set A belongs to a set B and every element of B belongs to a set C. Then clearly
every element of A also belongs to C.
In other words, if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C.

Venn Diagram:
A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets. Sets are represented by enclosed areas in the
plane. The universal set U is represented by the interior of a rectangle. And the other sets are represented by
disks lying in the rectangle.
Examples: How we can represent set with the help of Venn diagram.
1) If A ⊆ B, then the disk representing A will be entirely within the disk representing B as in Figure (a).

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2) If A and B are disjoint, then the disk representing A will be separated from the disk
representing B as in Figure (b).

3) If A and B are two arbitrary sets, it is possible that some objects are in A but not in B, some
are in B but not in A, some are in both A and B, and some are in neither A nor B; hence in
general we represent A and B as in Figure (c).

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Operations on sets:
1) UNION:
The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is defined as, the set of all elements which belong to
either A or to B; that is,
A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
The following figure is a Venn diagram in which A ∪ B is shaded.

2) INTERECTION:
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of elements which belong to both A and
B; that is,
A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
The following figure is a Venn diagram in which A ∩ B is shaded.

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3) DISJOINT SET:
If set A and B have no common points, i.e., A ∩ B = ф, then the sets are said to be disjoint, mutually
exclusive or non-overlapping.

EXAMPLE (on union, intersection and disjoint set)

1) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, C = {2, 3, 8, 9}. D= {5,6} Then calculate
i) A ∪ B ii) A∪ C iii) B∪ C iv) A ∩ B v) A∩ C vi) B∩ C vii) A∩ D

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Solution:
i) A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7},
ii) A∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9},
iii) B∪ C = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9},
iv) A ∩ B = {3, 4},
v) A∩ C = {2, 3},
vi) B∩ C = {3}.
vii) A∩ D = ф

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Properties:
1) Every element x in A∩B belongs to both A and B; hence x belongs to A and x belongs to B. Thus A ∩ B is a
subset of A and of B; namely
A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B
2) An element x belongs to the union A∪ B if x belongs to A or x belongs to B; hence every element in A
belongs to A ∪ B, and every element in B belongs to A ∪ B. That is,
A ⊆ A ∪ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B

Theorem: For any sets A and B, we have:

(i)A ∩ B ⊆ A ⊆ A ∪ B and
(ii) A ∩ B ⊆ B ⊆ A ∪ B.

Theorem: The following are equivalent:

A ⊆ B, A ∩ B = A, A ∪ B = B.

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4) COMPLEMENTARY SET:
It is denoted by AC. is a set containing all elements of the universal set U(say) that are not a elements of set A
is called Complementary set.
AC = {x | x ∈ U, x /∈ A} OR AC = U – A
The following Figure is a Venn diagram in which AC is shaded.

5) RELATIVE COMPLEMENT/ RELATIVE DIFFERENCE :

The relative complement of a set B with respect to a set A or, simply, the difference of A and B, denoted by
(A\B, The set A\B is read “A minus B.” or A – B or A ~ B.) is the set of elements which belong to A but which
do not belong to B; that is
A\B = {x | x ∈ A, x /∈ B}
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The following Figure is a Venn diagram in which A\B is shaded.

6) SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE:
The symmetric difference of sets A and B, denoted by A Δ B, consists of those elements which belong to A or B
but not to both. That is,
A Δ B = (A ∪ B)\(A ∩ B) or
A Δ B = (A\B) ∪ (B\A)

The following Figure is a Venn diagram in which A Δ B is shaded.

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Algebra of sets: Important properties concerning operations on a set.

Idempotent laws:
(1a) A ∪ A = A
(1b) A ∩ A = A
Associative laws:
(2a) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
(2b) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
Commutative laws:
(3a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A
(3b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A
Distributive laws:
(4a) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
(4b) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Identity laws:
(5a) A ∪ ф = A
(5b) A ∩ U = A
(6a) A ∪ U = U
(6b) A∩ ф = ф
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Involution laws:
(7) (AC)C = A
Complement laws:
(8a) A ∪ AC = U
(8b) A ∩ AC = ф
(9a) UC = ф
(9b) фC = U
De-Morgan’s laws:
(10a) (A ∪ B)C = AC ∩ BC
(10b) (A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ BC

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Duality
The above identities are arranged in pairs, as, for example, (1a) and (1b), another (2a) and (2b) etc. We
now consider the principle behind this arrangement. Suppose E is an equation of set algebra. The dual E*
of E is the equation obtained by replacing each occurrence of
{∪, ∩, U (universal set) and ф} in E by {∩, ∪, ф, and U},
respectively.
For example, the dual of
(U ∩ A) ∪ (B ∩ A) = A is (ф ∪ A) ∩ (B ∪ A) = A

Observe that the pairs of laws given in algebra of set above are duals of each other. It is a fact of set
algebra, called the principle of duality, that if any equation E is an identity then its dual E* is also an
identity.

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Theorem 1.1: Let A, B, C be any sets. Then:
(i) A ⊆ A
(ii) If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, then A = B
(iii) If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C
Theorem 1.2: For any set A, we have ф ⊆ A ⊆ U.

Classification of sets:
There are two types of a set
A) Finite
B) Infinite
If a set contains the exact number of elements then the set is said to be finite otherwise it is said to be infinite.
Example.1: Set defined as, A consists of a vowels of English alphabets is a finite set.
A = {a, e, i, o, u}

Example.2: Set defined as, P is the set of points lying between the interval [0,1] is infinite.
P = {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}
The sets are also classified as countable and uncountable. In the above example the set A is countable and set P is
uncountable.

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Lemma 1.6: Suppose A and B are finite disjoint sets. Then A ∪ B is finite and
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B)
This lemma may be restated as follows:
Lemma 1.6: Suppose S is the disjoint union of finite sets A and B. Then S is finite and
n(S) = n(A) + n(B)
Proof: In counting the elements of A ∪ B, first count those that are in A. There are n(A) of these. The only
other elements of A ∪ B are those that are in B but not in A. But since A and B are disjoint, no element of B is
in A, so there are n(B) elements that are in B but not in A. Therefore, n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B).
Inclusion–Exclusion Principle
There is a formula for n(A ∪ B) even when they are not disjoint, called the Inclusion–Exclusion Principle.
Suppose A and B are finite sets. Then A ∪ B and A ∩ B are finite and
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)
That is, we find the number of elements in A or B (or both) by first adding n(A) and n(B) (inclusion) and then
subtracting n(A ∩ B) (exclusion) since its elements were counted twice.

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Extension:
Suppose A, B, C are finite sets. Then A ∪ B ∪ C is finite and
n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(A ∩ C) − n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

CLASSES OF SETS:
Given a set S, we might wish to talk about some of its subsets. Thus we would be considering a set of sets.
Whenever such a situation occurs, to avoid confusion, we will speak of a class of sets or collection of sets
rather than a set of sets. If we wish to consider some of the sets in a given class of sets, then we speak of
subclass or sub-collection.
EXAMPLE 1. Suppose S = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
(a) Let A be the class of subsets of S which contain exactly three elements of S. Then
A = [{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 3, 4}, {2, 3, 4}]
That is, the elements of A are the sets {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 3, 4}, and {2, 3, 4}.

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(b) Let B be the class of subsets of S, each which contains 2 and two other elements of S. Then
B = [{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {2, 3, 4}]
The elements of B are the sets {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, and {2, 3, 4}. Thus B is a subclass of A, since every
element of B is also an element of A. (To avoid confusion, we will sometimes enclose the sets of a class in
brackets instead of braces.)
POWER SET:
For a given set S , we may speak of the class of all subsets of S. This class is called the power set of S
, and will be denoted by P(S). If S is finite, then so is P(S). In fact, the number of elements in P(S) is 2 raised
to the power n(S). That is,
n(P (S)) = 2n(S)
The power set of S is sometimes denoted by 2S.)

EXAMPLE: Suppose S = {1, 2, 3}. Then

P(S) = [ф, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, S]

Note that the empty set ф belongs to P(S) since ф is a subset of S. Similarly, S belongs to P(S). As expected
from the above remark, P(S) has 23 = 8 elements
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VECTOR SPACE (DEFINITION) :

A (real) vector space V is a non-empty set equipped with an addition operation and a scalar multiplication
operation such that for all α, β ∈ R and all u, v,w ∈ V:
1. u + v ∈ V (closure under addition).
2. u + v = v + u (the commutative law for addition).

3. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (the associative law for addition).

4. There is a single member 0 of V, called the zero vector, such that for all v ∈ V,

v + 0 = v.

5. for every v ∈ V there is an element w ∈ V (usually written as −v), called the negative of v, such that

v + w = 0.
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6. αv ∈ V (closure under scalar multiplication).

7. α(u + v) = αu + αv (distributive law).
8. (α + β)v = αv + βv (distributive law).
9. α(βv) = (αβ)v (associative law for scalar multiplication).
10. 1v = v.

This list of properties, called axioms

Note: A vector space as we have defined it is called a real vector space, to emphasize that the ‘scalars’ α,
β and so on are real numbers rather than (say) complex numbers.

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Example: The set V = {0} consisting only of the zero vector is a vector space,
with addition defined by 0 + 0 = 0, and
scalar multiplication defined by α0 = 0 for all α ∈ R.

LINEAR COMBINATION :
For vectors v1, v2, . . . , vk in a vector space V, the vector
v = a1v1 + a2v2 +・ ・ ・+akvk
is known as a linear combination of the vectors v1, v2, . . . , vk. The scalars ai are called coefficients.

Example: Suppose we want to express the vector w = (1, -4)T in R2 as a linear combination of the vectors v1
= (1, 2)T and v2 = (1,−1)T. Then we solve the system of linear equations given by the components of the
vector equation

If α = −1 and β = 2 Then w = −v1 + 2v2,

Substituting the value in the equation we get,

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Subspace: A subspace W of a vector space V is a non-empty subset of V that is itself a vector space under the same
operations of addition and scalar multiplication as V.
If V is a vector space and W ⊆ V is non-empty and closed under scalar multiplication and addition, then W too is a
vector space (and we do not need to verify that all the other axioms hold).

Note: Suppose V is a vector space. Then a non-empty subset W of V is a subspace if and only if both the following
hold:
for all u, v ∈ W, u + v ∈ W (that is, W is closed under addition),
for all v ∈ W and α ∈ R, αv ∈ W (that is, W is closed under scalar multiplication).

Deciding if a subset is a subspace:

How any subset S of a vector space V is a subspace?
1.Check the requirement for a vector in V to be in the subset S.
E.g. Check that 0 ∈ S.
If 0 does not belong to S, then you know immediately that S is not a subspace.
If 0 ∈ S, then using some vectors in the subset, see if adding them and scalar multiplying them will give you
another vector in S.
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Subspace: A subspace W of a vector space V is a non-empty subset of V that is itself a vector space
under the same operations of addition and scalar multiplication as V.
If V is a vector space and W ⊆ V is non-empty and closed under scalar multiplication and addition,
then W too is a vector space (and we do not need to verify that all the other axioms hold).

Note: Suppose V is a vector space. Then a non-empty subset W of V is a subspace if and only if both
the following hold:

for all u, v ∈ W, u + v ∈ W (that is, W is closed under addition),

for all v ∈ W and α ∈ R, αv ∈ W (that is, W is closed under scalar multiplication).

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Deciding if a subset is a subspace:

How any subset S of a vector space V is a subspace?
1.Check the requirement for a vector in V to be in the subset S.
E.g. Check that 0 ∈ S.

If 0 does not belong to S, then you know immediately that S is not a subspace.

If 0 ∈ S, then using some vectors in the subset, see if adding them and scalar multiplying them
will give you another vector in S.

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Null space (Definition): For an m × n matrix A, the null space of A is the subset of Rn given by
N(A) = {x ∈ Rn | Ax = 0},
where 0 = (0, 0, . . . , 0)T is the zero vector of Rm.
This null space, denoted BY N(A),
Suppose that A is an m × n matrix. Then the null space N(A), the set of solutions to the homogeneous linear system Ax
= 0, is a subspace of Rn.

Result: For any m ×n matrix A, N(A) is a subspace of Rn.

Basis (Definition): linearly independent subset of S which spans S is called a basis for S.
Recall:
1)Let V be a vector space with a basis
B = {v1, v2, . . . , vn}
of n vectors. Then any set of (n + 1} vectors is linearly dependent.
2) Suppose that a vector space V has a finite basis consisting of r vectors. Then any basis of V consists of exactly r
vectors.

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3) A vector space which has a finite basis – that is, a basis consisting of a finite number of vectors – is said to be
finite-dimensional. Not all vector spaces are finite-dimensional. If a vector space does not have a basis consisting of
a finite number of vectors, then it is said to be infinite-dimensional
Dimension:
If a vector space V has a finite basisi.e., a basis consisting of a finite number of vectors, then all bases of V contain
precisely the same number of vectors.
Definition: The number k of vectors in a finite basis of a vector space V is the dimension of V, and is denoted
dim(V).
For example: The vector space V = {0} is defined to have dimension 0.

Column space(Definition): If A is an m × n matrix, and if c1, c2, . . . , cn denote the columns of A, then the column
space of A, CS(A), is
CS(A) = Lin{c1, c2, . . . , cn}.
The column space of an m × n matrix A is a subspace of Rm.

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Euclidean space: (Definition):

The m-dimensional real Euclidean space, denoted by Rm, is the Cartesian product of m sets, each equal to
R1:
Rm = R1 x R1 …. R1xR1 m times:
Thus Rm consists of m-tuples of real numbers and is often called the real coordinate space.

We can write m-tuples of real numbers either as 1 x m row vectors or as m x 1 column vectors, yielding
the real coordinate spaces:

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The inner product of two vectors

For v,w ∈ Rn, the 1 × 1 matrix vTw can be identified with the real number, or scalar, which is its unique
entry. This turns out to be particularly useful, and is known as the inner product of v and w.

Definition 1.34 (inner product): Given two vectors

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the inner product, denoted <v,w>, is the real number given by

The inner product, is also known as the scalar product of v and w, or as the dot product. In the latter case, it
is denoted by v.w.
The inner product of v and w is precisely the scalar quantity given by

Note: the inner product is just a number, a scalar, not another vector or a matrix.

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Properties:
The inner product
<x, y> = x1y1 + x2y2 +・ ・ ・+ xn yn , x, y ∈ Rn
satisfies the following properties for all x, y, z ∈ Rn and for all α ∈ R:
(i) <x, y> = <y, x>,
(ii) α <x, y> = <αx, y> = <x, αy>,
(iii) <x + y, z> = <x, z> + <y, z>,
(iv) <x, x> ≥ 0, and <x, x> = 0 if and only if x = 0.

Vectors in R2:
The set R can be represented as points along a horizontal line, called a real-number line. In order to represent pairs of
real numbers, (a1, a2), we use a Cartesian plane, a plane with both a horizontal axis and a vertical axis, each axis being a
copy of the real-number line, and we mark A = (a1, a2) as a point in this plane. We associate this point with the vector a =
(a1, a2)T, as representing a displacement from the origin (the point (0, 0)) to the point A. In this context, a is the position
vector of the point A.

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The displacement is given by an arrow, or directed line segment, with the initial point at the origin and the terminal
point at A, is given in the following figure.

(position vector a)

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Suppose a displacement does not begin at the origin, two displacements of the same length and the same direction
are considered to be equal.
For example, the two arrows given in the following figure represent the same
vector, v = (1, 2)T.

(Displacement vectors, v)

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If an object is displaced from the origin (0, 0), to a point P by the displacement p, and then displaced from P to Q by
the displacement v, then the total displacement is given by the vector from 0 to Q, which is the position vector q. So
we would expect vectors to satisfy q = p + v, both geometrically (in the sense of a displacement) and algebraically (by
the definition of vector addition). This is certainly true in general, and is given in the following figure.

If v = (v1, v2)T, then

q1 = p1 + v1 and
q2 = v2 + p2

If v represents a displacement, then

2v must represent a displacement twice in the same direction and
−v represents an equal displacement in the opposite direction.

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LENGTH OF A VECTOR:
Given a vector a = (a1, a2)T, its length is denoted by ||a ||,(it is a scalar quantity) calculated as

Example: v = (1, 2)T, calculate the length of the vector.

Solution:

1) The direction of a vector is essentially given by the components of the vector. If we have two vectors a and b which are (non-zero) scalar
multiples, say
a = λb, λ∈ R, (λ ≠ 0),
then a and b are parallel.
If λ > 0, then a and b have the same direction.
If λ < 0, then we say that a and b have opposite directions.
2) The zero vector, 0, has length 0 and has no direction.

LENGTH AND ANGLE:

Let a, b be two vectors in R2. The angle between them is denote by θ, θ such that
0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
(Two vectors and the angle between them)
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Theorem 1.43 Let a, b ∈ R2 and let θ denote the angle between them. Then
<a, b> = ||a|| ||b|| cos θ.
Proof: The law of cosines states that c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos θ, where
c = ||b – a||, a = ||a||, b = ||b||. That is,

||b – a|| 2 = ||a|| 2 + ||b||2 – 2||a|| ||b|| cos θ. (1)

Expanding the inner product and using its properties, we have

||b – a||2 = <b − a, b – a> = <b, b> + <a, a> − 2<a, b>,
so that
||b – a||2 = ||a||2 + ||b||2 – 2<a, b>. (2)

Comparing equations (1) and (2) above, we conclude that

<a, b> = ||a|| ||b|| cos θ.

Geometrical consequences: The angle between two vectors by using

cos θ = <a,b>/||a|| ||b||
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Example:

Vectors in three dimensional space:

A line in R3 is given by a vector equation with one parameter,
x = p + tv , t ∈ R,
where ,
x is the position vector of any point on the line,
p is the position vector of one particular point on the line and
v is the direction of the line,

.Note: The equation, x = tv represents a parallel line through the origin.

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Sets and Relations
Cartesian Equation: A line in R3 by Cartesian equations we have
x = p1 + tv1, y = p2 + tv2, z = p3 + tv3.
Solving each of these equations for the parameter t and equating the results, we have the two equations
,

Ordered Pairs:
Given two sets A and B, one of the basic constructions of set theory is the formation of an ordered pair, <a, b>, where a ϵ
A and b ϵ B. Sometimes, we also write (a, b) for an ordered pair.

Cartesian Product: The Cartesian product of A and B, A 3 B, consists of all ordered pairs whose first element is in A and
whose second element is in B:
A x B = {(x, y) | x ϵ A and y ϵ B}.
Example: Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}
A x B = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}.

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 Sets and Relations
Relations:
The elements of sets may be related in various ways. We can say that set A is related to set B if A is a subset of B, or if
A is not a subset of B, or if A and B have at least one element in common.
For example, A number x is said to be related with a number y if x < y, or if x is a factor of y, or if x + y = 1
Example: Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and let us say that an element x in A is related to an element y in B if
and only if, x is less than y.
We will use the notation x R y for the sentence “x is related to y.”
Then
0 R 1 since 0 <1,
0 R 2 since 0 <2,
0 R 3 since 0 < 3,
1 R 2 since 1 < 2,
1 R 3 since 1 < 3, and
2 R 3 since 2 < 3.

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Sets and Relations
Definition(Relation):
Let A and B be sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset of A 3 B. Given an ordered pair (x, y) in A 3 B, x is related
to y by R, written x R y, if, and only if, (x, y) is in R. The set A is called the domain of R and the set B is called its
co-domain.
The notation for a relation R may be written symbolically as follows:
x R y means that (x, y) ϵ R.
Equivalence Relations:
The notion of an equivalence relation is a generalization of the notion of equality.
Properties:
1. a = a, for all a.
2. If a = b and b = c, then a = c, for all a, b, c.
3. If a = b, then b = a, for all a, b.

Definition: A binary relation R on a set X is an equivalence relation, if and only if, it is reflexive, transitive, and
symmetric, that is:

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Sets and Relations
1.Reflexive: Each element is related to itself.
Notation: a R a, for all a ϵ X

2.Symmetric: If any one element is related to any other element, then the second element is related to the first.
Notation: If a R b and b R c, then a R c, for all a, b, c ϵ X.

3. Transitive: If any one element is related to a second and that second element is related to a third, then the first element is related
to the third.
Notation: If a R b, then b R a, for all a, b ϵ X

A) Properties of relations on finite sets:

Example: Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and define relations R on A as follows:
R = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 3), (1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 3)},
Is R reflexive? symmetric? transitive?
Solution: R is reflexive: As each element of A is related to itself.
R is symmetric: Whenever one element of A is related by R to a second, then the second is related to the first.
R is not transitive: 1 R 0 and 0 R 3 but 1 does not relate 3.

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Sets and Relations
Exercise:
Let A 5 {0, 1, 2, 3} and define relations S, and T on A as follows:
S = {(0, 0), (0, 2), (0, 3), (2, 3)},
T = {(0, 1), (2, 3)}. Check
a. Is S reflexive? symmetric? transitive?
b. Is T reflexive? symmetric? transitive?

B)Properties of equality:
For all real numbers x and y,
x R y ⬄ x = y.

R is reflexive: R is reflexive if, and only if, the following statement is true:
For every x ϵ R, x R x.
(x R x just means that x = x)

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Sets and Relations

R is symmetric: R is symmetric if, and only if, the following statement is true:
For every x, y ϵ R, if x R y then y R x.
(x R y means that x = y and y R x means that y = x.)

R is transitive: R is transitive if, and only if, the following statement is true:
For every x, y, z ϵ R, if x R y and y R z then x R z.
(x R y means that x = y, y R z means that y = z, and x R z means that x = z.)

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Sets and Relations
3) Properties of “less than”:
For all real numbers x and y,
x R y ⬄ x < y.
R is not reflexive
R is not symmetric
R is transitive

Partial Order Relations:

Let R be a relation defined on a set A. R is a partial order relation if and only if, R is reflexive, antisymmetric,
and transitive.

Antisymmetry:
Let R be a relation on a set A. R is antisymmetric if, and only if, for every a and b in A,
if a R b and b R a then a = b.

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Sets and Relations
Hasse Diagrams:
A partial order relation on a set X can be represented by means of a diagram known as a Hasse diagram of (X, R)

Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 9, 18} and consider the “divides” relation on A:

For every a, b ϵ A,
a | b ⬄ b = ka for some integer k.
Solution:
R = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3) (1,9) (1,18), (2,2), (3,3), (3,9), (3,18), (9,9), (9,18), (18,18)}
The directed graph of this relation has the following appearance:

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 Sets and Relations
Description of directed graph: There is a loop at every vertex, all other arrows point in the same
direction (upward), and any time there is an arrow from one point to a second and from the second point
to a third, there is an arrow from the first point to the third.

To obtain a Hasse diagram, proceed as follows:

Start with a directed graph of the relation, placing vertices on the page so that all arrows point upward.
Then eliminate
1. The loops at all the vertices,
2. All arrows whose existence is implied by the transitive property, and
3. The direction indicators on the arrows.
For the relation given in the example, the Hasse diagram is as follows:

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Sets and Relations

Exercise: Draw the Hasse diagram for the partial order set {P(S), ⊆} where P(S) is the power
set on S = {a, b, c}

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 Sets and Relations
Summary

● In this module, we have covered various concepts starting with the introduction theorems on sets we
have covered sets and its elements, venn diagrams, set operations, algebra of sets and duality. We have
understood what are the classes of sets, power sets, real vector spaces and subspaces null spaces.
● The understanding of dimension of vector space, column spaces, geometrical vectors in a plane, and
vectors in a cartesian plane are very important when we go for the application.
● We had a clear understanding of various topics like scalar multiplications, euclidean inner product of two
vectors, application of dot and scalar multiplications, vectors in three dimensional spaces, cross product
in three dimension and relations and its properties, order relations along with Hasse diagrams.

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Sets and Relations
Self Assessment Questions

1) Power set of empty set has exactly ______ subset.

a) Zero
b) One
c) Two
d) Three

Answer: One

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Sets and Relations

2) Which of the following two sets are equal?

a) A = {a, b} and B = {a, c}
b) A = {a, b, c} and B = {a, c, b}
c) A = {a, b, t} and B = {a, c, t}
d) A = {a, } and B = {a, c}

Answer: b) A = {a, b, c} and B = {a, c, b}

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Sets and Relations

3) What is the Cartesian product of A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b}

a) {(1, a), (1, b), (2, b), (a, a)}
b) {(1, a), (1, b), (2, b), (a, a)}
c) {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}
d) {(1, a), (1, b), (2, b), (a, a)}

Answer: c) {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}

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Sets and Relations

4) The member of a set X = {x|x is the cube of an integer and x< 100}
a) {1, 2, 3}
b) {1, 2, 3, 4}
c) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
d) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

Answer: d) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

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Sets and Relations

5) The number of subsets of a set containing n elements is

a) n
b) 2n
c) 2n - 1
d) n - 1

Answer: b) 2n

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Sets and Relations

6) A ___ is an ordered collection of objects.

a) Relation
b) Function
c) Set
d) Proposition

Answer: c) Set

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Sets and Relations

7) The set O of even positive integers less than 10 can be expressed by

a) {1, 2, 3}
b) {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}
c) {2, 4, 6, 8}
d) {1, 6, 4, 8}
Answer: c) {2, 4, 6, 8}

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Sets and Relations

8) The Cartesian product of B x A is equal to the Cartesian product A x B

a) True
b) False
c) May be
d) None of these

Answer: b) False

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Sets and Relations

9) Hasse diagram was first made by

a) A. R. Hasse
b) Helmut Hasse
c) Dennis Hasse
d) T. P Hasse
Answer: b) Helmut Hasse

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Sets and Relations

10) If a partial order is drawn as a Hasse diagram in which no two edges cross, its covering graph is
called
a) Upward planar
b) downward planar
c) Lattice
d) Biconnected components

Answer: a) Upward planar

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Sets and Relations

11) The relation ≤ is a partial order if it is

a) Reflexive, Anti-symmetric, and transitive
b) Reflexive and Anti-symmetric
c) Anti-symmetric, and transitive
d) Reflexive, and transitive

Answer: a) Reflexive, Anti-symmetric, and transitive

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Sets and Relations

12) The set of positive integers is

a) Finite
b) Infinite
c) Subset
d) Empty

Answer: a) Finite

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Sets and Relations

13) The relation R defined on the set of natural numbers as {(a, b) : a differs from b by 3} is given
by
a) {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)….}
b) {(4, 1), (5, 2), (6, 3)….}
c) {(4, 1), (5, 2), (6, 4)….}
d) None of these
Answer: b) {(4, 1), (5, 2), (6, 3)….}

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Sets and Relations

14) dim (row space) + dim (null space) = _____

a) Number of columns
b) Rows
c) Orthogonal Matrix
d) None of these

Answer: a) Number of columns

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Sets and Relations

15) Every matrix transforms its row space onto its column space
a) True
b) False
c) May be
d) Cannot say

Answer: a) True

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Sets and Relations
Assignment
1. If f (x) = cos (log x), then find the value of f (x) * f (4) − [1 / 2] * [f (x / 4) + f (4x)].
2. Let a relation R be defined by R = {(4, 5); (1, 4); (4, 6); (7, 6); (3, 7)} then R −1 o R is ________.
3. In a college of 300 students, every student reads 5 newspapers, and every newspaper is read by 60 students. The number of
newspapers is ________.
4. If A = [(x, y) : x2 + y2 = 25] and B = [(x, y) : x2 + 9y2 = 144], then A ∩ B contains _______ points.
5. If f (x) = a cos (bx + c) + d, then what is the range of f (x)?

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Sets and Relations
Document Link: e-References

Topic URL Notes

https://books-library.net/files/books-libra
Sets and
ry.online-06302005Ry3Y7.pdf Sets and Relations
Relations

Basic Concepts https://people.umass.edu/partee/NZ_200 Basic Concepts of Set

of Set Theory 6/Set%20Theory%20Basics.pdf Theory

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Sets and Relations
Video Links

Topic URL Notes

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J730
Sets, Relations and
Set Theory 7XODxRw
Functions

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Sets and Relations
eBook Links

Name of the eBook Link Notes

Primers Series Vol 1 https://www.cosc.brock Sets, Relations and
u.ca/~duentsch/archive/ Functions
methprimer1.pdf

75