Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering 2014-15

CHAPTER – I

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Lab Manual For I-II B.Tech EEE Students

Name of the Lab:

Basic Electrical Engineering Lab

Prepared By:
B.SATISH, Assistant Professor.
G.KOTESWARA RAO, Assistant Professor.
K.SURESH, Assistant Professor.

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GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE :: GUDLAVALLERU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING LAB

LIST OF EXPERMENTS LIST

1. STAIR CASE WIRING

2. GODOWN WIRING

3. SINGLE SWITCH SINGLE LOAD CONTROL

4. ONE WAY AND TWO WAY SWITCH CONTROL

5. FLUORESCENT LAMP FITTING

6. SERIES CONNECTION OF THREE BULBS

7. OHM‟S LAW

8. KIRCHOFF‟S CURRENT LAW

9. KIRCHOFF‟S VOLTAGE LAW

10. RMS, AVERAGE AND FORM FACTOR

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STAIR CASE WIRING

Aim: To Make the Wiring circuit to control one lamp by means of two two-way switches
provided at two different required places using PVC conduit wiring system.

Apparatus:

S.No. Description of Item Range Qty

1 Two-way Switches 230V,5A 2

2 Lamp 230V,60W 1

3 Holders -- 1

4 Round Blocks -- 1

Circuit Diagram:

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Theory:
Staircase wiring or multiway switching or two way light switch wiring is a commonly using
connection to control a load from two different positions.That is from above or below the
staircase, from by the side of the bed or door, indoor or outdoor,etc... staircase wiring helps to
operate a lamp from two frequently using position. And also to off the load after use if the load
is a lamp or something that is used for only passage from one position to another.

Staircase wiring makes the feasibility for the user to turn ON and OFF the load from two
different positions,its circuit arrangement is in such a way, from common pole we can switch to
both 1 & 2 poles, the 1st pole is connected to 1st pole of next and 2nd pole to the 2nd pole of the
next, i.e both poles to corresponding pole of the other. The phase of supply is connected to the
common pole of one switch and phase supply to the load is taken from the common pole of the
next switch. So in such an arrangement to close the circuit both the switches should be in the
same position in order to make the two common poles in contact to achieve a closed circuit.
Changing ON & OFF condition of a single switch can determine whether the circuit is closed or
open. Thus, in staircase wiring we can control from both positions.

Procedure:

1. All the connections are made as per the wiring diagram.

2. Supply is given to the circuit after verifying the connections.
3. The bulb glows, when the two switches are in the same position.
4. The bulb can be controlled by activating the switch from any switch board

Tabularform:

S.No SPDT1 SPDT2 Bulb Status (ON/OFF)

1 Position 1 Position 2

2 Position 1 Position 2l

3 Position 1l Position 2

4 Position 1l Position 2l

Precautions:

1. The switches must be in off position before giving supply.

2. Avoid loose connections.
3. Control switch should be connected to the phase only.

Result:

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GODOWN WIRING

Aim: To prepare a godown wiring circuit with P.V.C conduit wiring system.

Apparatus:

S.No. Description of Item Range Qty

1 Two-way Switches 230V,5A 2

2 One-way Switch 230V,5A 1

3 Lamp 230V,60W 3

4 Holders -- 3

5 Round Blocks -- 3

Circuit Diagram:

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Theory:
The circuit in a ling corridor or godown meets the requirement of the person.

When the person enters corridor from one end and can put on light L1 from switch S1.when
he reaches the switch (S2) in a corridor or the second room in a godown he can put on the
respective room‟s light L2 and simultaneously he can turn off the previous light L1 in that single
operation. Similarly this process is continuous up to the end light of the corridor or godown.This
process of lighting up the present lamp and putting off the previous lamp is carried from the last
light to the first light in the circuit. The main disadvantage of this system is

1. The operation should be carried in a sequence only i.e. from the beginning switch to the
ending switch then from the ending switch to the beginning switch only.
2. Under any circumstances if the switch S1 is kept in off position intermediately, the entire
system will be turned into off or the circuit will become dead.

Procedure:

1. Draw the plan of the circuit diagram on the board with a piece of chalk.
2. Cut the P.V.C pipe in to required sizes.
3. Fix the P.V.C pipes and junction boxes by means of saddles and screws.
4. Cut the P.V.C Insulated copper conductor into required pieces of length.
5. Run the P.V.C Insulated copper conductor with the help of G.I wire or spring wire through
P.V.C. pipes.
6. Fix the ceiling rose at required places and give the wiring connections as per the circuit
diagram.
7. Fix the switches on the board and give the connections.
8. Place the incandescent lamps in their holders and give the supply to the circuit.
9. Switch on the switches in a scheme and observe the lamps that glow as per the circuit.

Tabularform:

S.No SPST SPDT1 SPDT2 Bulb 1 Status Bulb 2 Status Bulb 3 Status

1 ON Position 1 Position 2

2 ON Position 1l Position 2

3 ON Position 1l Position 2l

Precautions:

1. Before giving the supply, thoroughly check the connections as per the circuit.
2. Avoid loose and wrong connections.
Result:

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SINGLE SWITCH SINGLE LOAD CONTROL

Aim: To prepare a Single switch single load control.

Apparatus:

S.No. Description of Item Range Qty

1 2-Pin Socket 230V,5A 1

2 One-way Switch 230V,5A 1

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

1. All the connections are made as per the wiring diagram.

2. Supply is given to the circuit after verifying the connections

Precautions:

1. The switches must be in off position before giving supply.

2. Avoid loose connections.
3. Control switch should be connected to the phase only.

Result:

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ONE WAY AND TWO WAY SWITCH CONTROL

Aim: To prepare a One way and Two way Switch Control.

Apparatus:

S.No. Description of Item Range Qty

1 One-way Switch 230V,5A 1

2 Two –way Switch 230V,5A 1

3 Lamps 60W 2

4 Lamp Holders -- 2

5 Round Blocks -- 2

Circuit Diagram:

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Procedure:

1. All the connections are made as per the wiring diagram.

2. Supply is given to the circuit after verifying the connections
3. The bulb glows dim position.

Tabularform:

1).One Way Switch Control:

S.No SPST Position Bulb Status

1 ON

2 OFF

2).Two Way Switch Control:

S.No SPDT Position Bulb 1 Status Bulb 2 Status

1 Position A

2 Position B

Precautions

1. The switches must be in off position before giving supply.

2. Avoid loose connections.
3. Control switch should be connected to the phase only.

Result:

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FLUORESCENT LAMP FITTING

Aim: To draw the wiring circuit and make the connections for Fluorescent lamp.

Apparatus:

S.No. Description of Item Range Qty

1 Tube Light 230V 1

2 One-way Switch 230V,5A 1

3 Starter -- 1

4 Tube Frame -- 1

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:
These lamps are made from tubes of two electrodes are provided on either ends with
sealing. The electrodes are coated with coated with electron emissive material (oxides of barium
and strontium). The inner walls of the tube in coated with Fluorescent powder. The tube also
contains a small quantity of argon gas at a pressure of 2.5 mm of mercury and few drops of
mercury. A starter is provided in the circuit which puts the electrodes directly across the supply

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at the time of starting. A choke is connected in series with the electrodes which provide a voltage
impulse at the time of starting and acts as ballast during running conditions.

Procedure:

1. Give the connections to the fluorescent lamp as per the circuit diagram
2. Give the supply to the circuit and observe the result.

Precautions:

1. Before giving the supply, thoroughly check the connections as per the circuit.
2. Avoid loose and wrong connections.

Result:

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SERIES CONNECTION OF THREE BULBS

Aim: To draw the wiring circuit and make the connections for Series connection of three bulbs.

Apparatus:

S.No. Description of Item Range Qty

1 One-way Switch 230V,5A 1

2 Lamp 230V,60W 3

3 Holders -- 3

4 Round Blocks -- 3

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:

Procedure:

1. All the connections are made as per the wiring diagram.

2. Supply is given to the circuit after verifying the connections

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Precautions:

1. The switches must be in off position before giving supply.

2. Avoid loose connections.
3. Control switch should be connected to the phase only.

Result:

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OHM‟S LAW

Aim: To conduct a suitable experiment for verifying the ohm‟s law.

Apparatus:

S.No. Description of Item Range Qty

1 Regulated Power Supply (0-30V,2A) 1

2 Ammeter (0-50mA),MC 1

3 Voltmeter (0-30V),MC 1

4 Decade Resistance Box 1KΩ 1

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:
Ohm‟s law states that at constant temperature the current flowing through a conductor is
proportional to the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor.

I α V (or) V α I

V=IR

Where R is a constant and is called the resistance of the conductor.

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Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

2. Switch on the power supply.
3. For various values of voltage V, note the values of current
4. Draw a graph of Voltage Vs Current.
5. The Slope of the graph gives the resistance value.
6. Verify ohms law by measuring the value of R using multimeter and comparing it with
practical value.

Precautions:

1. Connections should be made tightly

2. Check the connections before switching on the supply.
3. Readings should be taken without parallax errors.

Tabulation:

S.No Applied voltage Voltage (V) Current (mA)

Calculations:

Model Graph:

Result:

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KIRCHOFF‟S CURRENT LAW

Aim: To verify Kirchhoff‟s current law.

Apparatus:

S.No. Description of Item Range Qty

1 Regulated Power Supply (0-30V,2A) 1

2 Ammeters (0-50mA),MC 3

3 Decade Resistance Box (0-1MΩ) 3

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:

This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule, or Kirchhoff's junction
rule (or nodal rule).

The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that:

At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node
is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node or equivalently
The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero.

Recalling that current is a signed (positive or negative) quantity reflecting direction towards or
away from a node, this principle can be stated as:

n is the total number of branches with currents flowing towards or away from the node.
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This formula is valid for complex currents:

The law is based on the conservation of charge whereby the charge (measured in coulombs) is
the product of the current (in amperes) and the time (in seconds).

A matrix version of Kirchhoff's current law is the basis of most circuit simulation software, such
as SPICE. Kirchhoff's current law combined with Ohm's Law is used in nodal analysis.KCL is
applicable to any lumped network irrespective of the nature of the network; whether unilateral or
bilateral, active or passive, linear or non-linear.

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the regulated power supply for the required voltage.
3. Measure the current using ammeter.
4. Note the readings in the tabulation.
5. Compare the observation reading to theoretical value.
Precautions:

1. Connections should be made tightly

2. Check the connections before switching on the supply.
3. Readings should be taken without parallax errors.

Tabulation:

Total Current
S.No. Voltage(V) I1(mA) I2(mA)
I(mA)

Calculations:

Result:

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KIRCHOFF‟S VOLTAGE LAW

Aim: To verify Kirchhoff‟s Voltage law.

Apparatus:

S.No. Description of Item Range Qty

1 Regulated Power Supply (0-30V,2A) 1

2 Voltmeters (0-20V),MC 3

3 Decade Resistance Box (0-1MΩ) 3

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:

This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule, and
Kirchhoff's second rule.

The principle of conservation of energy implies that

The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed
network is zero, or:
More simply, the sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to the sum of the
potential drops in that loop, or:
The algebraic sum of the products of the resistances of the conductors and the currents in
them in a closed loop is equal to the total emf available in that loop.

Similarly to KCL, it can be stated as:

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Here, n is the total number of voltages measured. The voltages may also be complex:

This law is based on the conservation of energy whereby voltage is defined as the energy per unit
charge. The total amount of energy gained per unit charge must be equal to the amount of energy
lost per unit charge, as energy and charge are both conserved.

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the regulated power supply for the required voltage.
3. Measure the voltage using voltmeter.
4. Note the readings in the tabulation.
5. Compare the observation reading to theoretical value.

Precautions:

1. Connections should be made tightly

2. Check the connections before switching on the supply.
3. Readings should be taken without parallax errors.

Tabulation:

Applied
S.No. V1(V) V2(V) V3(V)
Voltage (V)

Calculations:

Result:

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RMS, AVERAGE & FORM FACTOR

Aim: To measurement of RMS, Average & Form Factor of AC Signals using CRO.

Apparatus:

S.No. Description of Item Range Qty

1 CRO (0-30MHz) 1

2 Function Generator (0-1MHz) 1

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Function generator output is setted as triangular waveform.
3. Then the function generator output is fedded to CRO using CRO probe.
4. Later, the waveform on CRO without any disturbance by adjusting the time period and
volts/division Knob.
5. Then, the value of amplitude is taken at regular intervals of time.
Voltage = Amplitude X (value of volts/division).
6.The reading of time and voltage are tabulated.
7. Graph is drawn.
8. The rms and average values are obtained by the voltage and form factor.

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Precautions:

1. The wave form should be made free from distoration.

2. CRO probe connection must be tight.

Tabulation:

S.No. Parameter Theoretical Value Observed Value

Calculations:

Model Graph:

Result:

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Lab Manual For I-II B.Tech CSE Students

Name of the Lab:

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Lab

Prepared By:
D.BHAVANA RUSHI, Assistant Professor.
N.BHASKHARA RAO, Assistant Professor.
D.SUNDHAR SINGH, Assistant Professor.

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GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE :: GUDLAVALLERU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB

LIST OF EXPERMENTS LIST

1. KIRCHOFF‟S CURRENT LAW

2. KIRCHOFF‟S VOLTAGE LAW

3. SUPERPOSION THEOREM

4. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

5. VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN‟S AND NORTON‟S TEOREM

6. OC & SC TEST ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

7. BRAKE TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR

8. BRAKE TEST ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

9. IDENTIFICATION AND TESTING OF R, L, C COMPONENTS

10. CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

11. CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

12. CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

13. HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

14. FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

15. TRANSISTOR COMMON EMITTER CHARACTERISTICS

16. CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR

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KIRCHOFF‟S CURRENT LAW

Aim: To verify Kirchhoff‟s current law.

Apparatus Required:

S. No. Item Range Quantity

1 Regulated Power Supply (0-30V,2A) 1

2 Ammeters (0-50mA),MC 3

3 Decade Resistance Box (0-1MΩ) 3

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the regulated supply.

3. Measure the current using ammeter.

4. Note the readings in the tabulation.

5. Compare the observation reading to theoretical value.

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Tabulation:

Total Current
S. No. Voltage (V) I1(mA) I2(mA)
I(mA)

Calculations:

Precautions:

1. Connections should be made tightly

2. Check the connections before switching on the supply.

3. Readings should be taken without parallax errors.

Result:

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KIRCHOFF‟S VOLTAGE LAW

Aim: To verify Kirchhoff‟s Voltage law.

Apparatus Required:

S. No. Item Range Quantity

1 Regulated Power Supply (0-30V,2A) 1

2 Voltmeters (0-20V),MC 3

3 Decade Resistance Box (0-1MΩ) 3

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the regulated supply.

3. Measure the current using ammeter.

4. Note the readings in the tabulation.

5. Compare the observation reading to theoretical value.

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Tabulation:

S. No. Voltage(V) V1(V) V2 (V) V3(V)

Calculations:

Precautions:

1. Connections should be made tightly

2. Check the connections before switching on the supply.
3. Readings should be taken without parallax errors.

Result:

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SUPER POSITION THEOREM

Aim: To verify superposition theorem for DC circuits.

Apparatus Required:

S.No. Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1 Voltmeter (Center Zero) (0-300V) MC 3

2 Ammeter (Center Zero) (0-5A) MC 3

20Ω/10A,
3 Rheostat 50Ω/5A, WW Each 1
60Ω/4A

4 DPDT Switches 2

Circuit diagram:

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Procedure:

1. Connect circuit as per circuit diagram

2. Keep the rheostats to give respective ohmic values
3. Switch the DPDT switch 1 & 2 to the source side. Note the readings of the three
ammeters, connected to read I1,I2, and I3
4. Disconnect the voltage source VB, (VA sources acting) and connect to the short circuited
terminals. Note the ammeter readings.
5. Disconnect the source VA, (VB source acting) and connect to the short circuited terminals.
Note the ammeter readings.
6. Add the currents obtained in step (4) and (5) and compare with the currents obtained in
step(3), to verify the theorem .

OBSERVATIONS:

DPDT 1 is ON; DPDT 2 is Short Circuited

S.No. V20 (v) I20 (A) V50 (v) I50 (A) V60 (v) I60 (I)

Theoretical values

Practical values

DPDT 2 is ON; DPDT 1 is Short Circuited

S.No. V20 (v) I20 (A) V50 (v) I50 (A) V60 (v) I60 (I)

Theoretical values

Practical values

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When both DPDT 1 & DPDT 2 are in ON position

S.No. V20 (v) I20 (A) V50 (v) I50 (A) V60 (v) I60 (I)

Theoretical values

Practical values

Precautions:

1. All connections should be tight.

2. All reading should be taken without parallax error.
3. Before removing the connections, supply should be switched off.

Result: Hence Superposition theorem is verified.

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MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

Aim: To verify maximum power transfer theorem on D.C supply.

Apparatus Required:

S.No. Item Range Type Quantity

1 Voltmeter (0-300V) MC 1

2 Ammeter (0-1A) MC 1

270Ω/3.3A,
3 Rheostat TWW Each 1
120Ω/3.3A

4 Watt Meter (75V/1A) UPF 1

5 DPDT Switch NA NA 1

Circuit Diagram:

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Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. 220V of input voltage is applied to the given circuit
3. Note down the open circuit voltage.
4. Now close the DPST switch in short circuit side and note down the ammeter reading.
5. Connect DPST switch to load resistance and by varying load resistance RL note down all
readings
6. Calculate the load resistance in each case.
7. Draw the graph between maximum power verses load resistance and indicate the
maximum.
Observations:

Voc= ,Isc= ,Rth= Voc/ Isc

Load Resistance
S.No. Voltage (v) Current (A) Power (W)
(Ω)

Model Graph:

Precautions:

1. All connections should be tight.

2. All reading should be taken without parallax error.
3. Before removing the connections, supply should be switched off.

Result: Maximum power transfer theorem is verified.

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VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN‟S THEOREM

Aim: To verify Thevenin‟s theorem on single phase AC supply.

Apparatus Required:

S.No. Item Range Type Quantity

1 Voltmeter (0-300V) MI 1

2 Ammeter (0-1A) MI 1

1
60Ω/4A,
50Ω/5A, 2
3 Rheostat WW
20Ω/10A, 1
640Ω/2A
1

4 DPDT Switch NA NA 1

Circuit Diagrams:

Fig. (a) Circuit diagram to find Voc, Isc and IL

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Fig. (b) Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram as shown in fig.(a).

2. Energize the circuit by switching ON the supply.
3. Measure the open circuit voltage VAB (i.e., Vth) across the terminals A, B. Tabulate the
readings.
4. Short circuit the A, B terminals and note down the current passing through the
Ammeter i.e., short circuit current (Isc). Tabulate the reading.
5. Then operate the switch on to the load side and note down the load current.
6. Calculate Rth from the tabulated readings.

For Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. (b).

2. Energize the circuit by switching on the supply and set the Open circuit voltage (Vth)
across the open circuited A, B terminals by using an auto transformer.
3. Short circuit the A, B terminals.
4. Vary the source resistance until the ammeter shows the short circuit current Isc
obtained previously.
5. Then operate the switch on to the load side, and measure the current passing through RL
i.e., IL.
6. Tabulate all the readings.
7. Compare with the readings previously obtained.

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Observations:

Thevenin‟s circuit:

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

Vth

Isc

IL

Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit:

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

Vth

Isc

IL

PRECAUTIONS:

1. In Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit, the Thevenin‟s voltage Vth is to be adjusted carefully

with the help of variance.
2. Connections should be given very perfectly and care is taken that they are tight.
3. The readings of various meters are taken without parallax error.

RESULT:

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VERIFICATION OF NORTON‟S THEOREM

Aim: To verify Norton‟s theorem on single phase AC supply.

Apparatus Required:

S.No. Item Range Type Qty

1 Voltmeter (0-300V) MI 1

2 Ammeter (0-1A) MI 2

1
60Ω/4A,
1
20Ω/10A,
3 Rheostat 50Ω/5A, WW 1
250Ω/5A,
2
640Ω/1.8A,
1

4 DPDT Switch 1

Circuit Diagrams:

Figure (a) : Circuit diagram for finding Voc, Isc and IL

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Figure (b): Norton‟s equivalent circuit

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram as shown in figure (a).
2. Energize the circuit by switching on the supply.
3. Measure the open circuit voltage VAB (i.e., Vth) across the terminals A, B. Tabulate
the readings.
4. Short circuit the A, B terminals and note down the current passing through the
Ammeter i.e., short circuit current (Isc). Tabulate the reading.
5. Then operate the switch on to the load side and note down the load current.
6. Calculate Rth from the tabulated readings.

For Norton‟s equivalent circuit:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (b).

2. Energize the circuit by switching on the supply and set the open circuit voltage (Vth)
across the open circuited A, B terminals by using an autotransformer.
3. Short circuit the A, B terminals.
4. Vary the source resistance until the ammeter A1 shows the short circuit current Isc
obtained previously. This is the Norton‟s equivalent current IN.
5. Now set the autotransformer to initial position i.e. zero voltage position.
6. Then operate the switch on to the load side, and set the short circuit current in the
ammeter A1 by varying the autotransformer and measure the current passing through RL
i.e., IL .
7. Tabulate all the readings.
8. Compare with the readings previously obtained.
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Observations:

Norton‟s circuit:

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

Vth

Isc

IL

Norton‟s equivalent circuit:

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

Vth

Isc

IL

Precautions:

1. Connections should be given very perfectly and care is taken that they are tight.
2. The readings of various meters are taken without parallax error.
3. The various meters, rheostats should be selected such that the currents through them
do not exceed the rated value.

Result:

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OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Aim: To predetermine the Efficiency and Regulation of a given single phase transformer by
conducting the Open Circuit test and Short Circuit test and also to draw its Equivalent
circuit.

Apparatus Required:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI (0-150) 1
2. Voltmeter MI (0-75) 1
3. Ammeter MI (0-2) 1
4. Ammeter MI (0-5) 1
5. Wattmeter Dynamometer (0-2A) 1
6. Wattmeter Dynamometer (0-5A) 1
7. Auto Transformer 1–Φ 1kvA 1

Circuit Diagrams:

Open Circuit Test:

Fig1: Circuit diagram for Open Circuit test

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Short Circuit Test:

Fig2: Circuit diagram for Short Circuit test

Procedure:

Open Circuit Test:

1. Connect circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Open circuit the secondary and apply full load voltage to the primary through a variac.
The cupper loss is negligible since there is only no load current is flowing. Hence power
consumed is the core losses.
3. Note voltmeter and ammeter and wattmeter reading.

Short Circuit Test:

1. Connect circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Short circuit the secondary and apply a low voltage to the primary through a auto
transformer. The iron losses are negligible since the flux will be very low on account of
the primary and secondary.
3. Increase the voltage gradually till full load current flows in the primary.
4. Note voltmeter and ammeter and wattmeter reading.

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Tabular Form for OC Test on 1- Φ transformer:

Open Circuit Primary Open Circuit Primary Open Circuit Power

S. No.
Current (Io) Voltage (Voc) (Woc)

Tabular Form for SC Test on 1- Φ transformer:

Short Circuit Primary Short Circuit Primary Short Circuit Power

S. No.
Current (Isc) Voltage (Vsc) (Wsc)

Resultant Tabulation to find out the Efficiency

Core (or) Iron loss (Wo) = KVA rating of transformer =

Short Circuit Current (Isc) = Short Circuit Power (Wsc) =

Cos Φ Full load ¾ load ½ load ¼ load

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

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Resultant Tabulation to find out the Regulation

Isc = R02 = X02 = V02 =

Full load ¾load ½load ¼ load

Cos Φ
Lag lead Lag Lead Lag Lead lag lead

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Result:

Efficiency and regulation of single phase transformer are obtained at different loading
conditions.

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BRAKE TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR

Aim: To conduct brake test on DC shunt motor and to draw its characteristics.

Name-plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 1

2. Ammeter MC 1

3. Rheostat WW 1

4. Tachometer - 1

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Give the supply to the circuit by closing the DPST switch.
3. Start the motor with the help of a 3-poinrt starter.
4. Note down the voltage and current readings for no-load condition.
5. Apply the load gradually and note down the readings of voltmeter, ammeter and tachometer.
6. Each time note down the readings of S1 & S2.
7. Calculate the output power, input power and efficiency.
8. Repeat the procedure until the ammeter reads full load current.

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Tabular Form:

Voltag Curre Weights Torque= Input Output = η=

Speed Output /
S. No. e nt 9.81*R* =
S1 S2 S1~S2 2ΠNT / Input *
(rpm)
(V) (A) (S1~S2) V *I 60 100

Note: R – Radius of Brake Drum

Model Graph:

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Precautions:

1. Load must be applied gradually, but not suddenly.

2. Load should be removed before switching of the motor.

Result:

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Circuit diagram for Brake test on Three Phase Slip ring Induction Motor

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BRAKE TEST ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Aim: To conduct the Brake test on three phase slip ring induction motor and to draw
the performance characteristics.

Name plate details:

Apparatus Required:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI 1

2. Ammeter MI 1

3. Wattmeter Dynamometer 2

4. SPST Switch - 1

Procedure:

1. Note down the nameplate details of motor.

2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. The TPST switch is closed and the motor is started using rotor resistance starter.
Where the Rotor resistance starter is turned from maximum resistance to
minimum resistance position to run at rated speed.
4. At no load the speed, current, voltage and power are noted.
5. By applying the load, for various values of current the above-mentioned readings
are noted.
6. The load is later released and the motor is switched off. The Rotor resistance
starter is brought to the original position before switching off the motor, the load
is later released and the motor is switched off and the graph is drawn.

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Observation:

1. Circumference of the brake drum =

2. Thickness of the belt =
Model Graph:

1. Electrical Characteristics:
η s
N,IL,T,s,

cosΦ,η

cosΦ
N
I

Output power

2. Mechanical Characteristics:

Speed

Torque

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Precautions:

1. Motor should be started without any load.

2. The rotor resistance starter should be in maximum resistance position.

Result:

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IDENTIFICATION AND TESTING OF R, L, C COMPONENTS

RESISTANCE

Coppers have many free electrons. Other materials have fewer free electrons and substances
such as glass, rubber, and mica have practically no free electron movement therefore making
good insulators. Between the extremes of good conductors such as silver, copper and good
insulators such as glass and rubber lay other conductors of reduced conducting ability, they
"resist" the flow of electrons hence the term resistance.

Example: Circuit symbol:

Resistance in series and parallel:

It follows if two such pieces of wire were connected end to end (in series) then the resistance
would be doubled, on the other hand if they were placed side by side (in parallel) then the
resistance would be halved! This is a most important lesson about resistance. Resistors in series
add together as R1 + R2 + R3 +..... While resistors in parallel reduce by 1 / (1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 /
R3 + .....)

Consider three resistors of 10, 22, and 47 ohms respectively. Added in series we get 10 + 22 + 47
= 79 ohms. While in parallel we would get 1 / (1 / 10 + 1 / 22 + 1 / 47) = 5.997 ohms.

Ohm‟s Law:

P = I * I * R that is, power equals the current squared times the resistance. Consider our
example above of the three resistors in series providing a total resistance of 79 ohms. If these
resistors were placed across a 24 volt power supply then the amount of current flowing, from
ohms law, is I = E / R = 24 / 79 = 0.304 amperes.

Common resistors in use in electronics today come in power ratings of 0.25W, 0.5W, 1W and
5W. Other special types are available to order. Because of precision manufacturing processes it
is possible to obtain resistors in the lower wattage ratings, which are quite close in tolerance of
their designated values. Typical of this type are the .25W range which exhibit a tolerance of plus
/ minus 2% of the value.

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Resistance color chart codes:

Here in this large color chart is the resistance color code - learn the sequence forever -

BLACK, BROWN, RED, ORANGE, YELLOW, GREEN, BLUE, PURPLE, SILVER, WHITE

Resistor values - the resistor color code:

Resistance is measured in ohms; the symbol for ohm is an Omega .

1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M .
1k = 1000 ,1M = 1000000 .

Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands. Each color represents a number as
shown in the table. Most resistors have 4 bands:

 The first band gives the first digit.

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 The second band gives the second digit.

 The third band indicates the number of zeros.
 The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may be
ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given below.

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .
On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.

Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm):

The standard color code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these small values two
special colors are used for the third band: gold, which means × 0.1 and silver which means
× 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as normal.

For example:
red, violet, gold bands represent 27 × 0.1 = 2.7
green, blue, silver bands represent 56 × 0.01 = 0.56

Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of color code):

The fourth band of the colour code shows the tolerance of a resistor. Tolerance is the precision
of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of
±10% will have a value within 10% of 390 , between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429
(39 is 10% of 390).

A special color code is used for the fourth band tolerance:

silver ±10%, gold ±5%, red ±2%, and brown ±1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%.

Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise resistor values are rarely
required.

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Power Ratings of Resistors:

Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows through a resistor. Usually the effect is
negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the voltage across the resistor high) a large current may
pass making the resistor become noticeably warm. The resistor must be able to withstand the
heating effect and resistors have power ratings to show this.

Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most circuits the standard
power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare cases where a higher power is required
it should be clearly specified in the parts list, these will be circuits using low value resistors
(less than about 300 ) or high voltages (more than 15V).

The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by:

P = I² × R Where: P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W)

or I = current through the resistor in amps (A)
R = resistance of the resistor in ohms ( )
P = V² / R V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V)

 A 470 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V²/R = 10²/470 = 0.21W.
In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable.
 A 27 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V²/R = 10²/27=3.7W.

COILS & Inductors

Inductors are a type of passive electrical devices that are used to store energy from magnetic
fields and release it when needed. Together with chokes and capacitors, inductors have helped to
reduce the size of electrical devices by providing a compact way to store power. Inductance
measures the quantity of magnetic flux that is produced by the current flowing through a coil. It
is measured in units of Henries denoted by 'H'. Its value increases with the amount of current
flowing and the number of loops in the coil.

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Energy Storage in Fields:

Capacitors store energy in the electric field between their plates, giving it up when the capacitor
is discharged and the electric field disappears. By making the field large through thin dielectric
layers of large dielectric constant, considerable energy can be stored in a small volume.
Capacitors are very useful circuit elements, as we have seen. Values from a few pF to 0.01F are
easily obtained at low cost. A capacitor, basically, tries to maintain the voltage across it,
supplying current to this end.

An inductor, on the other hand, stores energy in the magnetic field produced by the current
flowing through it. When the magnetic field collapses, its energy is given up, sometimes
appearing as a spark when a circuit is broken. An inductor tries to keep a current flowing,
providing the voltage necessary. The relation between voltage and current in an inductor is V = L
(dI/dt), or, in frequency domain, V = ωLI. If V is in volts, I in amperes and t in seconds, L is in
henries, H. Magnetic fields in air (space) created by ordinary currents are very small, so it is
difficult to store much energy this way, and inductors are not common circuit elements, at least
at low frequencies.

An inductance in a DC circuit that is switched should have a diode across it to carry the surge
when the current through it is suddenly switched off. If it is in an AC circuit, a snubber
consisting of a capacitor (say 0.1 μF) and a small resistor (say 100Ω) in series is the best that can
be done. If this is not arranged, whatever is doing the switching will soon be dead.

At radio frequencies, say 100 kHz and above, even a small inductance will have a reasonable
reactance, so even air core inductances on the order of microhenries are useful, especially in LC
tuned circuits that offer the advantage of frequency selectivity and resonance.

Magnetic Fields:

However, the great utility of magnetic fields at low frequencies is well-known, in transformers
and rotating machinery, all of which depends on magnetic fields, and on the wonderful effect of
iron in strengthening the magnetic fields that otherwise would be feeble. The iron is actually
another source of magnetic field that we call into action by the weak fields produced by current-
carrying windings. There is only one magnetic field, but it is usual to consider it in two parts:
first, the fields produced mainly by currents that is called H, and the total field called B. B is

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usually a function of H. In space, they are proportional (since they are the same thing physically),
but in magnetic materials like iron the relation may be more complex.

Inductors are used to store energy for switched mode power supplies. The inductor is operated
for a certain fraction of the switching frequency and not energized for the rest of the cycle. This
ratio of energy transfer specifies the value of input and voltage ratios. They are used as reactors
in electrical power transmission systems to depress the voltage and confine the fault current.
Inductors are bigger and weigh more than similar devices, so solid state networks use only small
inductors while using gyrator circuits for higher requirements.

The inductor has as a coil of copper conductors wound around a central core. When current is
passed through the coil a magnetic flux is created around the coil due to the properties of
electromotive force. The resistance increases when a core is placed in the coil and this increases
the inductance by hundreds of times. The core can be made of different materials but cores made
of ferrite produce the maximum inductance. The current to voltage lag is 90° but with the use of
resistive substance a resistive and inductive circuit is formed, the phase angle lag becomes
smaller and is based on the frequency that is constant.

Inductance is the circuit's resistance to change in current. Inductance tolerance is the amount of
variation that is permitted within the nominal value. The frequency for which the distributed
capacitance starts resonating with the inductance and canceling the capacitance is called the self-
resonant frequency or SRF. At SRF, the inductor works as a high impedance, resistive element.
Quality factor (Q value) is the measure of relative losses of the inductor and is expressed as
capacitive resistance divided by the equivalent serial resistance.

Some applications of inductors include:

 Blocking out noise, unwanted frequencies and reducing hum in radio broadcasting
stations and equipment - When used in conjunction with capacitors
 DC filtering - When used as chokes in power supplies to remove hum and other types of
fluctuations from the DC output
 Removing radio frequency (RF) interference - When used as filters
 Small and compact transformers with 400-Hz cycle AC current frequency for aircraft -
When utilizing their coupled magnetic flux.

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Symbol used to denote an inductor

The energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored by an inductor is equal to the amount of work
required to establish the current through the inductor, and therefore the magnetic field.Inductors
are used extensively in analog circuits and signal processing. Inductors in conjunction with
capacitors and other components form tuned circuits which can emphasize or filter out specific
signal frequencies. This can range from the use of large inductors as chokes in power supplies,
which in conjunction with filter capacitors remove residual hum or other fluctuations from the
direct current output, to such small inductances as generated by a ferrite bead or torus around a
cable to prevent radio frequency interference from being transmitted down the wire. Smaller
inductor/capacitor combinations provide tuned circuits used in radio reception and broadcasting.

A voltage is induced in any winding that links the flux in the toroid. As long as the circuit is not
closed, it is just a voltage, and no energy is transferred. However, when we close the circuit,
current flows, energy is transferred, and there is a reaction due to the current in this secondary
winding. This is, of course, a transformer, a device that is treated in more detail elsewhere.
Transformers are much better than capacitors for coupling amplifier stages. There is absolutely
no disturbance to the bias, and impedance can be transformed by choosing the number of turns
properly, a joy that capacitors do not supply.

The changing flux also induces voltages in any conductors that happen to be around, not just in
windings. The result is eddy currents in a magnetic material that also happens to be electrically
conducting, such as iron. In power frequency machines, eddy currents are greatly reduced by
laminating the magnetic material, and insulating the lamina from each other. This becomes
useless at radio frequencies, so different core materials must be sought. One is powdered iron,

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formed together in an insulating matrix, and another is ferrite, a magnetic material like iron, but
one with very low electrical conductivity. These materials are not as good magnetically as iron,
but have reasonably low losses even at much higher frequencies, and extend the range of utility
of high permeability materials to radio frequencies.

Testing coil is very easy compares to checking three leads components such as SCR, FET and
etc. In general, a coil consists of many turns or wire wrapped around a common core. The core
could be made of iron or even air. When an electric current passes through the coil, a magnetic
field is produced. A coil in some respect s acts just opposite a capacitor. A capacitor blocks DC
while allowing AC to flow through it; a coil allows DC to flow through it while restricting AC
current flow. Another name for a coil is an inductor.

Capacitors

Function:

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes
time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as
a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC
(changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

Capacitance:

This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more
charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large, so
prefixes are used to show the smaller values.

Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

 µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F

 n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
 p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor with
different labeling systems. There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two
groups, polarised and unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.

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Polarized capacitors (large values, 1µF +):

Examples: Circuit symbol:

Electrolytic Capacitors:

Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct way round, at least
one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering.

There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each end
(220µF in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end (10µF in picture).

Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1µF):

Examples: Circuit symbol:

Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round. They are not
damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They have high
voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. Many small value capacitors have their value
printed but without a multiplier, so you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier
should be. For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF. Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of

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the decimal point:

For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

Capacitor Number Code:

A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:

 The 1st number is the 1st digit,

 The 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
 The 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.
 Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF
Capacitor Color Code:

Color Code

Color Number

Black 0

Brown 1

Red 2

Orange 3

Yellow 4

Green 5

Blue 6

Violet 7

Grey 8

White 9

A color code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but of course
there are many still around. The colors should be read like the resistor code, the top three-color
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bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating). For
example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01µF. Note that there are no gaps
between the color bands; so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide band.

Variable capacitors:

Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called 'tuning
capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and 500pF
(100pF = 0.0001µF). The type illustrated usually has trimmers built in (for making small
adjustments - see below) as well as the main variable capacitor.

Variable Capacitor Symbol

Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called
'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and
500pF (100pF = 0.0001µF). The type illustrated usually has trimmers built in (for making small
adjustments - see below) as well as the main variable capacitor.

Variable Capacitor

Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are not suitable for the standard knobs
used for variable resistors and rotary switches. It would be wise to check that a suitable knob is
available before ordering a variable capacitor. Variable capacitors are not normally used in
timing circuits because their capacitance is too small to be practical and the range of values
available is very limited. Instead timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it
is necessary to vary the time period.

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CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
Objective:

To learn how to operate a cathode-ray oscilloscope.

Apparatus:

Cathode-ray oscilloscope, multi meter, and oscillator.

Definition:

An oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display and analyze the waveform
of electronic signals. In effect, the device draws a graph of the instantaneous signal voltage as a
function of time. A typical oscilloscope can display alternating current (AC) or pulsating direct
current (DC) waveforms having a frequency as low as approximately …

Introduction:

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate
time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its
reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general-purpose laboratory
instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically in Fig. 1.

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Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

The cathode ray is a beam of electrons, which are emitted by the heated cathode (negative
electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the cathode, intensity
grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose
is to generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and
the fluorescent screen is two pair of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection
of the beam and one pair oriented to give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus
referred to as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two
deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron
beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This conversion
of electron energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise
darkened screen.

In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first amplified and
then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam vertically and at the same time
a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to the horizontal (deflection) plates thus
causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at a uniform (constant> rate. The signal applied to
the vertical plates is thus displayed on the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves
as a uniform time scale.

The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use of a

sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of
such a generator is that of a saw tooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application of one cycle of
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this voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the horizontal plates causes
the beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube face. When the voltage suddenly
falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end of each sweep - the beam flies back to its
initial position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated periodically, the
frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by external controls.

To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles of the unknown
signal that is applied to the vertical plates must be associated with each cycle of the sweep
generator. Thus, with such a matching of synchronization of the two deflections, the pattern on
the tube face repeats itself and hence appears to remain stationary. The persistence of vision in
the human eye and of the glow of the fluorescent screen aids in producing a stationary pattern. In
addition, the electron beam is cut off (blanked) during fly back so that the retrace sweep is not
observed.

CRO Operation:

A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3. In general, the

instrument is operated in the following manner. The signal to be displayed is amplified by the
vertical amplifier and applied to the vertical deflection plates of the CRT. A portion of the signal
in the vertical amplifier is applied to the sweep trigger as a triggering signal. The sweep trigger
then generates a pulse coincident with a selected point in the cycle of the triggering signal. This
pulse turns on the sweep generator, initiating the saw tooth waveform. The saw tooth wave is
amplified by the horizontal amplifier and applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Usually,
additional provisions signal are made for applying an external triggering signal or utilizing the 60
Hz line for triggering. Also the sweep generator may be bypassed and an external signal applied
directly to the horizontal amplifier.

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CRO Controls:

The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of operating conditions
and thus make the instrument especially versatile. Since many of these controls are common to
most oscilloscopes a brief description of them follows.

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT):

electron gun Y plates

cathode
fluorescent screen

electron beam
anode

X plates

Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination of the graticule.

Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.

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Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.

Basic operation:
Before doing the experiments you should adjust the controls for focus, brilliance, X and Y shift
until you have a dot in the middle of the screen. The simplified diagram above shows the inside
of a cathode ray oscilloscope.

Vertical Amplifier Section:

Position:

Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display.

Sensitivity:

Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps.

Variable Sensitivity:

Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the calibrated steps. Normally the
sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable knob is in the fully clockwise position.

AC-DC-GND:

Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical amplifier, or grounds
the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input directly to the amplifier; selecting ac send the
signal through a capacitor before going to the amplifier thus blocking any constant component.

Horizontal-Sweep Section:

Sweep time/cm:

Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits external signal to horizontal amplifier.

Sweep time/cm Variable:

Provides continuously variable sweep rates. Calibrated position is fully clockwise.

Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.

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Horizontal Variable:

Controls the attenuation (reduction) of signal applied to horizontal amplifier through Ext. Horiz.
Connector.

Trigger:

The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.

Slope:

Selects whether triggering occurs on an increasing (+) or decreasing (-) portion of trigger signal.

Coupling:

Selects whether triggering occurs at a specific dc or ac level.

Source:

Selects the source of the triggering signal.

INT-(internal)-from signal on vertical amplifier

EXT - (external) - from an external signal inserted at the EXT. TRIG. INPUT.

LINE - 60-cycle trigger

Level:

Selects the voltage point on the triggering signal at which sweep is triggered. It also allows
automatic (auto) triggering of allows sweep to run free (free run).

Connections For The Oscilloscope:

Vertical Input: A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y (or vertical)
amplifier. The lower jack is grounded to the case.

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Horizontal Input: A pair of jacks for connecting an external signal to the horizontal amplifier.
The lower terminal is graounted to the case of the oscilloscope.

External Trigger Input: Input connector for external trigger signal.

Cal. Out:

Provides amplitude calibrated square waves of 25 and 500 mill volts for use in calibrating the
gain of the amplifiers. Accuracy of the vertical deflection is + 3%. Sensitivity is variable.
Horizontal sweep should be accurate to within 3%. Range of sweep is variable.

Operating Instructions:

Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the controls as follows:
(a) Power switch at off
(b) Intensity fully counter clockwise
(c) Vertical centering in the centre of range
(d) Horizontal centering in the centre of range
(e) Vertical at 0.2
(f) Sweep times 1

Plug line cord into standard ac wall receptacles (nominally 118 V). Turn power on. Do not
advance the Intensity Control. Allow the scope to warm up for approximately two minutes, and
then turn the Intensity Control until the beam is visible on the screen. Switch on your
oscilloscope and adjust the controls to give a straight line across the centre of the screen. The Y
gain should be set at 1V / division and the time base set at 1 ms / division,

Connect one 1.5 V cell to the Y inputs and adjust the Y gain, if necessary, so that the line moves
up 1.5 divisions.

Now connect two cells and then three cells. Record the line deflection each time.

Reverse the leads and repeat number two.

Now connect the 1 V ac supply from the high current power supply (Extra low voltage supply or
Westminster power supply) to the Y inputs. If the signal source and oscilloscope both have
earthed terminals make sure that the earthed lead of the oscilloscope (often black) is connected to
the earthed terminal of the supply (often yellow), or you will short out the signal generator

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through the CRO. Record the size and shape of the trace. Repeat with the 2 V ac input and then
the dc input, recording the trace each time.

Precautions:

 An oscilloscope should be handled gently to protect its fragile (and expensive) vacuum
tube.

 Oscilloscopes use high voltages to create the

electron beam and these remain for some time
after switching off - for your own safety do not
attempt to examine the inside of an oscilloscope.

Construction of a co-axial lead

Setting up an oscilloscope:

Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many

controls and they require some care to set up and use
successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the
screen if controls are set wrongly. There is some
variation in the arrangement and labeling of the many
controls so the following instructions may need to be
adapted for your instrument.

Oscilloscope lead and probes kit

This is what you should see

after setting up, when there
is no input signal connected

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1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).

2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the time base VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the middle of
the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.
12. The oscilloscope is now ready to use.

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PN - JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Aim: a) To Plot V-I characteristics of PN junction diode both in

i) Forward Bias
ii) Reverse Bias.
b) To calculate the Forward Static and dynamic resistance of the diode at a particular
operating point.

Apparatus Required:

S.No Name of the Specifications Quantity

Equipment/ Component
VR (max)=1000V
1 Diode 1N4001 1
IR(max)=50mA
Power rating=0.5w
2 Resistor 1KΩ 1
Carbon type
3 Regulated power Supply 0-30V,1A 1
4 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20MHz 1
5 Voltmeter 0-1V, 0-10V 1
6 Ammeter 0-100mA, 0-30μA 1

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: Forward Bias Fig B: Reverse Bias

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Procedure:
a) Forward Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig A.
2. Apply the supply voltage, VIN in steps of 0.5V from 0V to 6V.
3. Measure the voltage, V across the diode from voltmeter and current I through the
diode from ammeter for different steps of applied voltage, V IN.
4. Draw a graph between the voltage, V and current, I.
5. At suitable operating-point, calculate the static and dynamic resistances of the diode.
b) Reverse Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig „B‟.
2. Apply the supply voltage, VIN in steps of 0.5V from 0V to 6V.
3. Measure the voltage, V across the diode from voltmeter and current, I through the
ammeter for different steps of applied voltage, VIN.
4. Draw a graph between the voltage V and current I.

Tabular Forms:
a) Forward Bias:
Applied
Diode Voltage
S. No. voltage, Diode Current
V (Volts) I (mA )
VIN (volts)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

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b) Reverse Bias:

Applied voltage, Diode Voltage Diode Current

S.NO
VIN (Volts) V (Volts) I(µA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Model Graph:

Fig C: VI - Characteristics
Calculations:
1. Static Resistance, Rd= V / I= 82.43Ω.
2 .Dynamic Resistance, rd = V / I = 17Ω.

Precautions:

1. Connections must be done very carefully.

2. Readings should be noted without parallax error.
3. The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum rating of the diode.

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Result:

The V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode is verified.

Inference:

The cut-in voltage observed in forward bias is 0.64V for the given diode.

Questions & Answers:

1. Define Cut-in voltage of PN junction diode.

A. The minimum forward voltage at which the diode starts conduction.

2. List the applications of PN-junction diode.

A. Switch, rectifier.

3. Give typical values of cut-in voltage for both Germanium and Silicon.

A. Germanium=0.3V, Silicon =0.7V.

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ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Aim: To plot the V-I characteristics of Zener diode in

a) Forward bias b) Reverse bias

Apparatus Required:

Name of the
S. No Specifications Quantity
Equipment/ Component
1 Zener Diode( BZ 7.5) VZ = 7.5V 1
2 Resistor 1KΩ Power 1
rating=0.5w

Carbon type
3 Dual Regulated power supply 0-30V,1A 1
4 Voltmeters 0-1V, 0-10V 1
5 Ammeter 0-25mA 1

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: Forward Bias Fig B: Reverse Bias

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Procedure:

a) Forward Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig A.
2. Apply the supply voltage, VIN in steps of 0V up to 10V.
3. Measure the voltage across the diode, V from voltmeter and current, I through the
ammeter for different steps of applied Voltage, VIN.
4. Draw a graph between the voltage, V and the current, I.
5. At suitable operating point, calculate the static and dynamic Resistances of the diode.

b) Reverse Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig B.
2. Apply the supply voltage, VIN from 0V up to 30V.
3. Measure the voltage across the diode, V from volt meter and current, through the
ammeter for different steps of applied voltage, VIN.
4. Draw a graph between the voltage ,V and current ,I

Tabular Forms:

a) Forward Bias:
Applied voltage Diode Voltage Diode Current
S.No
VIN(Volts) V (V) I(mA)

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b) Reverse Bias:

Applied voltage Diode Voltage Diode Current

S.No
VIN(Volts) V(V) I(mA)

Model Graph:

Fig C: VI - Characteristics

Precautions:

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1. Connections must be given very carefully.

2. Readings should be noted without any parallax error.
3. The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum ratings of the zener
diode.

Result:

The V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode is verified.

Inference:

The breakdown voltage observed in reverse bias is 6.27V for the given zener diode. It provides
Constant Voltage by entering into the breakdown region.

Questions & Answers:

1. Define Reverse Break down voltage.

A. The maximum reverse voltage at which the junction breaks down and sudden raise in current
occurs.

2. List the Applications of Zener diode.

A. Constant voltage source, Voltage regulator.

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HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

Aim: To observe the working of half wave rectifier with and without filter & calculate its ripple
factor.

Apparatus Required:

Name of the Equipment/

S.No Specifications Quantity
component
1 Transformer 6-0-6V,500mA 1

2 Resistor(1KΩ) Power rating=0.5W 1

Carbon type

3 Diode(1N4001 or 1N4007) VR (max)=1000V 1

IR(max)=50mA
4 Capacitor(1000µF/25V) Electrolytic type, 1

Voltage rating= 1.6v

5 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20MHz 1

6 Digital Multimeter 4 ½ digit 1

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: Half wave Rectifier without Filter

Fig B: Half wave Rectifier with Filter

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Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig A.
2. Apply the supply voltage 230V, 50Hz at the primary winding of the transformer.
3. Connect the CRO at the secondary winding of the transformer and measure the maximum
voltage (Vm) and time period (T) at the input. Calculate the RMS input voltage using
Vrms=Vm/2.
4. Now connect the multimeter at the secondary and measure the rms voltage of the input
signal. The rms voltage measured by both CRO and multimeter must be same.
5. Now connect the CRO across the load resistor and measure the maximum voltage, V m
and time period, T of the output voltage. Calculate the rms and average (dc) values of the
output signal using the formula V rms = Vm / 2 and Vdc=Vavg = Vm / π and measure the AC
and DC voltages across the load resistor using multimeter and calculate the ripple factor
as r = Vac / V dc
6. calculate the ripple factor using theoretical formula
r = [ [(Vrms / Vdc )2 – 1]]1/2
7. Now close the switch „s‟ to connect the capacitor filter across the load resistor, R L then
connect the CRO at output terminals and measure the both ripple AC voltage and DC
voltages. Also measure the time period of ripple AC voltage.
8. Tabulate the values with filter and without filter.

Observations:

Fig C: Input Waveform

Fig D: Output Wave form without filter

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Fig E: Output Wave form with filter

Tabular form:

Half-Wave With-Out Filter With Filter

Rectifier CRO Multimeter CRO Multimeter

Vac (V)

Vdc (V)

Ripple Factor, r

Precautions :
1. Connections must be given very carefully.
2. Readings should be taken without any parallax error.
3. The applied voltage and current should not exceed the max ratings of the diode.

Results:
The input and output wave forms with and without filter are plotted. Ripple factor is calculated.
Inference:
The ripple factor of half wave rectifier with filter is better compared to with out filter.
Questions & Answers:
1.Give theoretical values for ripple factor and efficiency
A. r=1.21,η=40.6%
2.That is the need of a Filter circuit
A. The output of rectifier is not pure DC, to provide that filter circuits are used.

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FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

Aim: To observe the working of full wave rectifier with and without filter and calculate its ripple
factor

Apparatus Required:

Name of the
S.No Specifications Quantity
Equipment/ Component
1. Diode(1N4001) VR max)=1000V 1
IR(max)=50mA
2. Resistor 1KΩ 1
3. Transformer 6-0-6V,500mA 1
4. Capacitor 1000µF/25V 1
5. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20MHz 1
6. Digital Multi meter 4 ½ digit 1

Circuit Diagrams:

Fig A: Full wave Rectifier without Filter

Fig B: Full wave Rectifier with Filter

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Procedure :
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig A.
2. Apply the supply voltage 230V, 50Hz at the primary winding of the transformer.
3. Connect the CRO at the secondary winding of the transformer and measure the maximum
voltage (Vm) and time period (T) at the input. Calculate the RMS input voltage using
Vrms=Vm/√2.
4. Now connect the multimeter at the secondary and measure the rms voltage of the input
signal. The rms voltage measured by both CRO and multimeter must be same.
5. Now connect the CRO across the load resistor and measure the maximum voltage, V m
and time period, T of the output voltage. Calculate the rms and average (dc) values of the
output signal using
V rms = Vm / √2 and Vdc=Vavg = 2Vm / π.
6. Measure the AC and DC voltages across the load resistor using multimeter and calculate
the ripple factor as r = Vac / V dc
2 1/2
7. While finding ripple factor using CRO, use r =[ [(Vrms / Vdc ) – 1]]
8. Compare the measured ripple factor value with theoretical value.
9. Now close the switch „s‟ to connect the capacitor filter across the load resistor, R L then
connect the CRO at output terminals and measure the both ripple AC voltage and DC
voltages. Calculate the ripple factor. Also measure the time period T of ripple AC
voltage.
10. Tabulate the values with filter and without filter.

Observations :

Fig C : Input Waveform

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Fig D: Output Wave Form Without Filter

Fig E: Output Wave form with filter

Tabular form:

Full-Wave With Out Filter With Filter

Rectifier CRO Multimeter CRO Multimeter

Vrms (V)

Vdc (V)

Ripple Factor, r

Precautions :
1. Connections must be given very carefully.
2. Readings should be taken with out any parallax error.
3. The applied voltage and current should not exceed the maximum ratings of the diode.

Result:
Input and output waveform with and without filter of a full wave rectifiers are observed. The
ripple factor with and with out filter are calculated.
Inference:
The ripple factor of Full wave rectifier with filter is less compared to that without filter.

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TRANSISTOR COMMON EMITTER CHARACTERISTICS

Aim: 1. To plot the input and output static characteristics.

2. To calculate the input dynamic resistance from the input characteristics and output
dynamic resistance and current gain from the output characteristics of the given
transistor.

Apparatus Required:

Name of the
S.No Specifications Quantity
Equipment/Component
Icmax=100mA

PD=300mW
1 Transistor (BC 107) 1
Vceo=45V

Vbeo=50V
Power rating=0.5W
2 Resistors-39KΩ,1KΩ 1
Carbon type
3 Regulated Power Supply 0-30V,1A 1
4 Volt meters 0-1V, 0-10V 1
5 Ammeters 0-300μA, 0-10mA 1

Circuit diagram:

Fig A: Transistor Common Emitter Configuration

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Procedure:

a) Input Characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig A.

2. Keep the voltage VCE as constant at 2V by varying VCC.
3. Vary the input voltage, VBB in steps of 1V from 0V to 10V.
4. Measure the voltage, VBE from voltmeter and current, IB through the ammeter for
different values of input voltages.
5. Repeat the step 3 and 4 for VCE values of 5V and 10V.
6. Draw input static characteristics for tabulated values.
7. At suitable operating point, calculate input dynamic resistance.

b) Output Characteristics:

1. Fix input base current, IB at constant value say at 10μA.

2. Vary the output voltage, VCC in steps of 1V from 0V up to10V.
3. Measure the voltage, VCE from voltmeter and current IC through the ammeter for different
values.
4. Repeat above steps 2and 3 for various values of I B=20µA and 30µA.
5. Draw output static characteristics for tabulated values.

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Tabular forms:

a) Input Characteristics:

Applied VCE = 2V VCE = 5V VCE = 10V

S. No Voltage
VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(µA) VBE(V) IB(μA)
VBB(V)

10

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b) Output Characteristics:

IB = 10μA IB = 20μA IB = 30μA

Applied
S. No voltage
Vcc (V) VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE (V) IC(mA) VCE (V) IC(mA)

10

11

Model graphs:

Fig B: Input Characteristics Fig C: Output Characteristics

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Calculations:

a) Input Characteristics:

Input Resistance, ri = Δ VBE / Δ IB at VCE constant

b) Output Characteristics:

Output dynamic resistance, ro = ΔVCE / Δ IC at IB constant

Current gain, β = Δ IC / Δ IB at VCE constant

Precautions:

1. Connections must be given very carefully.

2. Readings should be noted without parallax error
3. The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum rating of the given
transistor.
Result:

Input and output characteristics are observed for the given transistor in common emitter
configuration. The input resistance, output resistance and the current gain are calculated.

Inference:

It is observed from the input characteristics that as VCE increases, the curves are shifted towards
right side. This is due to the Early effect.

Questions & Answers:

1. List various operating regions of Transistor

A. Active region, cut-off region, and saturation region.
2. List various biasing circuits
A. Fixed bias, collector to base bias, and self bias.
3. Give Transistor current equation in CE configuration
A. IC =β IB + (1+β) ICEO.

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SCR CHARACTERISTICS

Aim:

a) To obtain the forward characteristics of SCR.

b) To identify the break over voltage at different gate voltages.

Apparatus Required:

Name of the
S.No Specifications Quantity
Equipment/Component
IH (max.)=4A
1 SCR(TYN 604) P (max.)=10W 1
VH (max.)=5V
2 Variable resistor 0-10KΩ 1
Power rating=0.5w
3 Resistor - 1KΩ 1
Carbon type

4 Regulated Power Supply 0-30V,1A 1

5 Ammeters 0-25mA 2
6 Digital multimeter 4 ½ digit 1

Circuit Diagram:

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Fig A: SCR Characteristics

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig A.

2. Initially some gate current is applied by varying the V2.

3. Voltage V1 is slowly varied and different reading of ammeter (I A) and voltmeter (VAK) are
taken.

4. The voltage at which the SCR is triggered and heavy current flows is noted as V BO,
forward breakdown voltage.

5. Now apply the gate current more than IG.

6. Steps 3 & 4 are repeated and note down corresponding currents and voltages.

7. Draw the graph between V AK and IA at different gate currents.

Tabular form:

Applied IG1 = 3mA IG > IG1

S.No Voltage VAK IA VAK IA

V1 (V) (V) (mA) (V) (mA)

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Model Graph:

Result: The VI-characteristics of SCR are observed and Break over Voltage at different gate
currents is noted.

Inference:

It is observed that as applied gate current increases, the forward break over voltage reduces & the
device conducts early.

Questions:

1. What are the advantages of Thyristor Family?

A. Low power dissipation.

2. Define the following terms

a) Holding current.

b) Forward break over voltage.

A. The minimum current at which SCR turns from OFF state to ON state is called holding
current.

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The maximum forward voltage at which the current through SCR increases and voltage across
SCR drops is called forward break over voltage.

3. What are the different operating regions of SCR?

A. Forward breakdown region, Reverse breakdown region, and Forward conduction region.

4. List the applications of SCR?

A. High power applications, switching applications, and controlled device.

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CHAPTER – II

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Lab Manual For II-I B.Tech EEE Students

Name of the Lab:

Electrical Circuits Lab

Prepared By:
K.SANTHOSH KUMAR, Assistant Professor.
V.NAGA BABU, Assistant Professor.
V.PRATHAP BABU, Assistant Professor.

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GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE :: GUDLAVALLERU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS LAB

LIST OF EXPERMENTS LIST

1. VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN‟S THEOREM

2. VERIFICATION OF NORTON‟S THEOREM
3. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
4. VERIFICATION OF SUPER POSITION THEOREM
5. VERIFICATION OF RECIPROCITY THEOREM
6. VERIFICATION OF MILLMAN‟S THEOREM
7. VERIFICATION OF COMPENSATION THEOREM
8. SERIES RESONANCE
9. PARALLEL RESONANCE
10. SELF, MUTUAL INDUCTANCE AND COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING IN A COUPLED
CIRCUIT
11. Z AND Y PARAMETERS
12. TRANSMISSION & HYBRID PARAMETERS
13. MEASUREMENT OF 3 – Φ ACTIVE POWER OF STAR CONNECTED LOAD
14. MEASUREMENT OF 3 – Φ REACTIVE POWER FOR STAR CONNECTED LOAD
15. LOCUS DIAGRAM
16. FIXED REACTANCE AND VARIABLE RESISTANCE
17. JUMP RESONANCE PHENOMENON

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VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN‟S THEOREM

AIM: To verify Thevenin‟s theorem on single phase AC supply.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter 0-300V MI 1

2 Ammeter 0-1A MI 1

3 Rheostats 60Ω/4A,50Ω/5A,20Ω/10A, TWW 1( each)

290 Ω/1.8A,250 Ω/5A

4 1-Phase Auto 230V/(0-270V),5A 1-PHASE 1

Transformer

5 DPDT Switch - - 1

THEORY:

Situations sometimes occur in Electrical Engineering in which it is desirable to

determine the current through or voltage across any one branch in a network or situations where
we wish to find the response in a particular branch of that network only for different values of its
impedances in that branch, while the rest of the network impedances and sources remains
unaltered.

Hence it is always not necessary to analyze the complete circuit. However circumstances
such as these, when interest is focused on one part of the network under analysis, the reminder of
the network may be replaced to advantage by a simple equivalent network determined by using
Thevenin‟s theorem.

Thevenin‟s theorem states that “Any two terminal active, linear, bilateral network
consisting of sources (dependent and / or independent sources) and passive elements is
equivalent to an independent voltage source Vth in series with an impedance “Zth“.

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Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit simplifies the network to a simple circuit consisting of

Thevenin‟s voltage in series with a Thevenin‟s impedance in series with a load. The new simpler
circuit enables us to make rapid calculations of the voltage, current and power, which the original
circuit is able to deliver to a load. It helps us to choose the best values of load resistance.

The source voltage “Vth “ is the voltage across two terminals when they are open
circuited. This voltage is called as Thevenin‟s equivalent voltage.

Zth is the impedance looking back into the network with voltage sources and current
sources replaced with their internal impedances i.e., ideal voltage sources replaced by short
circuit and ideal current sources replaced by open circuit if all the sources in the original network
are independent.

If controlled sources are present then Zth = Vth / Short circuit current through the terminals.

Thevenin‟s theorem is used in sensitivity studies. This theorem is valid for steady state as well
as transient state conditions of the network.

ASSUMPTIONS MADE:

i) The load impedance and the network should not have magnetic coupling.
ii) It should not have a controlled source in the network coupled to ZL.
iii) Network should have linear elements only, where as load may be linear or non-linear.
Consider a linear active network N with nv no. of voltage sources and

mi no. of current sources delivering power to load ZL as shown in the

fig.(i).

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This network can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source Vth inseries with an impedance Zth
as shown in fig(ii).

The following circuit is considered for the verification of Thevenin‟s theorem.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

fig.(a).

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fig(b) Thvenin‟s equivalent circuit

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram as shown in fig.(a).

2. Energise the circuit by switching ON the supply.
3. Measure the open circuit voltage VAB (i.e., Vth) across the terminals A, B. Tabulate the
readings.
4. Short circuit the A, B terminals and note down the current passing through the Ammeter i.e.,
short circuit current (Isc). Tabulate the reading.
5. Then operate the switch on to the load side and note down the load current.
6. Calculate Rth from the tabulated readings.
For Thvenin‟s equivalent circuit:

7. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.(b).

8. Energise the circuit by switching on the supply and set the Open circuit voltage (Vth) across
the open circuited A, B terminals by using an auto transformer.
9. Short circuit the A, B terminals.
10. Vary the source resistance until the ammeter shows the short circuit current Isc obtained
previously.
11. Then operate the switch on to the load side, and measure the current passing through RL i.e.,
IL.

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12. Tabulate all the readings.

13. Compare with the readings previously obtained.
OBSERVATIONS:

Thevenin‟s circuit:

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

Vth

Isc

IL

Thvenin‟s equivalent circuit:

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

Vth

Isc

IL

PRECAUTIONS:

1. In Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit, the Thevenin‟s voltage Vth is to be adjusted

carefully with the help of variance.
RESULT:

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VERIFICATION OF NORTON‟S THEOREM

AIM: To verify Norton‟s theorem on single phase AC supply.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter 0-300V MI 1

2 Ammeter 0-1A MI 2

3 Rheostats 60Ω/4A,50Ω/5A,20Ω/10A, TWW 1( each)

290 Ω/1.8A,250 Ω/5A

4 1-Phase Auto 230V/(0-270V),5A 1-PHASE 1

Transformer

5 DPDT Switch - - 1

THEORY:

The Norton‟s theorem may be considered as a corollary of the Thevenin‟s theorem. It was
proposed by E.L. Norton, a scientist at Bell Telephone laboratories.

Statement of the theorem:

Norton‟s theorem states that with respect to any pair of terminals of an active network, the active
network may be replaced by an equivalent network containing an independent current source in
parallel with impedance. This equivalent network, called the Norton‟s equivalent network. The
current of the current source has the same magnitude and reference direction as that of the
current which would exists at the terminals in the original network if the terminals were short
circuited.

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Consider a linear active network N with nv, number of voltage sources and mi, number of current
sources delivering power to load ZL as shown in the fig(i)

This network can be replaced by an equivalent current source I N in parallel with an impedance
ZN as shown in fig(ii).

The source current“IN “ is the current through two terminals when they are short circuited. This
current is called as Norton‟s equivalent current. It is also called as short circuit current“I sc “.IN
can also be determined as

ZN is the impedance looking back into the network with voltage sources and current sources
replaced with their internal impedances i.e., ideal voltage sources replaced by short circuit and
ideal current sources replaced by open circuit if all the sources in the original network are
independent. It is same as Thevenin‟s impedance Zth.

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ASSUMPTIONS MADE:

1. The load impedance and the network should not have magnetic coupling.
2. It should not have a controlled source in the network coupled to ZL.
3. Network should have linear elements only, where as load may be linear or non-linear.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure(a)

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Figure(b)

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram as shown in figure(a).

2. Energise the circuit by switching on the supply.
3. Measure the open circuit voltage VAB (i.e., Vth) across the terminals A, B. Tabulate the
readings.
4. Short circuit the A, B terminals and note down the current passing through the
Ammeter i.e., short circuit current (Isc). Tabulate the reading.
5. Then operate the switch on to the load side and note down the load current.
6. Calculate Rth from the tabulated readings

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For Norton‟s equivalent circuit:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure(b).

2. Energise the circuit by switching on the supply and set the open circuit
voltage(Vth)across the open circuited A, B terminals by using an autotransformer.
3. Vary the source resistance until the ammeter A1 shows the short circuit current Isc
obtained previously. This is the Norton‟s equivalent current I N.
4. Now set the autotransformer to initial position i.e zero voltage position.
5. Then operate the switch on to the load side, and set the short circuit current in the
ammeter A1 by varying the autotransformer and measure the current passing through RL
i.e., IL .
6. Tabulate all the readings.
7. Compare with the readings previously obtained.

OBSERVATIONS:

Norton‟s circuit:

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

Vth

Isc

IL

Norton‟s equivalent circuit:

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

Vth

Isc

IL

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PRECATUITONS:

1. Connections should be given very perfectly and care is taken that they are tight.
2. The readings of various meters are taken without parallax error.

3. The various meters, rheostats should be selected such that the currents through
them do not exceed the rated value.

RESULT:

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MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

AIM: To verify maximum power transfer theorem on D.C supply.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter 0-125V MC 1

2 Ammeter 0-1A MC 1

3 Wattmeter 75V,1A,UPF Dynamometer 1

3 Rheostats 120Ω/3.3A,50Ω/5A,100Ω/5A, TWW 1( each)

640 Ω/1.8A

4 DPDT Switch - - 1

THEORY:

In a linear, active, bilateral network the maximum power transfer theorem

determine the value of the load impedance which result in maximum power transfer across the
Terminals of the active network.

An independent voltage source in series with an impedance Zs (or) Zth and independent current
source in parallel with an impedance Zs (or) Zth delivers a maximum average power to a load
impedance ZL which is the conjugate of Zs or Zth = Zs.

In a linear, active, bilateral network the maximum power transfer theorem determine the value
of the load impedance which result in maximum power transfer across the Terminals of the
active network.

Actually, the network (or) generator may not be capable of supplying the maximum
possible power to conjugate impedance specified above with out overheating of generator or
network.

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Thus, it is not always physically possible to use the ideal conjugate load, a higher impedance
load being required to avoid burn out damage. Hence, there are two limiting factors and the
maximum possible power, which may be obtained from a given source.

1. The limitation fixed by the reason of over heating (or) damage.

2. The adjustment of the load to achieve conjugate impedance.
It should be observed that under the condition of conjugate impedance, the power delivered to
the load P = E2 / 4RL.

The power lost in the network resistance is equal to the power delivered to the load, and the
power efficiency is only 50%. In power system operating at constant voltage, it is not possible to
use matched impedances since variation of the load is a useful means for setting the power
demand and efficiency is economically important.

The concept of maximum power transfer has wide application in communication circuits where
the magnitude of power transfer is sufficiently small on other hand in electric power transmission
system, the load impedance being sufficiently greater than source impedance; it is difficult to
achieve the condition of maximum. It is difficult to achieve the condition of max. Moreover, in
power system, emphasis is given to keep voltage drops and line losses to a minimum value and
hence operating of the power system, operating with bulk power transmission capability,
becomes uneconomical if it to be operated with only 50% efficiency just for the sake of
maximum power transfer. Hence, to power transmission systems this criterion of maximum
power transfer is seldom realized.

There are few theoretical aspects of matching based on the constraints placed on the parameters
of the load impedance.

Case(1):

Consider a network with the load impedance Z L = RL + jxL in which both resistance and
reactance can be varied, independently.

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As a first step, the active linear network to which the load is connected is Thevinised into a
single voltage source Voc in series with an internal impedance Zth with respect to load terminals
as shown in fig(b).

Then the power transferred to the load is PL = I2L RL

Therefore, PL= (Voc)2 . RL /{ (Rth + RL)2 + (xth + XL)2 }

Assuming first that only XL is variable and RL is fixed, For maximum Power

d(PL)/dXL =0

hence XL = - Xth -----------(a)

now to maximise PL further,let RL also be varied so that

(Rth + RL )2 – 2 RL (Rth + RL ) + (Xth + XL )2 = 0-----------(b)

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Substituting equation (a) in equation (b)

(Rth + RL ) (Rth - RL ) = 0

(Rth 2 - RL 2 ) = 0

Therefore, RL = Rth

Therefore the power transferred to the load is maximum, in which RL and XL are both variable.

ZL = Rth - jXth = conjugate of Zth

Therefore ZL = Z*th

The maximum power transferred to the load under this condition is

Pmax = ((VOC)2 . Rth /(2 Rth)2 = V2OC / 4 Rth ---------------(c)

This is independent of Xth.

Case(2):

In the load impedance (ZL) only resistance is variable while Reactance, XL is fixed. For
maximum power the condition as given by equation(b).

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(Rth + RL )2 – 2 RL (Rth + RL ) + (Xth + XL )2 = 0

(Rth + RL ) (Rth - RL ) + (Xth + XL )2 = 0

R2 th – R2 L + (Xth + XL )2 = 0

R2 L = R2 th + (Xth + XL )2

|RL| = [ R2 th + (Xth + XL ) ] ½ = | Rth + J( Xth + XL )|

= | Zth +j XL |

|RL| = | Zth +j XL |-------------(d)

Case (3):

When RL is variable and load is purely resistive i.e., XL = 0. For maximum power from equation
(d)

|RL| = |Zth|

i.e., the load resistance should be equal to absolute value of the Thevinin‟s impedance of the
active network.

Efficiency of the power transfer:

Efficiency of the power transfer is defined as the ratio of the average power consumed by the
load and the total power supplied to the load.

Total power= P = IL2 Rth + `Pmax

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.

2. Give the supply and find the open circuit voltage between terminals AB.

3. By using DPDT switch short circuit the AB terminals and find short circuit current.

4. By using Voc and ISC calculate equivalent resistance of the network Rth.

5. Move the DPDT switch on to the load terminal and vary the load resistance in steps

and note down corresponding voltage, current and power.

6. Tabulate the readings and note down the maximum power.

7. Increase the load resistance further and note down the power consumed by the load.

OBSERVATIONS:

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Load: Pure Resistive

Voc= Isc= Rth= Voc/ Isc=

Load Resistance
S.No. Voltage (v) Current (A) Power (W)
(Ω)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Readings should be taken with out any parallax error.

RESULT:

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VERIFICATION OF SUPER POSITION THEOREM

AIM: To verify superposition theorem and reciprocity theorem for DC circuits.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter (300-0-300)V MC 3

2 Ammeter (5-0-5)A MC 3

3 Rheostats 60Ω/4A,50Ω/5A,20Ω/10A TWW 1( each)

4 DPDT Switches - - 2

THEORY:

Super position is a principle that allows us to determine the effect of several energy
sources acting simultaneously on a system by considering the effect of each source acting alone
,and then combining(super imposing)those effects.

Statement of the theorem:

“In a linear, active, bilateral network containing several independent energy sources the
over all response in any element(i.e., current through or voltage across)is equal to the algebraic
sum of the responses due to the each independent source acting alone with all other ideal
independent sources set equal to zero, the practical sources are replaced by their internal
impedances”.

The Super position theorem is applicable to all linear networks (i.e., where current is linearly
related to voltage as per Ohm‟s law), time varying or time in variant. It must be noted that Super
position theorem works only for circuits that are reducible to series or parallel combinations and
it only works where the under lying equations are linear. It holds for all possible locations, types
and wave forms of the independent sources. If dependent sources are present, it is treated just as
another circuit element for calculation purpose.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as shown in the figure.

2. Give the supply.
3. Energise the DPDT1 switch and short circuit the other.
4. Measure the currents and voltages and tabulate the readings.
5. Now energise the DPDT switch2, and short circuit the DPDT switch1.
6. Measure the currents and voltages and tabulate the readings.
7. Now keep both the switches in on position and measure the currents and voltages and
tabulate the readings.

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OBSERVATIONS:

DPDT (1) is ON; DPDT (2) is Short Circuited

S.No. V20 (v) I20 (A) V50 (v) I50 (A) V60 (v) I60 (I)

Theoretical
values

Practical
values

DPST (2) is ON; DPST (1) is Short Circuited

S.No. V20 (v) I20 (A) V50 (v) I50 (A) V60 (v) I60 (I)

Theoretical
values

Practical
values

When both DPDT (1) & DPDT (2) are in ON position

S.No. V20 (v) I20 (A) V50 (v) I50 (A) V60 (v) I60 (I)

Theoretical
values

Practical
values

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections must be tight.

2. Readings must be taken without parallax error.

RESULT:

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VERIFICATION OF RECIPROCITY THEOREM

AIM: To verify reciprocity theorem on DC supply

APPARATUS REOUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter (0-300)V MC 1

2 Ammeter (0-1)A MC 1

3 Rheostats 60Ω/4A,50Ω/5A,20Ω/10A TWW 1( each)

4 DPDT Switches - - 2

THEORY:

Reciprocity theorem is a useful property of linear, bilateral, time invariant, passive

networks. Intuitively principle of reciprocity implies that the input and output can be
interchanged without altering response of the net work to a prescribed input. Thus the property
of reciprocity is not only helpful in the analysis of network but also in measurement techniques.

Statement of the theorem:

In a linear, bilateral network the ratio of excitation to response when only one excitation
is applied is constant, when positions of excitation and response are interchanged.

When the excitation is a voltage and response is a current, then short circuit conditions
are applied at both ends.

Reciprocity theorem can also be proved by applying the current source at one end and
observing the response (i.e., voltage) at the other end. In this case open circuit conditions are
implied at both ends.

All these are possible if the topology of the network is unaltered.

Consider the network shown below.

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Here AB denotes input terminals and CD denotes the output terminals. The application of
voltage V across AB produces current I at CD. Now if the positions of the source and responses
are interchanged, by connecting the voltage source across CD. The resultant current I will be at
terminals AB. According to the Reciprocity theorem, the ratio of input to response is the same in
both the cases. The currents in other parts of the network will not the same.

Assumptions for the theorem to be applicable to networks:

i) There is only one source of excitation in the network and that the network is initially
relaxed (all initial conditions are zero).
ii) Network is linear.
iii) We exclude dependent sources in the network even if they are linear.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.(a)

Fig.(b)

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PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in the fig(a)

2. Switch on the power supply

3. Energize the given circuit by connecting DPDT switch to the supply mains.

4. Measure the current passing through the Ammeter.

5. Tabulate the readings of excitation (Supply Voltage) and response (Current through
Ammeter).

6. Switch off the power supply and then inter change the positions of excitation (Voltage source
i.e., supply) and response (Ammeter i.e., current) as shown in the fig(b)

7. Switch on the power supply mains and energize the given circuit.

8. Measure the current passing through the Ammeter (i.e., response for the input).
9. Tabulate the readings.
10. Compare theoretical and practical values.

OBSERVATIONS:

Table for fig.(a)

Theoretical Practical
Quantity

Applied
voltage (V)

I60Ω(A)

V/I60Ω

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Table for fig.(b)(inter changing the positions of excitation and response)

Theoretical Practical
Quantity

Applied
voltage (V)

I50Ω(A)

V/I50Ω

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections are made carefully.

2. Take readings without parallax error.
3. Do not apply the voltage or current above the maximum rated values.
RESULT:

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VERIFICATION OF MILLMAN‟S THEOREM

AIM: To verify Millman‟s theorem.

APPATAUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 RPS 0-30V - 1

2 Ammeter 0-50mA MC 1

3 Rheostat 13Ω/5A TWW 1

4 DRB - - 2

THEORY:

This theorem can be stated either in terms of voltage source or current source or both:

(a) As applicable to voltage source:-

It states that if “n” voltage sources having emfs E1, E2 - - - - - En and internal
impedances Z1, Z2 - - - - - Zn are connected in parallel as shown in the fig(a)then these voltage
sources may be replaced by a single voltage source E in series with an impedance Z as shown in
the(b).

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b) As applicable to current source:-

Any number of constant current sources which are directly connected in parallel can be
converted in to a single current source whose current is the algebraic sum of the individual
source currents and those total internal resistances equals to the combined individual source
resistance in parallel.

This theorem is applicable to a mixture of parallel voltage and current sources that are
reduced to a single final equivalent source which is either a constant current or a constant voltage
source.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig(i)

Fig(ii)

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram as shown in figure (i).

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2. Switch on the supply and measure the current passing through the ammeter.
3. Tabulate the readings in Table-1.
4. Reconnect the circuit as shown in the fig(ii)
5. Measure the currents passing through the ammeter.
6. Tabulate the readings in Table-2

OBSERVATIONS:

Table-1

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

Table-2

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Make the connections tightly.

2. Readings should be taken without parallax error.

RESULT:

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VERIFICATION OF COMPENSATION THEOREM

AIM: To verify Compensation theorem.

APPATAUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Ammeter (0-3)A MC 2

2 Rheostats 60Ω/4A,50Ω/5A,20Ω/10A, TWW 1( each)

13 Ω/5A

3 RPS 0-30V - 1

THEORY :

It allows us to replace any element or branch of a network by a suitable chosen

independent source, without affecting any voltage or current in that network. It is the
elementary version of compensation theorem. It is stated as “Any element in a linear, bilateral,
passive, reciprocal network can be replaced by an independent voltage source whose voltage is
equal to the drop across the element, provided the currents and voltages in other part of circuit
remain unaltered”.

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The element R1 in the figure(a) is replaced by a voltage source of value IR1.

It is also useful in determining current and voltage changes in a circuit element when the value of
its impedance is changed. This application occurs in bridge and potentio meter circuits where a
slight change in one impedance results in a shift from the null conditions. This is the complex
version of compensation theorem.

If any change occurs in the network element which affects the response (i.e., voltage or
current ) of the element, then voltage source should be changed accordingly.

Consider a network N having an impedance branch Z, excited by a voltage source V,

results in current I i.e., I = V/Z as shown in the fig (c).

Let the branch impedance Z be modified to Z + ∆ Z due to temperature effect or some

other reason as shown in fig(d). This modification naturally alters the currents and the voltages
existing in the network before modification. In order to counter act the effect of changing Z by
∆ Z an emf Ec is inserted in this branch as shown in the figure(e). Where Ec = I ∆ Z.

Under this situation, the source Ec exactly compensates for the drop in the incremental
impedance ∆ Z, making the total voltage drop across the two added elements together zero.

This Ec is called the compensation voltage source. The change in the current ∆ I due to a
change in a branch can be computed by determining the current in that branch from the original
network and by nulling the independent source and placing a compensation voltage source in
series with the branch.

Therefore ∆ I = I‟ – I where I = V / Z ; I‟ = V / (Z + ∆ Z).

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig(i)

Fig(ii)

Fig(iii)

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PROCEDURE :

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in figure (i).
2. Switch on the supply and measure the current passing through the ammeters 1 and 2.
3. Tabulate the readings in Table-1.
4. Reconnect the circuit as shown in the fig(ii)
5. Measure the currents passing through the ammeters 1 and 2.
6. Tabulate the readings in Table-2
7. Compare these with previous readings
8. Calculate the change in the currents.
9. Calculate the compensating voltage Ec = I ∆ R.
10. Reconnect the circuit as shown in the figure(iii) i.e., short circuit the voltage source and
connect compensating voltage source Ec as
shown the in the fig(iii)

11. Switch on the supply and measure the currents passing through the ammeters.
12. Tabulate the readings in Table-3
13. Compare these currents with the currents obtained previously.

OBSERVATIONS:

Table-1

Quantity Theoritical values Practical values

Supply

voltage

I1

I2

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Table-2

Quantity Theoritical values Practical values

Supply

voltage

I1

I2

Table-3

Quantity Theoritical values Practical values

Supply

voltage

I1

I2

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Readings should be taken without parallax error.

RESULT:

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SERIES RESONANCE
AIM: To study series resonance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Device

1 Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)

2 Decade inductance box

3 Decade conductance box

4 Decade Resistance box

5 Signal Generator

THEORY:

Usually resonance occurs when energy storing elements inter change exactly equal
amounts of energy. Resonance in electrical systems is defined as steady state operation of a
circuit (or) system.

A Series R-L-C circuit is said to be in resonance, if the capacitive reactance equals the
inductive reactance in magnitude.

The frequency at which the capacitive reactance becomes equal to the inductive reactance
is called resonant frequency. (Here the net reactance is zero)

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Z=R + j(XL –XC)

At resonance, net reactance=0

XL = Xc; ωL= ωc,

ω2 = 1/Lc

ω =1/√Lc; i.e., ωo = 2∏fo = 1/√Lc

There fore fo = 1/ 2∏√Lc

The two voltages VL and VC will be equal in magnitude but opposite in phase and hence cancel
each other. The applied voltage V drops entirely across R so that

V = VR the circuit impedance Z = R. The resonant frequency is given by

F0 = 1 /2∏ √ LC L = 1/ C

= 1/ LC

F0 = 1 /2∏ √ LC

We have seen that under these conditions, the impedance of the circuit equals the
ohmic resistance, R. So current is maximum, its being limited by value of R alone. Its value is I0
= V/R and in phase with the voltage V. In the absence of R the circuit acts as short circuit. And
hence the circuit is called acceptor circuit and the resonance is called voltage resonance.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION:

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The variations of the following with frequency:

1. R: It is independent of f, hence it is represented by a straight horizontal line.

2. XL = ωL = 2∏fL. It varies linearly with f and hence represented by straight line
passing through origin.
3. Xc = 1/ωC = 1/2∏fC. It varies inversely with f and hence it is represented by a
rectangular hyperbola, but in the fourth quadrant since Xc is negative.
4. X = XL – XC is represented by a hyperbola and it intersects the X – axis at
resonant frequency.
5. Z = √ (R2 + X2). When frequency is large, XL dominates XC and the reactance is
inductive and with lagging p.f. when frequency is small, XC dominates XL and
the reactance is capacitive with leading p.f.
6. I reaches the peak value at resonant frequency and on either side it has low value.
AT resonant frequency, the power dissipated will be maximum.

Series RLC circuit as a frequency selector:

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Any series RLC circuit passes all waves of finite frequency to some extent but it will
offer lowest impedance at resonant frequency i.e., it allows frequencies near the resonant
frequency more readily than other frequencies. Hence a series RLC circuit posses the frequency
selectivity. The band of frequencies passed readily through the circuit is called Band width of
the circuit.

Band width=f1-f2

Where f1and f2 are called as the lower and upper half power frequencies.

QUALITY FACTOR: (Q-FACTOR)

The quality of series resonant circuit depends on the sharpness of the current variation with
frequency (current response).Smaller the value of resistance R compared to XL and XC sharper
will be the response .To introduce a quantitative measure for the quality of the resonant circuit,
quality factor is defined as

Quality Factor= ωoL/R = 1/ωoCR

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the frequency with help of signal generator until the voltage across resistance

becomes maximum.

3. Tabulate the values of frequency and voltage across resistance.

4. Continue the experiment for further frequencies also.

5. Plot a graph with the values of frequency on X-axis and current on Y-axis.

6. Observe resonant frequency and calculate Band width and Quality factor.

OBSERVATIONS:-

S.NO Frequency (Hz) Voltage (V)

MODEL GRAPH:

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. The values of the current should be read very carefully.

2. Attention should be paid on multiplying the vertical gain with the value of the
current read on the CRO.

RESULT:

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PARALLEL RESONANCE

AIM: To study Parallel resonance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Device

1 Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)

2 Decade inductance box

3 Decade conductance box

4 Decade Resistance box

5 Signal Generator

THEORY:

At resonance, in a parallel circuit, the net susceptance must be zero. In parallel resonance, the
capacitor is connected across the coil unlike in series resonance. The parallel resonance is also
called anti-resonance. The parallel or anti resonance from a reactive circuit shown in the
fig(a)connected to a generator.

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Such a circuit is said to be in electrical resonance when the reactive (or wattles) component of
line current becomes zero. The frequency at which this occurs is knows as resonance frequency.
The phasor diagram for such a circuit is shown is shown in Fig (b).

Net reactive or wattles components = Ic - IL SinФL

At resonance, Ic - IL SinФL = 0

or, Ic = IL SinФL

Now, Ic = V/Xc; IL = V/Z

Net reactive or wattles components = Ic - IL SinФL

At resonance, Ic - IL SinФL =0

or, Ic = IL SinФL--------(1)

Now, Ic = V/Xc; IL = V/Z

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And SinФL=XL/Z-------(2)

Substituting (2) in (1)

We get, (V/Xc) = (V/Z) (XL/Z)

Or, XL.XC=Z2 (now XL=WL; Xc =1/wc)

L/C =Z2=√ (R2+XL2)2= (R2+XL2) =R2+ (2∏fL)2

(2∏fL)2 = (L/C)- R2

Or, 2∏fL=√ (L/C) - R2

Let fo = f, the resonant freqency

If R is negligible, then

The current at resonance I=IL cosФL

Or, I = (V/Z)(R/Z)=VR/Z2=VR/(L/C) (since Z2=L/C)

I = V/(L/CR)

The denominator L/CR is known as equivalent or dynamic impedance of the parallel

circuit at resonance. Since current is minimum at resonance, therefore denominator must
represent the maximum impedance of the circuit. The phenomenon of parallel resonance is of
great practical importance because it forms the basis of tuned circuits in electronics. Following
are the salient points to be noted in connection with parallel resonance.

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(i) Reactive or watt-less component of current is zero.

(ii) Line current at resonance is minimum and is in phase with the applied voltage.
(iii) Power factor of the circuit is unity at resonance.

MAGNIFICATION FACTOR: (Q – factor)

It is defined as 2∏ times the ratio of maximum energy stored per cycle to the energy
stored per cycle to the energy dissipated per cycle.

Q = Ic/I or I1/I

Ic = V/Xc = V ; VCR/L, Q = L/R or 1/ CR

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTAION:

The variation of conductance (G), inductive susceptance (B1), capacitive susceptance (B2), Net
susceptance (B), Admittance (Y), Current (I), Impedance (Z), with frequency is shown in
fig(c),fig(d).

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the signal generator and vary the frequency from Minimum value to
maximum value in steps and note down the voltage at each step.
3. Tabulate the values of frequency and voltage across resistance. Calculate current at each
step.
4. Plot a graph with the values of frequency on X-axis and current on Y-axis.
5. Obtain the resonant frequency and calculate Band width and Quality factor.

TABULAR COLUMN:-

S.NO Frequency (Hz) Voltage (V)

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MODEL GRAPH:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The values should be multiplied by corresponding volts/div.

2. Careful adjustment of various controls of CRO should be made i.e, intensity,

focus vertical and horizontal centring etc.

RESULT:

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SELF, MUTUAL INDUCTANCE AND COEFFICIENT OF

COUPLING IN A COUPLED CIRCUIT

AIM: To determine the self and mutual inductances of a given coupled coil.

APPARATUS:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter (0-300)V,(0-600)V MI 1(each)

2 Ammeter (0-3)A MI 1

3 1-phase Auto 230V/(0-270V),5A 1-phase 1

Transformer

4 Transformer 230/115V - 1

THEORY:

Whenever an electric current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is immediately brought
in to existence in the space surrounding the conductor. It can be said that when electrons are in
motion, they produce a magnetic field. The converse of this is also true that is, whenever a
magnetic field embracing a conductor moves relative to the conductor, it produce a flow of
electrons in the conductor. This phenomenon where by an e.m.f and hence current is induced in
any conductor which is cut across or is cut by a magnetic flux is known as electromagnetic
induction. It is found that the actual cause of the induced e.m.f is the change of flux linking with
the coil. This e.m.f exists so long as the change of flux exists.

SELF INDUCED EMF:

This is an e.m.f induced in a coil due to the change of its own flux linked with it. If the current
through the coil is changed, then the flux linked with its own turns will also change, which will
produce in it what is called self induced e.m.f would be such as to oppose any change of flux
which is in fact the very cause of its production.

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Hence it is also known as the opposing or counter e.m.f or self induction. The property of the coil
due to which opposes any increase or decrease of current or flux through it is known as self
inductance. It is quantitatively measured in terms of coefficient of self inductance L.

We have M = K √ L1 L2 or K = M / √ L1 L2

When K is the coefficient of coupling and it may be defined as the ratio of mutual inductance
actually present between the two coils to the maximum possible value. If the flux due to one coil
completely links with the other, then the value of K is unity. If the flux of one coil does not at all
link with the other, then K =0. In the first case when K = 1, coils are tightly coupled and when K
=0, the coils are magnetically isolated from each other.

MUTUALLY INDUCED EMF:

Consider two coils A and B lying close to each other. Coil A is joined to battery and a switch. As
coil B is connected to a sensitive voltmeter V. When current through A is established by closing
the switch, its magnetic field is set up which partly links with or threads the coil B. As current
through A is changed, the flux linked with coil B also changed. Hence mutually induced e.m.f is
given by Faraday‟s laws and direction by Lenz‟s law. If now the battery is connected to B and
the voltmeter across A, then the situation is reversed and now a change in current B will produce
mutually induced e.m.f in A. Hence there no movement of any conductor and the flux variations
are brought about by variations in current strength only. Such an induced e.m.f one coil by the
influence of the other coil is called mutually induced e.m.f.

Mutual induction is defined as the ability of one coil to produce an e.m.f in a near by coil by
induction, when the current in the first coil changes. This action being reciprocal, the second coil
can also induce an e.m.f in the first when current in the second coil changes. This ability of
reciprocal induction is measured in terms of mutual inductance M.

PROCEDURE:

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a) Polarity test:

The polarities of the two windings of the coupled coils are determined in this test.

For the polarity mentioned in the above circuit the reading of V1 should be difference of voltages.

b) Measurement of self inductances L1 and L2

The resistance of the coil is neglected at power frequency.

The input voltage V1 and the input current I1 are measured with secondary (L2) open.

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S.NO V1(V) I1(A)

Z1 = V1/ I1 = ω L1 (neglecting resistance)

L1 = Z1/ 2 ∏f Henry

For measuring L2

S.NO V2(V) I2(A)

Z2 = V2/ I2 = ωL2 (neglecting resistance)

L2 = Z2/ 2 ∏f Henry

Measurement of mutual inductance:

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In this case both coils are connected in series condition as shown and the inductance is measured.

S.NO V3(V) I3(A)

Z3 = V3/ I3

Z1 = 2 ∏f [L1 + L2 + 2M] Henry

Since L1 and L2 are already known, the mutual inductance M is calculated.

S.No Parameters Values

1 L1

2 L2

3 M

RESULT:

Z AND Y PARAMETERS

AIM: To determine the Z and Y parameters of a two port network.

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APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter (300-0-300)V MC 2

2 Ammeter (5-0-5)A MC 2

3 Rheostats 60Ω/4A,50Ω/5A,20Ω/10A TWW 1( each)

4 DPDT Switches - - 2

THEORY:

Z – parameters: The Z parameters may be defined by expressing the port voltages V 1 and V2 in
terms of the currents I1 and I2. Here V1 and V2 are dependent variables and I1, I2 are independent
variables.The port voltages at port 1-1‟is the response produced by the two currents I 1 and
I2.Thus they can be shown in matrix form as

[V] = [Z] [I]

V1 = Z11 I1 + Z22 I2

V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2

Z11,Z12,Z22,Z21 are the network functions and are called as impedance parameters.

The individual Z parameters for a given network can be defined by setting each of the port
currents equal to zero.Suppose port 2-2‟is left open-circuited,then I2=0.

To find Z11, Z21 the output port is open circuited i.e., I2 = 0

V1 = Z11 I1 , Z11 = V1/ I1

Z11 is called driving point input impedance.

V2 = Z21 I1 , Z21 = V2/ I1

Z21 is called forward transferimpedance

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To find Z12, Z22, the input port is open circuited i.e., I1 = 0

V1 = Z12 I2 , Z12 = V1 / I2,

Z12 is called reverse transfer impedance.

V2 = Z22 I2 , Z22 = V2 / I2

Z22 is called driving point output impedance.

Since, the Z – parameters are obtained either by open circuiting the input terminals or
output terminals, these are known as open circuit impedance parameters.

Y – Parameters: The Y parameters may be defined by expressing the port currents I 1 and I2 in
terms of the voltages V1 and V2. Here I1 and I2 are dependent variables and V1, V2 are
independent variables. Thus they can be shown in matrix form as,

[I] = [V] [V]

I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2

I2= Y21 V1 + Y22 V2

The individual Y parameters for a given network can be defined by setting each of the port
voltage equal to zero.Suppose port 2-2‟ is short-circuited,then V2=0.

Y11 = I1 / V1 i.e., output port is short circuited.

Y11 is called driving point input admittance.

Y21 = I2 / V1 and is called forward transfer admittance.

Y22 = I2 / V2 and is called driving point output admittance.

Y12 = I1 / V2 and is called reverse transfer admittance.

Since, these parameters are admittances which are obtained by short circuiting either
input or output ports, these parameters are called short circuit admittance parameters.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

Z – PARAMETERS

1. Make the Connections as per circuit diagram.

2. Give the supply to the circuit with the help of DPDT switches; open circuit the
output port. The input port is connected to supply mains.Note down the
corresponding readings V1, I1 and V2 .
3. Now, open circuit the input port and connect the output port to supply mains.Note
down the corresponding readings V1, I2and I2.
4. Calculate the Z – Parameters using the above formulae.

Y – PARAMETERS:

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1. To find Y parameters, short circuit the output port and connect input port to mains.
Note down the corresponding readings V1, I1 & I2.
2. Now short circuit the input port and connect the output port to supply mains. Note
down the corresponding readings V2, I1 & I2.
3. Calculate the Y Parameters as per the formulae.
Y11 = I1 / V1; when V2 = 0,

Y12 = I1 / V2; when V12 = 0,

Y21 = I2 / V1; when V2 = 0,

Y22 = 21 / V2; when V1 = 0,

S.NO. Parameters Theoritical values Practical values

1 Z11
2 Z21
3 Z22
4 Z12
5 Y11
6 Y21
7 Y22
8 Y12

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections must be made carefully.

2. Readings should be noted without any parallax error.
3. Readings should not exceed the maximum ratings of meters.
RESULT:

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TRANSMISSION & HYBRID PARAMETERS

AIM: To determine the Transmission and Hybrid parameters of a two port network.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter (300-0-300)V MC 2

2 Ammeter (5-0-5)A MC 2

3 Rheostats 60Ω/4A,50Ω/5A,20Ω/10A TWW 1( each)

4 DPDT Switches - - 2

THEORY:

Transmission parameters: The Transmission parameters relate the voltage and current at one
port interms of voltage and current at the other port i.e., expressing the port voltage and current
V1 and I1 in terms of voltage and current V2 and I2. Here V1 and I1 are dependent variables and
V2, I2 are independent variables. Thus the equations are

V1 = A V2 - B I2

I1 = C V2 – D I2

A, B, C, D are the network functions and are called as transmission parameters. The individual
parameters for a given network can be defined by setting the output port voltage and current
equal to zero. Suppose port 2-2‟ is left open-circuited, then I2=0.

V1 = A V2, A = V1/V2

A is called open circuit voltage gain

I1 = C V2 , C = I1/V2

C is called open circuit transfer admittance.

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Suppose port 2-2‟ is left short-circuited, then V2=0.

V1 = -B I2, B = V1/I2

B is called short circuit transfer impedance.

I1 = – D I2, D = I1/I2

D is called short circuit current gain.

Hybrid Parameters: The hybrid parameters may be defined by expressing the port voltage and
current (V1 and I2) in terms of the current and voltage(I1 and V2). Here V1 and I2 are dependent
variables and I1, V2 are independent variables. Thus the equations can be written as:

V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2

I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2

The individual Hybrid parameters for a given network can be determines as follows:

Suppose port 2-2‟ is short-circuited, then V2=0.

h11 = V1 / I1 and is called short circuit admittance.

h21 = I2 / I1 and is called short circuit current gain.

Suppose port 1-1‟ is open-circuited, then I1=0.

h12 = V1 / V2 and is called open circuit reverse voltage gain.

h22 = I2 / V2 and is called open circuit output admittance.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:

TRANSMISSION PARAMETERS:

1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.

2. Give the supply to the circuit with the help of DPDT switches; open circuit the output
port. The input port is connected to supply mains. Note down the corresponding readings
V1, I1 and V2.
3. Now, short circuit the output port and connect the input port to supply mains. Note down
the corresponding readings V1, I1 and I2.
4. Calculate the Transmission Parameters using the above formulae.
HYBRID PARAMETERS:

1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.

2. Give the supply to the circuit with the help of DPDT switches; short circuit the input port.
The output port is connected to supply mains. Note down the corresponding readings V1,
I1 and I2.
3. Now, open circuit the intput port and connect the output port to supply mains. Note down
the corresponding readings V1, V2 and I2.
4. Calculate the Hybrid Parameters using the above formulae.

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S.NO. Parameters Theoritical values Practical values

1 A

2 B

3 C

4 D

5 h 11

6 h 12

7 h 21

8 h 22

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections must be made carefully.

2. Readings should be noted without any parallax error.
3. Readings should not exceed the maximum ratings of meters.

RESULT:

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MEASUREMENT OF 3 – Φ ACTIVE POWER OF STAR CONNECTED LOAD

AIM: To measure 3- Ø active power of star connected load by using two wattmeter method.

APPARATUS:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter 0-600V MI 1

2 Ammeter 0-10A MI 1

3 Wattmeter 600V/10A,UPF Dynamometer 2

4 3-phase Auto Transformer 415V/(0-470V),5A - 1

5 3-phase Inductive Load 0-10A - 1

THEORY:-

Reactive power is caused entirely by energy storage components inductors & capacitors.
Although it does not contribute to transfer of energy it also the equipment as if it did consume
active power Capacitors are positive storage of energy. Inductors are negative storage of energy.
For sinusoidal circuit reactive power = VIsinΦ. And active power = VIcosΦ

In a 3- Φ phase a.c circuit, active power is given by √3 E LILcosΦ and reactive power is given as
√3 ELILsinΦ where „Φ‟ is the phase angle (angle between phase voltage and phase current). With
a single wattmeter, it is possible to measure three phase reactive power, provided the connections
to its current coil and potential coil are made as shown in figure. The current coil is connected in
series with one of the lines and the voltage coil is thrown across the other two lines the phasor
diagram is as shown.

ERN=phase voltage ERY ,EYB and EBR are lines voltage RYB phase sequence is assumed.

ERN lags behind ERY by 30, and current lr lags behind ERN by angle

It is evident the at the power measured by the wattmeter

=EYB .IR. cos (90-Φ) =EYB.lR.sinΦ

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Wattmeter reading =ELIL sin c where IL=line current

We have 3-phase reactive power = √3 ELIL sin Φ

PHASOR DIAGRAM of 2 wattmeter method:

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

PROCEDURE

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. 3-Φ supply is given and variac is adjusted till the voltmeter show
rated voltage(415V)
3. Gradually load is applied and corresponding voltmeter, ammeter
and wattmeter reading are noted down
4. The wattmeter reading (W2-W1) gives active power in two wattmeter method.

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OBSERVATIONS:-

Active Power
VOLTAGE CURRENT W1 W2
S.NO W1+W2
(V) (A) (WATT) (WATT)
(WATT)

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. Loose connections are to be avoided.

2. Reading is to be noted without parallax error

RESULT:-

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MEASUREMENT OF 3 – Φ REACTIVE POWER FOR STAR CONNECTED LOAD

AIM: To measure 3- Ø reactive power of star connected load by using single wattmeter
method.

APPARATUS:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter 0-600V MI 1

2 Ammeter 0-10A MI 1

3 Wattmeter 600V/10A,UPF Dynamometer 1

4 3-phase Auto Transformer 415V/(0-470V),5A - 1

5 3-phase Inductive Load 0-10A - 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

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PHASOR DIAGRAM of single wattmeter method:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. 3-Φ supply is given and variac is adjusted till the voltmeter show
rated voltage(415V)
3. Gradually load is applied and corresponding voltmeter, ammeter
and wattmeter reading are noted down
4. The wattmeter reading multiplied by √3 gives reactive power in one
wattmeter method.

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OBSERVATIONS:-

Reactive Power
VOLTAGE CURRENT W1
S.NO √3 W1
(V) (A) (WATT)
(WATT)

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. Loose connections are to be avoided.

2. Reading is to be noted without parallax error

RESULT:-

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LOCUS DIAGRAMS

AIM: To draw Current Locus diagrams with RL and RC, with R varying in both cases

APPARATUS

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter (0-300V),(0-150V) MI 1(each)

2 Ammeter 0-1A MI 1

3 Rheostats 290 Ω/1.8A TWW 1

4 1-Phase Auto 230V/(0-270V),5A 1-Phase 1

Transformer

5 Inductor 0-10A - 1

6 Capacitor 50 µf - 1

THEORY:

With constant applied voltage,the current is a function of the impedance(inversely related to

impedance).It is convenient to employ locus diagrams for analyzing electrical networks having
one variable element(resistance or reactance). Circuits with one variable Element can be
analysed by the use of Admittance Locus diagrams. Since I =v/z= VY, (V-constant), the „Y‟
Locus describes the variation of I as variable Element is changed.

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Z = R1 + j X

Let Y = (1 / Z) = G + jB

Z = R1 + j X = (1 / Y) = {1 / (G + jB)}

Z = R1 + j X = (G – jB) / (G + jB) (G – jB)

= {G / (G2 + B2)} – j {B / (G2 + B2)}

Equating the real and imaginary parts.

R1 = G / (G2 + B2)

And X = -B / (G2 + B2)------(1)

G2 + B2 = G / R1

So that G2 + B2 - G / R1 = 0

Consider the case of a series circuit having reactance fixed, and variable resistance .

For circuit with „X‟ (reactance const) constant and variable resistance.

RL Circuit (R variable)

FIXED REACTANCE AND VARIABLE RESISTANCE:

Consider a series circuit with a fixed reactance (X is positive or negative) and a variable
resistance R. The impedance of the circuit is Z = R + jX considering X as inductive („X‟ is + ve)
and if R is varied keeping X constant, the locus of Z is a straight line parallel to R – axis and
cutting X – axis at fixed reactance X as shown in fig(b).

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The locus of Y can be determined in the following way.From the equation(1)

XL = -B / (G2 + B2)

G2 + B2 = -B / XL

G2 + B2 + (B / XL) = 0

G2 + (B / XL) + (1/2 XL) 2 + B2 = (1/2 XL)2

G2 + {B + (1/2 XL)} 2 = (1/2 XL)2

Which represents a circle in G – B plane (Admittance plane) with centre at ( 0, - 1/2 XL) and of
radius 1/2 XL .

The locus of current is same as that of locus of Admittance and obtained by multiplying with
voltage V. It is a circle with ( 0, - V/2 XL)

as centre and is of radius V / 2 XL .With const applied voltage,

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when R = 0, then I = IL = V/XL, has max value and lagging V by 900. IF R is increased from 0 to
∞,The magnitude of I decreases and “θ”becomes less than 900 , and finally when R =∞ , I = 0
and θ=00,The locus of current is semi circle in IV Quadrant symmetrical about y-axis as shown
in fig (c).

If the reactance is capacitive. (i.e negative), then the locus of Z, Y and current will be as shown
in fig(a),fig(b),fig(c)

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The current locus is as shown and it is a polar plot representing the variation of current for
different values of R. The locus of current is a circle with (0, 1/2 X c) as centre and 1/2XC as
radius.

To determine the current for any particular value of R, determine phase angle = tan -1 (XC / R )
and draw a line OA cutting the locus of current at A. Then OA represents the current and Φ 1 its
phase angle.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-(1) RL CIRCUIT ( R VARIABLE)

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PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connection as per circuit diagram.

2. Apply the required voltage using variac.

3. Measure the supply voltage,voltage across the variable element V 1,current passing

through the ammeter by varying the variable element.

4. Tabulate the readings.

5. Plot the corresponding graphs.

TABULAR COLUMN:-

XL=480.136Ω; RL=60Ω; R=R1+R2; V=150

Ф=tan-1
S.No. V1 I amp R=V1/I
(XL/R)

10

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(2)

RC Circuit (R Variable)

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connection as per circuit diagram.

2. Apply the required voltage using variac.
3. Measure the supply voltage,voltage across the variable element V1,current passing
through the ammeter by varying the variable element.
4. Tabulate the readings.
5. Plot the corresponding graphs.

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TABULAR COLUMN:-

XC=

Ф=tan-1
S.No. V1 I amp R=V1/I
(XC/R)

10

11

12

RESULT.

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JUMP RESONANCE PHENOMENON

AIM: To observe the jump resonance phenomenon in a non linear electrical circuit.

APPARATUS:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter (0-75V) MI 1

2 Ammeter 0-10A MI 1

3 Transformer 1KVA - 1

4 1-Phase Auto 230V/(0-270V),5A 1-Phase 1

Transformer

5 Capacitor 70 µf - 1

THEORY:

It differs from the normal resonance phenomenon, which occurs with variation in
frequency. This may occur with voltage fluctuation when inductance is taken as a non linear
element, It changes with Im, so the voltage applied to the circuit changes and the current changes
and hence the Xl changes due to the non linearity. So, at a certain voltage X & X become equal
and a jump in the current takes place while voltage is decreasing the jump will not occur at same
current, because of hysterical phenomenon. This phenomenon has a practical relevance in power
system as a transmission line terminated with a transformer in a RLC circuit. If transformer is
driven to saturation due to voltage fluctuation a jump resonance may takes place and the
transformer may burn out. This phenomenon is demonstrated in the lab with the following circuit
.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the voltage using dimmerstat.

3. While increasing the voltage observe the reading of the ammeter.

4. Observe the current where jump in current occurs.

5. Decrease the applied voltage gradually and tabulate the readings of the ammeter and

voltmeter.

6. Plot the graph from the tabulated readings.

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TABULAR FORM:

S.No VOLTAGE(V) CURRENT(I)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Make the connections carefully.

2. Take the readings without parallax error.

RESULT:

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Lab Manual For II-I B.Tech ECE Students

Name of the Lab:

Electrical Technology Lab

Prepared By:
A.AMARENDRA, Associate Professor.
D.VIJAY ARUN, Assistant Professor.

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GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE :: GUDLAVALLERU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY LAB

LIST OF EXPERMENTS LIST

1. SERIES RESONANCE
2. PARALLEL RESONANCE
3. TIME RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER RC / RL NETWORK
4. Z AND Y PARAMETERS
5. SUPER POSITION THEOREM
6. RECIPROCITY THEOREM
7. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
8. THEVENIN‟S THEOREM
9. VERIFICATION OF NORTON‟S THEOREM
10. SWINBURNE‟S TEST
11. OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
12. BRAKE TEST ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
13. REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR BY SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD

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SERIES RESONANCE
AIM: To study series resonance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Item Range Type Qty

Cathode ray oscilloscope

1 (0-20MHz) 1
(CRO)

2 Decade inductance box (0-30mH) DIB 1

3 Decade conductance box (0-0.1µf) DCB 1

4 Decade Resistance box (0-100Ω) DRB 1

5 Signal Generator (0-1MHz) Digital 1

THEORY:

Usually resonance occurs when energy storing elements inter change exactly equal
amounts of energy. Resonance in electrical systems is defined as steady state operation of a
circuit (or) system.

A Series R-L-C circuit is said to be in resonance, if the capacitive reactance equals the
inductive reactance in magnitude.

The frequency at which the capacitive reactance becomes equal to the inductive reactance
is called resonant frequency. (Here the net reactance is zero).

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Z=R + j (XL –XC)

At resonance, net reactance=0

XL = Xc; ωL= ωc,

ω2 = 1/Lc

ω =1/√Lc; i.e., ωo = 2∏fo = 1/√Lc

Therefore fo = 1/ 2∏√Lc

The two voltages VL and VC will be equal in magnitude but opposite in phase and hence cancel
each other. The applied voltage V drops entirely across R so that

V = VR the circuit impedance Z = R. The resonant frequency is given by

F0 = 1 /2∏ √ LC L = 1/ C

= 1/ LC

F0 = 1 /2∏ √ LC

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We have seen that under these conditions, the impedance of the circuit equals the ohmic
resistance, R. So current is maximum, its being limited by value of R alone. Its value is I0 = V/R
and in phase with the voltage V. In the absence of R the circuit acts as short circuit. And hence
the circuit is called acceptor circuit and the resonance is called voltage resonance.

GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION:

The variations of the following with frequency:

1. R: It is independent of f, hence it is represented by a straight horizontal line.

2. XL = ωL = 2∏fL. It varies linearly with f and hence represented by straight line passing
through origin.
3. Xc = 1/ωC = 1/2∏fC. It varies inversely with f and hence it is represented by a rectangular
hyperbola, but in the fourth quadrant since Xc is negative.
4. X = XL – XC is represented by a hyperbola and it intersects the X – axis at resonant
frequency.
5. Z = √ (R2 + X2). When frequency is large, XL dominates XC and the reactance is
inductive and with lagging p.f. when frequency is small, XC dominates XL and the reactance
is capacitive with leading p.f.
1. I reach the peak value at resonant frequency and on either side it has low value. AT
resonant frequency, the power dissipated will be maximum.

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Series RLC circuit as a frequency selector:

Any series RLC circuit passes all waves of finite frequency to some extent but it will
offer lowest impedance at resonant frequency i.e., it allows frequencies near the resonant
frequency more readily than other frequencies. Hence a series RLC circuit posses the frequency
selectivity. The band of frequencies passed readily through the circuit is called Band width of
the circuit.

Band width=f1-f2

Where f1 and f2 are called as the lower and upper half power frequencies.

QUALITY FACTOR: (Q-FACTOR)

The quality of series resonant circuit depends on the sharpness of the current variation with
frequency (current response).Smaller the value of resistance R compared to XL and XC sharper
will be the response .To introduce a quantitative measure for the quality of the resonant circuit,
quality factor is defined as

Quality Factor= ωoL/R = 1/ωoCR

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the frequency with help of signal generator until the voltage across resistance becomes

maximum.

3. Tabulate the values of frequency and voltage across resistance.

4. Continue the experiment for further frequencies also.

5. Plot a graph with the values of frequency on X-axis and current on Y-axis.

6. Observe resonant frequency and calculate Band width and Quality factor.

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OBSERVATIONS:-

S.No. Frequency HZ Voltage (v)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The values of the current should be read very carefully.

2. Attention should be paid on multiplying the vertical gain with the value of the current read on

the CRO.

RESULT:

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PARALLEL RESONANCE

AIM: To study parallel resonance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Item Range Type Qty

Cathode ray oscilloscope

1 (0-20MHz) 1
(CRO)

2 Decade inductance box (0-30mH) DIB 1

3 Decade conductance box (0-0.1µf) DCB 1

4 Decade Resistance box (0-100Ω) DRB 1

5 Signal Generator (0-1MHz) Digital 1

THEORY:

At resonance, in a parallel circuit, the net susceptance must be zero. In parallel resonance, the
capacitor is connected across the coil unlike in series resonance. The parallel resonance is also
called anti-resonance. The parallel or anti resonance from a reactive circuit shown in the fig (a)
connected to a generator.

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Such a circuit is said to be in electrical resonance when the reactive (or wattles) component of
line current becomes zero. The frequency at which this occurs is knows as resonance frequency.
The phasor diagram for such a circuit is shown is shown in Fig (b).

Net reactive or wattles components = Ic - IL SinФL

At resonance, Ic - IL SinФL = 0

or, Ic = IL SinФL

Now, Ic = V/Xc; IL = V/Z

Net reactive or wattles components = Ic - IL SinФL

At resonance, Ic - IL SinФL =0

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or, Ic = IL SinФL--------(1)

Now, Ic = V/Xc; IL = V/Z

And SinФL=XL/Z------- (2)

Substituting (2) in (1)

We get, (V/Xc) = (V/Z) (XL/Z)

Or, XL.XC=Z2 (now XL=WL; Xc =1/wc)

L/C =Z2=√ (R2+XL2)2= (R2+XL2) =R2+ (2∏fL)2

(2∏fL)2 = (L/C)- R2

Or, 2∏fL=√ (L/C) - R2

Let fo = f, the resonant frequency

If R is negligible, then

The current at resonance I=I L cosФL

Or, I = (V/Z) (R/Z) =VR/Z2=VR/ (L/C) (since Z 2=L/C)

I = V/ (L/CR)

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The denominator L/CR is known as equivalent or dynamic impedance of the parallel

circuit at resonance. Since current is minimum at resonance, therefore denominator must
represent the maximum impedance of the circuit. The phenomenon of parallel resonance is of
great practical importance because it forms the basis of tuned circuits in electronics. Following
are the salient points to be noted in connection with parallel resonance.

(i) Reactive or watt-less component of current is zero.

(ii) Line current at resonance is minimum and is in phase with the applied voltage.
(iii) Power factor of the circuit is unity at resonance.
MAGNIFICATION FACTOR: (Q – factor)

It is defined as 2∏ times the ratio of maximum energy stored per cycle to the energy
stored per cycle to the energy dissipated per cycle.

Q = Ic/I or I1/I

Ic = V/Xc = V ; VCR/L, Q = L/R or 1/ CR

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTAION:

The variation of conductance (G), inductive susceptance (B1), capacitive susceptance (B2), Net
susceptance (B), Admittance (Y), Current (I), Impedance (Z), with frequency is shown in
fig(c),fig(d).

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the signal generator and vary the frequency from Minimum value to maximum
value in steps and note down the voltage at each step.
3. Tabulate the values of frequency and voltage across resistance. Calculate current at each step.
4. Plot a graph with the values of frequency on X-axis and current on Y-axis.
5. Obtain the resonant frequency and calculate Band width and Quality factor.

TABULAR COLUMN:-

S.No. Frequency Voltage

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. The values should be multiplied by corresponding volts/div.

2. Careful adjustment of various controls of CRO should be made i.e., intensity, focus vertical
and horizontal centering etc.

RESULT:

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TIME RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER RC / RL NETWORK

AIM:

To study the Time response of current of R - L and R – C Networks for D.C step
input voltages and find the constants.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Item Range Type Qty

Cathode ray oscilloscope

1 (0-20MHz) 1
(CRO)

2 Decade inductance box (0-1H) DIB 1

3 Decade conductance box (0-0.01µf) DCB 1

4 Decade Resistance box (0-10KΩ) DRB 1

5 Signal Generator (0-1MHz) Digital 1

THEORY:

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By closing the switch “S” if a D.C. voltage Edc is applied to a circuit consisting of R and
L, the differential equation obtained from Kirchhoff‟s second law can be written as

L di (t) / dt + Ri (t) = Edc where I (t) is the current in the circuit.

The solution of the differential equation is given by

i (t) = Edc ( 1-e –Rt/L)

The solution I (t) consist of two parts as below

i (t) = iss + irt

iss = Steady state part of the solution, and

irt = Transient part of the solution

If the variation of i(t) is plotted against time, it will be obtained as follows .

Fig. (b) Variation of i(t) with time for a DC voltage applied.

Time constant is defined as the time taken for the current to reach 0.632 times the steady state
value of current. Its value can be shown to be equal to
L/R.

R-C SERIES CIRCUIT

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Consider the series circuit in which the DC voltage is applied to the circuit consists of R and C as
shown .When a DC voltage is applied to the circuit, the differential equation of the circuit using
Kirchhoff‟s second law can be obtained as

Edc = Ri(t) + 1/C ∫i(t) dt ----------------- (2)

Differentiating the above equation term by term, we get

R di(t)/dt + i(t) / C = 0

Or

Di(t)/dt + i(t) /RC = 0

The solution of the above first order differential equation is

i(t) = (Edc/R) e-t/Rc where i(0) =Edc/R

The variation of i(t) with “t” is obtained as below

The time constant of the circuit is the time taken for the current to reach 0.368 Edc/R. Its value
can be shown to be “RC” seconds.

Fig. (a)

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Fig. (b)

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in the fig. (c).

2. Connect the function generator to the input terminals of the trainer circuit board.

3. Connect the terminals of the 1 KΩ resistor to the CRO which measures the voltage

across the resistor and hence the current in the circuit.

4. Apply a voltage of 5 V “Square Wave” voltage at a frequency of about 2 KHz and note

the wave form of current in the CRO.

5. From the wave form of current in CRO, measures the time constant as described in

theory.

6. Vary the voltage applied to 8 V and 10 V and repeat the procedure explained in 4 and 5.

7. Make connections as per the circuit diagram show in fig. (d).

8. Connect the function generator at the input terminals of the trainer circuit board and

apply 5 V with about 2 KHz frequency and square wave.

9. Note the wave form of current from the CRO and measure the time constant as

explained in theory.

10. Repeat the procedure given in (8) and (9) above, but with 8 V and 10 V applied,

keeping the frequency of the square wave constant.

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TABULAR COLUMN:-

Time Response of First order R-L Network:-

Applied (I/P) Time

S.No. O/P Voltage O/P X 0.632
Voltage Constant

Time Response of First order R-C Network:-

Applied (I/P) Time

S.No. O/P Voltage O/P X 0.368
Voltage Constant

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections must be made carefully.

2. Readings should be noted without any parallax error.

RESULT:

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Z AND Y PARAMETERS

AIM: TO determine the Z and Y parameters of a two port network.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Item Range Type Qty

1 Voltmeter (Center Zero) (0-300V) MC 2

2 Ammeter (Center Zero) (0-5A) MC 2

20Ω/10A,
3 Rheostat 50Ω/5A, WW Each 1
60Ω/4A

4 DPDT Switches 2

THEORY:

Z – PARAMETERS:

Z – Parameters: The Z parameters may be defined by expressing the port voltages V 1 and
V2 in terms of the currents I1 and I2. Here V1 and V2 are dependent variables and I1, I2 are
independent variables. The port voltages at port 1-1‟is the response produced by the two currents
I1 and I2.Thus they can be shown in matrix form as

[V] = [Z] [I]

V1 = Z11 I1 + Z22 I2

V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2

Z11, Z12, Z22, Z21 are the network functions and are called as impedance parameters.

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The individual Z parameters for a given network can be defined by setting each of the
port currents equal to zero. Suppose port 2-2‟is left open-circuited, then I2=0.

To find Z11, the output port is open circuited i.e., I2 = 0

V1 = Z11 I1 , Z11 = V1/ I1

Z11 is called driving point input impedance.

V2 = Z21 I1, Z21 = V2/ I1

Z21 is called forward transfer impedance

To find Z22, the input port is open circuited i.e., I1 = 0

V2 = Z22 I2 , Z22 = V2 / I2

Z22 is called driving point output impedance.

V1 = Z12 I2 , Z12 = V1 / I2,

Z12 is called reverse transfer impedance.

Since, the Z – parameters are obtained either by open circuiting the input terminals or
output terminals, these are known as open circuit impedance parameters.

Y – Parameters:

The Y parameters may be defined by expressing the port currents I1 and I2 in terms of the
voltages V1 and V2. Here I1 and I2 are dependent variables and V1, V2 are independent variables.
Thus they can be shown in matrix form as,

[I] = [V] [V]

I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2

I2= Y21 V1 + Y22 V2

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The individual Y parameters for a given network can be defined by setting each of the
port voltage equal to zero. Suppose port 2-2‟ is short-circuited, then V2=0.

Y11 = I1 / V1 i.e., output port is short circuited.

Y11 is called driving point input admittance.

Y21 = I2 / V1 and is called forward transfer admittance.

Y22 = I2 / V2 and is called driving point output admittance.

Y12 = I1 / V2 and is called reverse transfer admittance.

Since, these parameters are admittances which are obtained by short circuiting input or
output ports, these parameters are called short circuit admittance parameters.

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PROCEDURE:

Z – PARAMETERS

1. Make the Connections as per circuit diagram.

2. Give the supply to the circuit with the help of DPDT switches; open circuit the output port.

The input port is connected to supply mains. Note down the corresponding readings V1, I1

and V2.

3. Now, open circuit the input port and connect the output port to supply mains. Note down the

corresponding readings V1, I2and I2.

4. Calculate the Z – Parameters using the above formulae.

Y – PARAMETERS:

1. To find Y parameters, short circuit the output port and connect input port to mains. Note

down the corresponding readings V1, I1 and I2.

2. Now short circuit the input port and connect the output port to supply mains. Note down the

corresponding readings V2, I1 and I2.

3. Calculate the Y Parameters as per the formulae.

Y11 = I1 / V1; when V2 = 0,

Y12 = I1 / V2; when V1 = 0,

Y21 = I2 / V1; when V2 = 0,

Y22 = 21 / V2; when V1 = 0,

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S.No. Parameters Theoretical values Practical values

1 Z11

2 Z21

3 Z22

4 Z12

5 Y11

6 Y21

7 Y22

8 Y12

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections must be made carefully.

2. Readings should be noted without any parallax error.

3. Readings should not exceed the maximum ratings of meters.

RESULT:

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SUPER POSITION THEOREM

AIM: To verify superposition theorem for DC circuits.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Item Range Type Qty

1 Voltmeter (Center Zero) (0-300V) MC 3

2 Ammeter (Center Zero) (0-5A) MC 3

20Ω/10A,
3 Rheostat 50Ω/5A, WW Each 1
60Ω/4A

4 DPDT Switches 2

THEORY:

Super position is a principle that allows us to determine the effect of several energy
sources acting simultaneously on a system by considering the effect of each source acting alone
,and then combining(super imposing)those effects.

Statement of the theorem:

“In a linear, active, bilateral network containing several independent energy sources the
overall response in any element (i.e., current through or voltage across)is equal to the algebraic
sum of the responses due to the each independent source acting alone with all other ideal
independent sources set equal to zero, the practical sources are replaced by their internal
impedances”.

The Super position theorem is applicable to all linear networks (i.e., where current is
linearly related to voltage as per Ohm‟s law), time varying or time in variant. It must be noted
that Super position theorem works only for circuits that are reducible to series or parallel
combinations and it only works where the under lying equations are linear. It holds for all

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possible locations, types and wave forms of the independent sources. If dependent sources are
present, it is treated just as another circuit element for calculation purpose.

Circuit for verification of Super Position theorem:

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as shown in the figure.

2. Give the supply.

3. Energize the DPDT1 switch and short circuit the other.

4. Measure the currents and voltages and tabulate the readings.

5. Now energize the DPDT switch2, and short circuit the DPDT switch1.

6. Measure the currents and voltages and tabulate the readings.

7. Now keep both the switches in on position and measure the currents and voltages and

tabulate the readings.

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OBSERVATIONS:

DPDT (1) is ON; DPDT (2) is Short Circuited

S.No. V20 (v) I20 (A) V50 (v) I50 (A) V60 (v) I60 (I)

Theoretical
values

Practical
values

DPDT (2) is ON; DPDT (1) is Short Circuited

S.No. V20 (v) I20 (A) V50 (v) I50 (A) V60 (v) I60 (I)

Theoretical
values

Practical
values

When both DPDT (1) & DPDT (2) are in ON position

S.No. V20 (v) I20 (A) V50 (v) I50 (A) V60 (v) I60 (I)

Theoretical
values

Practical
values

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections must be tight.

2. Readings must be taken without parallax error.

RESULT:

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RECIPROCITY THEOREM

AIM: To verify reciprocity theorem on DC supply

APPARATUS REOUIRED:

S.No. Item Range Type Qty

1 Voltmeter (0-300V) MC 1

2 Ammeter (0-1A) MC 1

20Ω/10A,
3 Rheostat 50Ω/5A, WW Each 1
60Ω/4A

THEORY:

Reciprocity theorem is a useful property of linear, bilateral, time invariant, passive

networks. Intuitively principle of reciprocity implies that the input and output can be
interchanged without altering response of the net work to a prescribed input. Thus the property
of reciprocity is not only helpful in the analysis of network but also in measurement techniques.

Statement of the theorem:

In a linear, bilateral network the ratio of excitation to response when only one excitation
is applied is constant, when positions of excitation and response are interchanged.

When the excitation is a voltage and response is a current, then short circuit conditions
are applied at both ends.

Reciprocity theorem can also be proved by applying the current source at one end and
observing the response (i.e., voltage) at the other end. In this case open circuit conditions are
implied at both ends.

All these are possible if the topology of the network is unaltered.

Consider the network shown below.

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Here AB denotes input terminals and CD denotes the output terminals. The application of
voltage V across AB produces current I at CD. Now if the positions of the source and responses
are interchanged, by connecting the voltage source across CD. The resultant current I will be at
terminals AB. According to the Reciprocity theorem, the ratio of input to response is the same in
both the cases. The currents in other parts of the network will not the same.

Assumptions for the theorem to be applicable to networks:

i) There is only one source of excitation in the network and that the network is initially

relaxed (all initial conditions are zero).

ii) Network is linear.

iii) We exclude dependent sources in the network even if they are linear.

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Circuits for verification of Reciprocity theorem:

Fig. (a)

Fig. (b)

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PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in the fig (a).

2. Switch on the power supply.

3. Energize the given circuit by connecting DPDT switch to the supply mains.

4. Measure the current passing through the Ammeter.

5. Tabulate the readings of excitation (Supply Voltage) and response (Current

through Ammeter).

6. Switch off the power supply and then inter change the positions of excitation

(Voltage source i.e., supply) and response (Ammeter i.e., current) as shown in the fig (b).

7. Switch on the power supply mains and energize the given circuit.

3. Measure the current passing through the Ammeter (i.e., response for the input).

4. Tabulate the readings.

5. Compare theoretical and practical values.

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OBSERVATIONS:

Table for fig. (a)

Theoretical Practical
Quantity

Applied
voltage (V)

I60Ω (A)

V/I60Ω

Table for fig. (b)(Inter changing the positions of excitation and response)

Theoretical Practical
Quantity

Applied
voltage (V)

I50Ω (A)

V/I50Ω

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ANALYSIS ON RESULTS:

Write your comments on the results obtained and discuss the deviations if any.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections are made carefully.

2. Take readings without parallax error.

3. Do not apply the voltage or current above the maximum rated values.

RESULT:

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MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

AIM: To verify maximum power transfer theorem on single phase A.C supply and on D.C
supply.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Item Range Type Qty

1 Voltmeter (0-300V) MC 1

2 Voltmeter (0-300V) MI 1

3 Ammeter (0-1A) MC 1

4 Ammeter (0-1A) MI 1

270Ω/3.3A,
5 Rheostat WW Each 1
640Ω/2A

6 Watt Meter (300V/1A) LPF 1

7 Watt Meter (300V/1A) UPF 1

8 DPDT Switch 1

THEORY:

In a linear, active, bilateral network the maximum power transfer theorem determine the
value of the load impedance which result in maximum power transfer across the Terminals of the
active network.

An independent voltage source in series with an impedance Zs (or) Zth and independent
current source in parallel with an impedance Zs (or) Zth delivers a maximum average power to a
load impedance ZL which is the conjugate of Zs or Zth = Zs.

In a linear, active, bilateral network the maximum power transfer theorem determine the
value of the load impedance which result in maximum power transfer across the Terminals of the
active network.

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Actually, the network (or) generator may not be capable of supplying the maximum
possible power to conjugate impedance specified above without overheating of generator or
network.

Thus, it is not always physically possible to use the ideal conjugate load, a higher
impedance load being required to avoid burn out damage. Hence, there are two limiting factors
and the maximum possible power, which may be obtained from a given source.

3. The limitation fixed by the reason of overheating (or) damage.

4. The adjustment of the load to achieve conjugate impedance.
It should be observed that under the condition of conjugate impedance, the power delivered to
the load P = E2 / 4RL.

The power lost in the network resistance is equal to the power delivered to the load, and
the power efficiency is only 50%. In power system operating at constant voltage, it is not
possible to use matched impedances since variation of the load is a useful means for setting the
power demand and efficiency is economically important.

The concept of maximum power transfer has wide application in communication circuits
where the magnitude of power transfer is sufficiently small on other hand in electric power
transmission system, the load impedance being sufficiently greater than source impedance; it is
difficult to achieve the condition of maximum. It is difficult to achieve the condition of max.
Moreover, in power system, emphasis is given to keep voltage drops and line losses to a
minimum value and hence operating of the power system, operating with bulk power
transmission capability, becomes uneconomical if it to be operated with only 50% efficiency just
for the sake of maximum power transfer. Hence, to power transmission systems this criterion of
maximum power transfer is seldom realized.

There are few theoretical aspects of matching based on the constraints placed on the parameters
of the load impedance.

Case (1):

Consider a network with the load impedance Z L = RL + jxL in which both resistance and
reactance can be varied, independently.

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As a first step, the active linear network to which the load is connected is Thevinised into a
single voltage source Voc in series with an internal impedance Zth with respect to load terminals
as shown in fig(b).

Then the power transferred to the load is PL = I2L RL

Therefore, PL= (Voc) 2 RL / {(Rth + RL) 2 + (xth + XL) 2}

Assuming first that only XL is variable and RL is fixed, for maximum Power

d(PL)/dXL =0

hence XL = - Xth -----------(a)

Now to maximize PL further, let RL also be varied so that

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(Rth + RL) 2 – 2 RL (Rth + RL) + (Xth + XL) 2 = 0----------- (b)

Substituting equation (a) in equation (b)

(Rth + RL) (Rth - RL) = 0

(Rth 2 - RL 2) = 0

Therefore, RL = Rth

Therefore the power transferred to the load is maximum, in which RL and XL are both variable.

ZL = Rth - jXth = conjugate of Zth

Therefore ZL = Z*th

The maximum power transferred to the load under this condition is

Pmax = ((VOC) 2. Rth / (2 Rth) 2 = V2OC / 4 Rth ---------------(c)

This is independent of Xth.

Case(2):

In the load impedance (ZL) only resistance is variable while Reactance, XL is fixed. For
maximum power the condition as given by equation(b).

(Rth + RL) 2 – 2 RL (Rth + RL) + (Xth + XL) 2 = 0

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(Rth + RL) (Rth - RL) + (Xth + XL) 2 = 0

R2 th – R2 L + (Xth + XL) 2 = 0

R2 L = R2 th + (Xth + XL) 2

|RL| = [R2 th + (Xth + XL)] ½ = | Rth + J ( Xth +

XL )|

= | Zth +j XL |

|RL| = | Zth +j XL |------------- (d)

Case (3):

When RL is variable and load is purely resistive i.e., XL = 0. For maximum power from
equation(d)

|RL| = |Zth|

i.e., the load resistance should be equal to absolute value of the Thevinin‟s impedance of the
active network.

Efficiency of the power transfer:

Efficiency of the power transfer is defined as the ratio of the average power consumed by the
load and the total power supplied to the load.

Total power= P = IL2 Rth + `Pmax

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PROCEDURE (For D.C Circuit):

1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.

2. Give the supply and find the open circuit voltage between terminals AB.

3. By using DPDT switch short circuit the AB terminals and find short circuit current.

4. By using Voc and ISC calculate equivalent resistance of the network Rth.

5. Move the DPDT switch on to the load terminal and vary the load resistance in steps

and note down corresponding voltage, current and power.

6. Tabulate the readings and note down the maximum power.

7. Increase the load resistance further and note down the power consumed by the load.

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OBSERVATIONS:

Load: Pure Resistive

Voc= , Isc= , Rth= Voc/ Isc

Load Resistance
S.No. Voltage (v) Current (A) Power (W)
(Ω)

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PROCEDURE (For A.C Circuit):

1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.

2. Give the supply and find the open circuit voltage between terminals AB.

3. By using DPDT switch short circuit the AB terminals and find short circuit current.

4. By using Voc and ISC calculate equivalent resistance of the network Rth.

5. Move the DPDT switch on to the load terminal and vary the load resistance in steps and

note down corresponding voltage, current and power.

6. Tabulate the readings and note down the maximum power.

7. Increase the load resistance further and note down the power consumed by the load.

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Load: Fixed reactance with variable resistance

S.No. Voltage (v) Current (A) Power (W) Load Resistance (Ω)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Readings should be taken without any parallax error.

RESULT:

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THEVENIN‟S THEOREM

AIM: To verify Thevenin‟s theorem on single phase AC supply.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Item Range Type Qty

1 Voltmeter (0-300V) MI 1

2 Ammeter (0-1A) MI 1

120Ω/3.3A,

100Ω/5A,

3 Rheostat 50Ω/5A, WW Each 1

250Ω/5A,

290Ω/1.8A,

4 DPDT Switch 1

THEORY:

Situations sometimes occur in Electrical Engineering in which it is desirable to

determine the current through or voltage across any one branch in a network or situations where
we wish to find the response in a particular branch of that network only for different values of its
impedances in that branch, while the rest of the network impedances and sources remains
unaltered.

Hence it is always not necessary to analyze the complete circuit. However circumstances
such as these, when interest is focused on one part of the network under analysis, the reminder of
the network may be replaced to advantage by a simple equivalent network determined by using
Thevenin‟s theorem.

Thevenin‟s theorem states that “Any two terminal active, linear, bilateral network
consisting of sources (dependent and / or independent sources) and passive elements is
equivalent to an independent voltage source Vth in series with an impedance “Zth“.

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Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit simplifies the network to a simple circuit consisting of

Thevenin‟s voltage in series with a Thevenin‟s impedance in series with a load.

The new simpler circuit enables us to make rapid calculations of the voltage, current and
power, which the original circuit is able to deliver to a load. It helps us to choose the best values
of load resistance.

The source voltage “V th “is the voltage across two terminals when they are open
circuited. This voltage is called as Thevenin‟s equivalent voltage.

Zth is the impedance looking back into the network with voltage sources and current
sources replaced with their internal impedances i.e., ideal voltage sources replaced by short
circuit and ideal current sources replaced by open circuit if all the sources in the original network
are independent.

If controlled sources are present then Zth = Vth / Short circuit current through the terminals.

Thevenin‟s theorem is used in sensitivity studies. This theorem is valid for steady state as well
as transient state conditions of the network.

ASSUMPTIONS MADE:

iv) The load impedance and the network should not have magnetic coupling.
v) It should not have a controlled source in the network coupled to ZL.
vi) Network should have linear elements only, where as load may be linear or non-linear.
Consider a linear active network N with nv no. of voltage sources and mi no. of current sources
delivering power to load ZL as shown in the fig. (i).

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This network can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source Vth in series with an impedance
Zth as shown in fig (ii).

The following circuit is considered for the verification of Thevenin‟s theorem.

fig. (a).

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fig. (b)

Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram as shown in fig.(a).

2. Energize the circuit by switching ON the supply.

3. Measure the open circuit voltage VAB (i.e., Vth) across the terminals A, B. Tabulate the

readings.

4. Short circuit the A, B terminals and note down the current passing through the Ammeter

i.e., short circuit current (Isc). Tabulate the reading.

5. Then operate the switch on to the load side and note down the load current.

6. Calculate Rth from the tabulated readings.

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For Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. (b).

2. Energize the circuit by switching on the supply and set the Open circuit voltage (Vth)

across the open circuited A, B terminals by using an auto transformer.

3. Short circuit the A, B terminals.

4. Vary the source resistance until the ammeter shows the short circuit current Isc obtained

previously.

5. Then operate the switch on to the load side, and measure the current passing through RL

i.e., IL.

6. Tabulate all the readings.

7. Compare with the readings previously obtained.

OBSERVATIONS:

Thevenin‟s circuit:

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

Vth

Isc

IL

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Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit:

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

Vth

Isc

IL

PRECAUTIONS:

2. In Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit, the Thevenin‟s voltage Vth is to be adjusted

carefully with the help of variance.

RESULT:

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VERIFICATION OF NORTON‟S THEOREM

AIM: To verify Norton‟s theorem on single phase AC supply.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Item Range Type Qty

1 Voltmeter (0-300V) MI 1

2 Ammeter (0-1A) MI 2

120Ω/3.3A,

100Ω/5A,

3 Rheostat 50Ω/5A, WW Each 1

250Ω/5A,

290Ω/1.8A,

4 DPDT Switch 1

THEORY:

The Norton‟s theorem may be considered as a corollary of the Thevenin‟s theorem. It was
proposed by E.L. Norton, a scientist at Bell Telephone laboratories.

Statement of the theorem:

Norton‟s theorem states that with respect to any pair of terminals of an active network,
the active network may be replaced by an equivalent network containing an independent current
source in parallel with an impedance. This equivalent network, called the Norton‟s equivalent
network. The current of the current source has the same magnitude and reference direction as
that of the current which would exists at the terminals in the original network if the terminals
were short circuited.

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Consider a linear active network N with nv, number of voltage sources and mi, number of
current sources delivering power to load ZL as shown in the fig (i)

This network can be replaced by an equivalent current source I N in parallel with an impedance
ZN as shown in fig (ii).

The source current “IN” is the current through two terminals when they are short
circuited. This current is called as Norton‟s equivalent current. It is also called as short circuit
current“Isc”.IN can also be determined as

ZN is the impedance looking back into the network with voltage sources and current
sources replaced with their internal impedances i.e., ideal voltage sources replaced by short
circuit and ideal current sources replaced by open circuit if all the sources in the original network
are independent. It is same as Thevenin‟s impedance Zth.

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ASSUMPTIONS MADE:

1. The load impedance and the network should not have magnetic coupling.
2. It should not have a controlled source in the network coupled to ZL.
3. Network should have linear elements only, where as load may be linear or non-linear.
The following circuit is considered for the verification of Norton‟s theorem.

Figure (a)

Figure (b)

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PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram as shown in figure(a).

2. Energize the circuit by switching on the supply.

3. Measure the open circuit voltage VAB (i.e., Vth) across the terminals A, B. Tabulate

the readings.

4. Short circuit the A, B terminals and note down the current passing through the

Ammeter i.e., short circuit current (Isc). Tabulate the reading.

5. Then operate the switch on to the load side and note down the load current.

6. Calculate Rth from the tabulated readings.

For Norton‟s equivalent circuit:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (b).

2. Energize the circuit by switching on the supply and set the open circuit voltage (Vth)

across the open circuited A, B terminals by using an autotransformer.

3. Short circuit the A, B terminals.

4. Vary the source resistance until the ammeter A1 shows the short circuit current Isc

obtained previously. This is the Norton‟s equivalent current I N.

5. Now set the autotransformer to initial position i.e. zero voltage position.

6. Then operate the switch on to the load side, and set the short circuit current in the

ammeter A1 by varying the autotransformer and measure the current passing through RL

i.e., IL .

7. Tabulate all the readings.

8. Compare with the readings previously obtained.

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OBSERVATIONS:

Norton‟s circuit:

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

Vth

Isc

IL

Norton‟s equivalent circuit:

Quantity Theoretical values Practical values

Vth

Isc

IL

PRECATUITONS:

1. Connections should be given very perfectly and care is taken that they are tight.

2. The readings of various meters are taken without parallax error.

3. The various meters, rheostats should be selected such that the currents through

them do not exceed the rated value.

RESULT:

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SWINBURNE‟S TEST

Aim: To predetermine the efficiency of a DC shunt machine as a motor & as a

generator by conducting Swinburne‟s test.

Apparatus:

S. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

No.

1. Voltmeter MC (0-300V) 1

2. Ammeter MC (0-5A) 1

3. Ammeter MC (0-1A) 1

4. Rheostat WW 100Ω/5A 1

5. Rheostat WW 300Ω/1.4A 1

6. Tachometer Digital (0-10,000rpm) 1

Name-plate Details:

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Theory:

Swinburne‟s test is an indirect method (without loading) for finding out the efficiency
of D.C machine. Various losses occurring in a D.C machine can be classified as

(i) Constant losses and

(ii) Variable losses.

Variable losses are directly proportional to the square of armature current or

approximately the load current, where as constant losses are independent of load
conditions.

In this method, constant losses are determined experimentally by operating the

D.C machine as motor running at no load. Variable losses occurring on load are
calculated from the known specifications of the machine.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Supply is given to the motor and the motor is started with the help of a

3-pointstarter.

3. The speed of the motor is adjusted to its rated value with the help of a shunt field

regulator.

4. The line current, armature voltage, shunt field current and speed are noted at no-

load.

5. The resistance of the armature is measured with the help of ammeter -voltmeter

method.

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Tabular Form:

S. Voltage Line Current Field Current Speed

No. (V) (IL0) (If) (rpm)

Constant losses = No. load input – No load armature Cu. Loss

= VILO – (ILO – If)2 Ra

Test to find armature resistance Ra:

Procedure:

1. Apply 30V D.C supply.

2. Vary the rheostat in suitable steps and note down the ammeter & voltmeter

readings.

3. Find armature resistance.

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Tabular Form:

S. Voltage across Armature current Armature resistance

No. armature (Va) (Ia) (Ra)

Generator:

Load Outp Consta Arm. Total Input= η=

Voltag ut nt Cu. losses
Curre = output+loss Outp
S.N e nt (V*IL) Losses Loss es ut /
o
(V) Wc+ Input
(IL) (Wc) (Ia2*R Ia2*Ra * 100
a)

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Motor:

Load Input Constan Arm. Total Output η=

Voltag t Cu. losses =
Curren (V*IL = Outpu
S.N e t ) Losses Loss Input – t/
o
(V) Wc+ losses Input
(IL) (Wc) (Ia2*Ra Ia2*Ra * 100
)

Model Graph:

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Precautions:

1. Connections must be made carefully & very tight.

2. Take all the meter readings without parallax error.

Result:

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OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON SINGLE PHASE

TRANSFORMER

Aim: To predetermine the Efficiency and Regulation of a given single phase

transformer by conducting the Open Circuit test and Short Circuit test and also
to draw its Equivalent circuit.

Name Plate Details:

1-Ф Transformer:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI (0-300V) 1

2. Voltmeter MI (0-30V) 1

3. Ammeter MI (0-1A) 1

4. Ammeter MI (0-5A) 1

5. Wattmeter LPF (300V/1A) 1

6. Wattmeter UPF (75V/5A) 1

(230V/(0-
7. Auto Transformer 1–Φ 1
270V),5A

8. Transformer 1KVA 230V/115V 1

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Fuse Rating:

Primary Current = KVA Rating of Transformer/primary Voltage.

Secondary Current=KVA Rating of Transformer/Secondary Voltage.

10% of Primary current (fuse rating for Open Current test)

125% of secondary current (fuse rating for Short circuit test)

Theory:

OC-test:

In this text low voltage winding is connected to the supply of normal voltage
and frequency and the high voltage winding is left open as. The primary winding
draws very low current hardly 3 to 5% of full load current under this condition .As
such copper loss in the primary winding will be negligible. Thus mainly iron losses
will occur in the transformer under no load or open circuit condition, which are
indicated by the wattmeter reading connected in the circuit.

SC-test:

In this test low voltage winding in short circuited and a low voltage hardly 10
to 20% of the rated voltage of the high voltage winding is applied to this winding.
This test is performed at rated current flowing in both the windings. Iron losses
occurring in the transformer under this condition is negligible, because of very low
applied voltage. Hence the total losses occurring under short circuit are mainly copper
losses of both the windings, which are indicated by wattmeter connected in the circuit.

Normally it is conducted at the HV side but if it is conducted on the LV

side voltage would be very less and current will be very high so there is a possibility
of damage for the windings.

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Formulae:

Equivalent Circuit

Open Circuit Test:

Wo
1. No Load Power Factor (CosΦ0) =
V1 I o
Where, WO - Open Circuit Power in Watts

V1 - Open Circuit Voltage in Volts

Io - Open Circuit Current in Amps.

2. Magnetizing component of No load current, I m = Io sinΦ o

3. Working component of No load current, I w = Io cosΦo
V1
4. Core loss resistance, Ro = 
Iw

V1
Magnetizing Reactance, Xo= 
Im

Short Circuit Test:

Vsc
5. Equivalent impedance referred to HV side (Z02) = 
I sc
Where, Vsc – Voltage applied to circulate rated current

Isc – short circuit current

Wsc
6. Equivalent resistance referred to HV side (R02)= 2

I sc
Where, Wsc – Short circuit Power in Watts

7. Equivalent reactance refereed to HV side (X02) = ( Z 02  R02 )

2 2

8. Transformation ratio (K) = V2 / V1

Where V1 – primary voltage

V2 – Secondary voltage

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R02
9. Equivalent resistance referred to LV side (R01) = 
K2
X 02
10. Equivalent reactance referred to LV side (X01) = 
K2

Efficiency & Regulation:

11. Output power = (X × KVA × cosΦ) in watts.

Where, X - Fraction of load

KVA - power rating of Transformer

CosΦ- Power Factor

12. Copper loss = (X2 × Wsc) in watts.

Where, Wsc – Copper Loss in Short Circuit Condition

13. Total Loss = (Cu Loss + Iron Loss) in watts

Outputpower
14. Efficiency =  100%
Outputpower  totallosse s

X  I 2 ( R02 cos   X 02 sin )

15. Regulation =  100
V02

Procedure:

Open Circuit Test:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The SPST switch on the primary side is closed.
3. The auto-transformer is adjusted to energize the transformer with the rated
primary voltage on the LV side.
4. The voltmeter, wattmeter and ammeter readings are noted at no-load
condition.
5. The auto-transformer is brought to, its initial position.
6. The supply is switched off.

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Short-Circuit Test:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The SPST switch on the primary side is closed.

3. The auto-transformer is slowly increased such that rated current will flow in

the HV winding.

4. The voltmeter, wattmeter and ammeter readings are noted at no- load

condition.

5. The auto-transformer is brought to, its initial position.

6. The supply is switched off.

Tabular Form for OC & SC Test on 1- Φ transformer:

Open Circuit Open Circuit

Open Circuit Power (Woc)
S. No. Primary Primary
Current (Io) Voltage (V1)

Short Circuit Short Circuit

Short Circuit Power (Wsc)
S. No. Primary Primary
Current (Isc) Voltage (Vsc)

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Model Graph:

The graph are drawn as

Efficiency Vs Output power Regulation Vs Power factor

Precautions:

1. At the time of starting auto transformer should be at minimum voltage

position.

2. High voltage and low voltage sides of the transformer should be properly used

as primary or secondary with respect to the experiments.

Result:

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Resultant Tabulation to find out the Efficiency

Core (or) Iron loss (Wo) = KVA rating of transformer =

Short Circuit Current (Isc) = Short Circuit Power (Wsc) =

Fraction of CosΦ = CosΦ = CosΦ =

CosΦ = 1 CosΦ = 0.4
load (x) 0.8 0.6 0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Resultant Tabulation to find out the Regulation

Isc = R02 = X02 = V02 =

Full load ¾load ½load ¼ load

Cos Φ
Lag lead lag lead lag lead lag lead

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

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BRAKE TEST ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Aim: To conduct the load test on three phase slip ring induction motor and to draw
the performance characteristics.

Name-plate details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI (0-600V) 1

2. Ammeter MI (0-10A) 1

3. Wattmeter 3-Ph Digital 440V/10A 1

Fuse Rating:

125% of rated current (Full load current)

Theory:

The brake test on induction motor is performed to compute its complete

performance i.e., torque, slip, efficiency, power factor etc. During this test, the motor
is operated at rated voltage and frequency and normally loaded mechanically by brake
and pulley arrangement from the observed data, the performance can be calculated,
following the steps given below:

Slip: The speed of the rotor, Nr drops slightly as the load on the motor is increased.
The synchronous speed, Ns of the rotating magnetic field is calculated, based on the
number of poles, P and the supply frequency, f i.e.,

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120 f
Synchronous speed, Ns = r. p.m
P

Ns  Nr
Then, slip, S =  100%
Ns

Normally, the range of the slip at full load is from 2 to 5%.

Torque: Mechanical loading is the most common type of method employed in

laboratories. A brake drum is coupled to the shaft of the motor and the load is applied
by tightening the belt, provided on the brake drum. The net force exerted at the brake
drum in Kg is obtained from the readings S1 and S2 of the spring balances i.e.,

Net force exerted, W = (S1 – S2) Kg

Then, load torque T = W  9.81 R  t / 2 N-m

Output Power: The output power in watts developed by the motor is given by

2NT
Output power  watts
60

Where, N is the speed of the motor in r.p.m.

Input Power: Input power is measured by the two watt meters, properly connected in
the circuit i.e.,

Input power = (W1+W2) watts

Where, W1 and W2 are the readings of the two watt meters.

Input power factor: Input power factor can also be calculated from the readings of
the two watt meters for balanced load. If φ is the power factor angle, then

W1  W2
tan  
W1  W2

Knowing the power factor angle, from the above, power factor, cosφ can be
calculated. It may be noted clearly at this stage that the power factor of the induction
motor is very low at no load, hardly 0.1 to 0.25 lagging. As such, one of the wattmeter
will record a negative reading, till the power factor is less than 0.5, which may be

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measured by reversing the connections of either the current coil or pressure coil of
this wattmeter.

Procedure:

1. Note down the nameplate details of motor.

2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

3. The TPST switch is closed and the motor is started using rotor resistance

starter. Where the Rotor resistance starter is turned from maximum resistance

to minimum resistance position to run at rated speed.

4. At no load the speed, current, voltage and power are noted.

5. By applying the load, for various values of current the above-mentioned

readings are noted.

6. The load is later released and the motor is switched off. The Rotor resistance

starter is brought to the original position before switching off the motor, the

load is later released and the motor is switched off and the graph is drawn.

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Observation:

a. Circumference of the brake drum =

b. Thickness of the belt =

S. Load Load Input Speed of Spring balance Reading Torque Output Efficiency
(T)
No.
Current Voltage Power Motor (N) S1 S2 (S1-S2) Kg Power= (η) =
(S1~S2)×
(IL) (VL) (W) 2ΠNT / 60 o/p / i/p
r
× 100
×9.81

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Model Graph:

1. Electrical Characteristics:

2. Mechanical Characteristics:

Speed

Torque

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Precautions:

1. Motor should be started without any load.

2. The rotor resistance starter should be in maximum resistance position.

Result:

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REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR BY SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD

Aim: To predetermine the regulation of three phase alternator by EMF method.

Name plate details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC (0-30V) 1

2. Voltmeter MI (0-600V) 1

3. Ammeter MC (0-5A) 1

4. Ammeter MI (0-5A) 1

5. Rheostat WW 100Ω/5A 1

6. Rheostat WW 300Ω/1.4A 1

7. Tachometer Digital (0-10,000rpm) 1

Fuse Rating:

125% of rated current (Full load current)

For DC shunt motor:

For Alternator:

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THEORY:-

The following methods are used to determine the voltage regulation of smooth cylindrical
rotor type alternators:

A. Direct load test B. Indirect methods

Indirect Methods:

For large alternators, the two indirect methods which are used to predetermine the voltage
regulation of smooth cylindrical rotor type alternators are as follows:

1. Synchronous Impedance method or EMF method.

2. Ampere – turn method or MMF method.
Synchronous Impedance or EMF method:

The synchronous impedance method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of
armature reaction by a fictitious reactance.

For a synchronous generator

V  Ea  Z s I a
Z s  Ra  jX s

Formula Used:

1. Armature Resistance, Ra = 1.6Rdc

Rdc is the resistance of DC supply.

2. Synchronous impedance, Zs =
Open circuit voltage (E1 (Ph)) / Short circuit current (Isc).

3. Synchronous reactance, Xs= √ (ZS2 – Ra2).

4. E0 = √ [(Vrated cosΦ + IaRa) 2 + (Vrated sinΦ + IaXs) 2].

[For Lagging PF]

5. E0 = √ [(Vrated cosΦ + IaRa) 2 + (Vrated sinΦ - IaXs) 2].

[For Leading PF]

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6. E0 = √ [(Vrated + IaRa) 2 + (IaXs) 2]. [For Unity PF]

7. % Regulation = (E0 – Vrated) / Vrated × 100.

Procedure for EMF method:

1. Note down the nameplate details of motor and alternator.

2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

3. Give the supply by closing the DPST Switch.

4. Using the Three point starter, start the motor to run at the synchronous speed by varying

the motor field rheostat.

5. Conduct an open circuit Test by varying the potential Divider for various values of Field

current and tabulate the corresponding open circuit voltage readings.

6. Conduct a Short Circuit Test by closing the TPST switch and adjust the potential divider

to set the rated Armature Current, tabulate the corresponding Field Current.

7. Conduct a Stator Resistance Test by giving connection as per the circuit diagram and

tabulate the voltage and Current readings for various resistive loads.

Procedure to draw the graph for EMF method:

1. Draw the open Circuit Characteristics curve (Field Current Vs Generated Voltage per

phase).

2. Draw the Short Circuit Characteristics curve (Field Current Vs Short Circuit Current).

3. The synchronous impedance per phase Zs can be determined by knowing the value of

short circuit current Isc corresponding to a field current that gives rated terminal voltage

per phase

4. By using respective formulae find the Xs, E0 and percentage Regulation.

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Tabulation for regulation of three phase alternator by EMF method:

Open Circuit Test:

Field current Open circuit line Open circuit phase

S. No.
(If) voltage (V0L) voltage (V0 (Ph))

Short Circuit Test:

Short Circuit Current

S. No. Field Current (If)
(120 of rated Current) (ISC)

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Stator Resistance Test:

Tabulation to find out the armature resistance (Ra):

Armature Resistance
S. No. Armature Current (I) Armature Voltage (V)
(Ra = V/ I)

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Regulation curve of alternator (EMF Method):

Model Graph:

EMF Method:

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Precautions:

1. The motor field rheostat should be kept in the minimum resistance position.

2. The 1-Φ auto transformer in alternator field should be in the minimum voltage position.

3. Initially all Switches are in open position.

Result:

Resultant tabulation for regulation of three phase alternator by EMF methods

Percentage Regulation

S. No. Power EMF Method

Factor Lagging Leading

1. 0.2

2. 0.4

3. 0.6

4. 0.8

5. 1.0

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Lab Manual For II-I B.Tech ME Students

Name of the Lab:

Electrical and Electronics Lab

Prepared By:
G.SANTHOSHAMMA, Assistant Professor.
T.BALA BHARGAVI, Assistant Professor.
V.GOUTHAM, Assistant Professor.

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GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE :: GUDLAVALLERU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY LAB

LIST OF EXPERMENTS LIST

1. SWINBURNE‟S TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR

2. OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
3. BRAKE TEST ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
4. REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR BY SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD
5. BRAKE TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR

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SWINBURNE‟S TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR

Aim: To predetermine the efficiency of a DC shunt machine as a motor & as a

generator by conducting Swinburne‟s test.

Apparatus:

S. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

No.

1. Voltmeter MC (0-300V) 1

2. Ammeter MC (0-5A) 1

3. Ammeter MC (0-1A) 1

4. Rheostat WW 100Ω/5A 1

5. Rheostat WW 300Ω/1.4A 1

6. Tachometer Digital (0-10,000rpm) 1

Name-plate Details:

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Theory:

Swinburne‟s test is an indirect method (without loading) for finding out the efficiency
of D.C machine. Various losses occurring in a D.C machine can be classified as

(iii) Constant losses and

(iv) Variable losses.

Variable losses are directly proportional to the square of armature current or

approximately the load current, where as constant losses are independent of load
conditions.

In this method, constant losses are determined experimentally by operating the

D.C machine as motor running at no load. Variable losses occurring on load are
calculated from the known specifications of the machine.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Supply is given to the motor and the motor is started with the help of a 3-pointstarter.

3. The speed of the motor is adjusted to its rated value with the help of a shunt field

regulator.

4. The line current, armature voltage, shunt field current and speed are noted at no-load.

5. The resistance of the armature is measured with the help of ammeter - voltmeter method.

Tabular Form:

S. Voltage Line Current Field Current Speed

No. (V) (IL0) (If) (rpm)

Constant losses = No. load input – No load armature Cu. Loss

= VILO – (ILO – If)2 Ra

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Test to find armature resistance Ra:

Procedure:

1. Apply 30V D.C supply.

2. Vary the rheostat in suitable steps and note down the ammeter & voltmeter

readings.

3. Find armature resistance.

Tabular Form:

S. Voltage across Armature current Armature resistance

No. armature (Va) (Ia) (Ra)

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Generator:

Load Outp Consta Arm. Total Input= η=

Voltag ut nt Cu. losses
Curre = output+loss Outp
S.N e nt (V*IL) Losses Loss es ut /
o
(V) Wc+ Input
(IL) (Wc) (Ia2*R Ia2*Ra * 100
a)

Motor:

Load Input Constan Arm. Total Output η=

Voltag t Cu. losses =
Curren (V*IL = Outpu
S.N e t ) Losses Loss Input – t/
o
(V) Wc+ losses Input
(IL) (Wc) (Ia2*Ra Ia2*Ra * 100
)

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Model Graph:

Precautions:

1. Connections must be made carefully & very tight.

2. Take all the meter readings without parallax error.

Result:

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OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Aim: To predetermine the Efficiency and Regulation of a given single phase

transformer by conducting the Open Circuit test and Short Circuit test and also
to draw its Equivalent circuit.

Name Plate Details:

1-Ф Transformer:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI (0-300V) 1

2. Voltmeter MI (0-30V) 1

3. Ammeter MI (0-1A) 1

4. Ammeter MI (0-5A) 1

5. Wattmeter LPF (300V/1A) 1

6. Wattmeter UPF (75V/5A) 1

(230V/(0-
7. Auto Transformer 1–Φ 1
270V),5A

8. Transformer 1KVA 230V/115V 1

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Fuse Rating:

Primary Current = KVA Rating of Transformer/primary Voltage.

Secondary Current=KVA Rating of Transformer/Secondary Voltage.

10% of Primary current (fuse rating for Open Current test)

125% of secondary current (fuse rating for Short circuit test)

Theory:

OC-test:

In this text low voltage winding is connected to the supply of normal voltage
and frequency and the high voltage winding is left open as. The primary winding
draws very low current hardly 3 to 5% of full load current under this condition .As
such copper loss in the primary winding will be negligible. Thus mainly iron losses
will occur in the transformer under no load or open circuit condition, which are
indicated by the wattmeter reading connected in the circuit.

SC-test:

In this test low voltage winding in short circuited and a low voltage hardly 10
to 20% of the rated voltage of the high voltage winding is applied to this winding.
This test is performed at rated current flowing in both the windings. Iron losses
occurring in the transformer under this condition is negligible, because of very low
applied voltage. Hence the total losses occurring under short circuit are mainly copper
losses of both the windings, which are indicated by wattmeter connected in the circuit.

Normally it is conducted at the HV side but if it is conducted on the LV

side voltage would be very less and current will be very high so there is a possibility
of damage for the windings.

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Formulae:

Equivalent Circuit

Open Circuit Test:

Wo
1. No Load Power Factor (CosΦ0) =
V1 I o
Where, WO - Open Circuit Power in Watts

V1 - Open Circuit Voltage in Volts

Io - Open Circuit Current in Amps.

2. Magnetizing component of No load current, I m = Io sinΦ o

3. Working component of No load current, Iw = Io cosΦo
V1
4. Core loss resistance, Ro = 
Iw

V1
Magnetizing Reactance, Xo= 
Im

Short Circuit Test:

Vsc
5. Equivalent impedance referred to HV side (Z02) = 
I sc
Where, Vsc – Voltage applied to circulate rated current

Isc – short circuit current

Wsc
6. Equivalent resistance referred to HV side (R02)= 2

I sc
Where, Wsc – Short circuit Power in Watts

7. Equivalent reactance refereed to HV side (X02) = ( Z 02  R02 )

2 2

8. Transformation ratio (K) = V2 / V1

Where V1 – primary voltage

V2 – Secondary voltage

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R02
9. Equivalent resistance referred to LV side (R01) = 
K2
X 02
10. Equivalent reactance referred to LV side (X01) = 
K2

Efficiency & Regulation:

11. Output power = (X × KVA × cosΦ) in watts.

Where, X - Fraction of load

KVA - power rating of Transformer

CosΦ- Power Factor

12. Copper loss = (X2 × Wsc) in watts.

Where, Wsc – Copper Loss in Short Circuit Condition

13. Total Loss = (Cu Loss + Iron Loss) in watts

Outputpower
14. Efficiency =  100%
Outputpower  totallosse s

X  I 2 ( R02 cos   X 02 sin )

15. Regulation =  100
V02

Procedure:

Open Circuit Test:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The SPST switch on the primary side is closed.
3. The auto-transformer is adjusted to energize the transformer with the rated
primary voltage on the LV side.
4. The voltmeter, wattmeter and ammeter readings are noted at no-load
condition.
5. The auto-transformer is brought to, its initial position.
6. The supply is switched off.

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Short-Circuit Test:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The SPST switch on the primary side is closed.

3. The auto-transformer is slowly increased such that rated current will flow in

the HV winding.

4. The voltmeter, wattmeter and ammeter readings are noted at no- load

condition.

5. The auto-transformer is brought to, its initial position.

6. The supply is switched off.

Tabular Form for OC & SC Test on 1- Φ transformer:

Open Circuit Open Circuit

Open Circuit Power (Woc)
S. No. Primary Primary
Current (Io) Voltage (V1)

Short Circuit Short Circuit

Short Circuit Power (Wsc)
S. No. Primary Primary
Current (Isc) Voltage (Vsc)

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Model Graph:

The graph are drawn as

Efficiency Vs Output power Regulation Vs Power factor

Precautions:

a. At the time of starting auto transformer should be at minimum voltage

position.

b. High voltage and low voltage sides of the transformer should be

properly used as primary or secondary with respect to the experiments.

Result:

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Resultant Tabulation to find out the Efficiency

Core (or) Iron loss (Wo) = KVA rating of transformer =

Short Circuit Current (Isc) = Short Circuit Power (Wsc) =

Fraction of CosΦ = CosΦ = CosΦ =

CosΦ = 1 CosΦ = 0.4
load (x) 0.8 0.6 0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Resultant Tabulation to find out the Regulation

Isc = R02 = X02 = V02 =

Full load ¾load ½load ¼ load

Cos Φ
Lag lead lag lead lag lead lag lead

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

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BRAKE TEST ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Aim: To conduct the load test on three phase slip ring induction motor and to draw
the performance characteristics.

Name-plate details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI (0-600V) 1

2. Ammeter MI (0-10A) 1

3. Wattmeter 3-Ph Digital 440V/10A 1

Fuse Rating:

125% of rated current (Full load current)

Theory:

The brake test on induction motor is performed to compute its complete

performance i.e., torque, slip, efficiency, power factor etc. During this test, the motor
is operated at rated voltage and frequency and normally loaded mechanically by brake
and pulley arrangement from the observed data, the performance can be calculated,
following the steps given below:

Slip: The speed of the rotor, Nr drops slightly as the load on the motor is increased.
The synchronous speed, Ns of the rotating magnetic field is calculated, based on the
number of poles, P and the supply frequency, f i.e.,

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120 f
Synchronous speed, Ns = r. p.m
P

Ns  Nr
Then, slip, S =  100%
Ns

Normally, the range of the slip at full load is from 2 to 5%.

Torque: Mechanical loading is the most common type of method employed in

laboratories. A brake drum is coupled to the shaft of the motor and the load is applied
by tightening the belt, provided on the brake drum. The net force exerted at the brake
drum in Kg is obtained from the readings S1 and S2 of the spring balances i.e.,

Net force exerted, W = (S1 – S2) Kg

Then, load torque T = W  9.81 R  t / 2 N-m

Output Power: The output power in watts developed by the motor is given by

2NT
Output power  watts
60

Where, N is the speed of the motor in r.p.m.

Input Power: Input power is measured by the two watt meters, properly connected in
the circuit i.e.,

Input power = (W1+W2) watts

Where, W1 and W2 are the readings of the two watt meters.

Input power factor: Input power factor can also be calculated from the readings of
the two watt meters for balanced load. If φ is the power factor angle, then

W1  W2
tan  
W1  W2

Knowing the power factor angle, from the above, power factor, cosφ can be
calculated. It may be noted clearly at this stage that the power factor of the induction
motor is very low at no load, hardly 0.1 to 0.25 lagging. As such, one of the wattmeter
will record a negative reading, till the power factor is less than 0.5, which may be

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measured by reversing the connections of either the current coil or pressure coil of
this wattmeter.

Procedure:

1. Note down the nameplate details of motor.

2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

3. The TPST switch is closed and the motor is started using rotor resistance

starter. Where the Rotor resistance starter is turned from maximum resistance

to minimum resistance position to run at rated speed.

4. At no load the speed, current, voltage and power are noted.

5. By applying the load, for various values of current the above-mentioned

readings are noted.

6. The load is later released and the motor is switched off. The Rotor resistance

starter is brought to the original position before switching off the motor, the

load is later released and the motor is switched off and the graph is drawn.

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Observation:

a. Circumference of the brake drum =

b. Thickness of the belt =

Spring balance Reading Torque

Output Efficiency
(T)
Load Load Input
S. Speed of Power= (η) =
(S1~S2)×
Current Voltage Power
No. Motor (N) S1 o/p / i/p
S2 (S1-S2) Kg 2ΠNT /
r
(IL) (VL) (W)
60 × 100
×9.81

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Model Graph:

1. Electrical Characteristics:

2. Mechanical Characteristics:

Speed

Torque

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Precautions:

1. Motor should be started without any load.

2. The rotor resistance starter should be in maximum resistance position.

Result:

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REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR BY SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD

Aim: To predetermine the regulation of three phase alternator by EMF method.

Name plate details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC (0-30V) 1

2. Voltmeter MI (0-600V) 1

3. Ammeter MC (0-5A) 1

4. Ammeter MI (0-5A) 1

5. Rheostat WW 100Ω/5A 1

6. Rheostat WW 300Ω/1.4A 1

7. Tachometer Digital (0-10,000rpm) 1

Fuse Rating:

125% of rated current (Full load current)

For DC shunt motor:

For Alternator:

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THEORY:-

The following methods are used to determine the voltage regulation of smooth cylindrical rotor
type alternators:

A. Direct load test B. Indirect methods

Indirect Methods:

For large alternators, the two indirect methods which are used to predetermine the voltage
regulation of smooth cylindrical rotor type alternators are as follows:

3. Synchronous Impedance method or EMF method.

4. Ampere – turn method or MMF method.
Synchronous Impedance or EMF method:

The synchronous impedance method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of armature
reaction by a fictitious reactance.

For a synchronous generator

V  Ea  Z s I a
Z s  Ra  jX s

Formula Used:

1. Armature Resistance, Ra = 1.6Rdc

Rdc is the resistance of DC supply.

2. Synchronous impedance, Zs =
Open circuit voltage (E1 (Ph)) / Short circuit current (Isc).

3. Synchronous reactance, Xs= √ (ZS2 – Ra2).

4. E0 = √ [(Vrated cosΦ + IaRa) 2 + (Vrated sinΦ + IaXs) 2].

[For Lagging PF]

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5. E0 = √ [(Vrated cosΦ + IaRa) 2 + (Vrated sinΦ - IaXs) 2].

[For Leading PF]

6. E0 = √ [(Vrated + IaRa) 2 + (IaXs) 2]. [For Unity PF]

7. % Regulation = (E0 – Vrated) / Vrated × 100.
Procedure for EMF method:

1. Note down the nameplate details of motor and alternator.

2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

3. Give the supply by closing the DPST Switch.

4. Using the Three point starter, start the motor to run at the synchronous speed by varying the

motor field rheostat.

5. Conduct an open circuit Test by varying the potential Divider for various values of Field current

and tabulate the corresponding open circuit voltage readings.

6. Conduct a Short Circuit Test by closing the TPST switch and adjust the potential divider to set

the rated Armature Current, tabulate the corresponding Field Current.

7. Conduct a Stator Resistance Test by giving connection as per the circuit diagram and tabulate

the voltage and Current readings for various resistive loads.

Procedure to draw the graph for EMF method:

1. Draw the open Circuit Characteristics curve (Field Current Vs Generated Voltage per phase).

2. Draw the Short Circuit Characteristics curve (Field Current Vs Short Circuit Current).

3. The synchronous impedance per phase Zs can be determined by knowing the value of short

circuit current Isc corresponding to a field current that gives rated terminal voltage per phase

4. By using respective formulae find the Xs, E0 and percentage Regulation.

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Tabulation for regulation of three phase alternator by EMF method:

Open Circuit Test:

Field current Open circuit line Open circuit phase

S. No.
(If) voltage (V0L) voltage (V0 (Ph))

Short Circuit Test:

Short Circuit Current

S. No. Field Current (If)
(120 of rated Current) (ISC)

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Stator Resistance Test:

Tabulation to find out the armature resistance (Ra):

Armature Resistance
S. No. Armature Current (I) Armature Voltage (V)
(Ra = V/ I)

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Regulation curve of alternator (EMF Method):

Model Graph:

EMF Method:

Precautions:

1. The motor field rheostat should be kept in the minimum resistance position.

2. The 1-Φ auto transformer in alternator field should be in the minimum voltage position.

3. Initially all Switches are in open position.

Result:

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Resultant tabulation for regulation of three phase alternator by EMF methods

Percentage Regulation

S. No. Power EMF Method

Factor Lagging Leading

1. 0.2

2. 0.4

3. 0.6

4. 0.8

5. 1.0

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BRAKE TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR

Aim: To conduct brake test on DC shunt motor and to draw its characteristics.

Name-plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 1

2. Ammeter MC 1

3. Rheostat WW 1

4. Tachometer - 1

Theory:

The load test on a D.C motor is performed to obtain its various performance
characteristics including efficiency. The motor can be loaded by a belt and pulley
arrangement as shown in Fig(1). If W1 and W2 are the tensions in Kg indicated by the two
spring balances provided on the two sides of the belt, then the load torque on the motor is
given by,

Load torque, T  W1  W2   r Kg – m

Then, the mechanical power output of the motor,

2NT
Pm  watts
60  0.102

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Power input to the motor, Pi  V  I watts

Pm
Hence, efficiency of the motor,    100 %
Pi

Where, r – radius of the pulley in meter

N – speed of the motor in rpm

V – voltage applied to the motor

I – input current drawn by the motor

The speed of the D.C motor is given by the following expression,

V  I a Ra
Speed of rotation, N  k


Where the applied voltage V is constant, more over the flux Ф is nearly constant for shunt
motor. Thus the speed of the D.C shunt motor will decrease as the load on the motor increases,
because of the increase in the armature voltage drop, IaRa. The drop in speed from no load to full load
operation is hardly 4 to 5% of the rated speed, as such D.C shunt motor is regarded as constant speed
motor for all practical purposes.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Give the supply to the circuit by closing the DPST switch.
3. Start the motor with the help of a 3-poinrt starter.
4. Note down the voltage and current readings for no-load condition.
5. Apply the load gradually & note down the readings of voltmeter, ammeter &
tachometer.
6. Each time note down the readings of S1 & S2.
7. Calculate the output power, input power and efficiency.
8. Repeat the procedure until the ammeter reads full load current.

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Tabular Form:

Weights Torque
= Input η = Output
Voltage Current Speed Output =
S. =
/ Input *
No. (V) (A) (rpm) S1 S2 S1~S2 9.81*R* 2ΠNT / 60
V *I 100
(S1~S2)

Note: R – Radius of Brake Drum

Model Graph:

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Precautions:

1. Load must be applied gradually, but not suddenly.

2. Load should be removed before switching of the motor.

Result:

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Lab Manual For II-II B.Tech EEE Students

Name of the Lab:

Electrical Machines Lab - I

Prepared By:
K.VINDHYA SMITHA, Associate Professor.
CH.TRINAYANI, Assistant Professor.
P.B. KOTESWARA RAO, Assistant Professor.

GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE :: GUDLAVALLERU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

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ELECTRICAL MACHINES LAB – I

LIST OF EXPERMENTS LIST

1. MAGNETISING CHARACTERISTICS OF A SHUNT GENERATOR

2. LOAD TEST ON DC SHUNT GENERATOR

3. LOAD TEST ON DC SERIES GENERATOR

4. LOAD TEST ON DC COMPOUND GENERATOR

5. HOPKINSON‟S TEST

6. FIELD‟S TEST ON DC SERIES MACHINE

7. SWINBURNE‟S TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR

8. SPEED CONTROL OF DC SHUNT MOTOR

9. BRAKE TEST ON DC COMPOUND MOTOR

10. BRAKE TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR

11. RETARDATION TEST

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MAGNETISING CHARACTERISTICS OF A SHUNT GENERATOR

Aim: To conduct No-load Test on self excited generator to determine critical field resistance,
critical speed & to draw its magnetizing characteristics.

Name-plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 1

2. Ammeter MC 2

3. Rheostat WW 1

4. Rheostat WW 1

Theory:

The EMF generated in the armature winding of a DC generator under no-load is given by
Eg = PφNZ / 60A= kφN (P, Z, A are constants for a particular generator)

Hence at constant speed, No-load emf, Eg is directly proportional to the flux per pole φ
which in turn depends upon the field current If. The characteristic curve showing the relation
between the field current, If and the generated emf, Eg at No-load and at a constant speed is
known as magnetization characteristic or open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) of DC generator. A
small emf of the order of 10 to 15V is generated by the generator, even when the field current is
zero, which is due to the residual magnetism in the poles. This characteristic of DC shunt
generator is obtained by separately exciting the field. The first part of the curve is approximately
straight and shows that flux produced is proportional to the exciting current; but after a certain
point, saturation of the iron becomes perceptible as the curve departs from straight line form.

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Critical resistance of the field circuit can be obtained by drawing a tangent to the initial
portion of the magnetization characteristic, the slope of which gives the value of the critical
resistance.

Critical speed of a shunt generator is that speed for which the given shunt field resistance
represents critical resistance.

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Resistance in the field circuit of motor is kept at minimum resistance position.
3. Generator is run at rated speed by adjusting the resistance in the field circuit of the motor.
4. By gradually varying field rheostat the induced emf is noted.
5. The field rheostat is varied till the no load voltage is 120%W of the rated voltage.
6. The field current „If‟ & No-load EMF are measured.
7. Induced emf is noted with increasing & decreasing field current.
8. The graphs are to be drawn between No-load EMF and field current
Tabular Form:

S. Field Current Forward Voltage Reverse Voltage

Average Voltage
No. (A) (Vf) (Vr)

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Model Graph: (calculation of critical field resistance and critical speed from graph)

Critical field resistance = slope of OA,

Critical speed, Nc = (BC / AC) * rated speed N

Precautions:

1. Ratings of the fuses are to be properly selected.

2. Take the readings of the meters without parallax error.
3. Connections must be given tightly.
4. Multiple connections at the meters should be avoided.
5. Induced EMF at zero field current is noted.
6. The field rheostat is varied in forward or backward directions up to the end position, but
never do both at a time.
7. Speed is maintained constant throughout the experiment
Result:

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LOAD TEST ON DC SHUNT GENERATOR

Aim: To determine the internal & external characteristics of DC shunt generator by actually loading it.

Name-plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 1

2. Ammeter MC 1

4. Ammeter MC 1

5. Rheostat WW 1

6. Rheostat WW 1

Theory:

If a DC shunt generator is loaded, after building up to its rated voltage then its terminal voltage will
drop. This drop, in fact, increases if load current increases. But this type of terminal drop is undesirable
for a specified service. The external characteristic of a generator represent the graphical relationship
between the terminal voltage and the load current, the generator being operated at constant rated speed
and with the same excitation as under the no load conditions. The nature of this characteristic depends
upon the following factors.

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 Voltage drop in the armature winding, interpole and compensating windings.

 Voltage drop at the brush contact
 Voltage drop due to armature reaction.
External characteristic of the generator indicates the fall in the terminal voltage as the load on the
generator increases. External characteristic of a shunt generator is more drooping compared to that of
separately excited generator.

The internal characteristic of D.C shunt generator can be obtained by adding the voltage drop in the
armature winding (IaRa) to the external characteristic plotted experimentally

Procedure:

1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The supply is given and the motor is started with the help of a 3 – point starter. The speed of the
motor is adjusted to that of the rated speed by varying motor field rheostat.
3. The terminal voltage of the generator is brought to the rated voltage by varying generator field
rheostat.
4. The generator is loaded step by step with the help of a load resistance, for each step the speed of the
generator was kept constant and for each step terminal voltage, load current & field current is
noted.
5. The armature resistance (Ra) of generator is measured by ammeter – voltmeter method.
6. Induced EMF was calculated by adding IaRa drop to the terminal voltage.

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Tabular Form:

Terminal
Armature Current Load Current Field current Generated voltage
S. No. Voltage
(Ia) (IL) Ia - IL Eg = V + IaRa
(V)

Test to find armature resistance Ra:

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Procedure:

1. Apply 30V D.C supply

2. Vary the rheostat in suitable steps and note down the ammeter & voltmeter readings
3. Find armature resistance
Tabular Form:

S. Voltage across Armature current Armature resistance

No. armature (Va) (Ia) (Ra)

Model Graph:

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Precautions:

1. All the connections are made tightly.

2. Speed of the generator is maintained constant throughout the experiment.
3. Readings should be taken without parallax error.

Result:

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LOAD TEST ON DC SERIES GENERATOR

Aim: To conduct load test on DC series generator and draw its characteristics.

Name-plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 1

2. Ammeter MC 1

3. Rheostat WW 1

Theory:

The field winding (consists of comparatively few turns of wire having sufficiently large cross-
section to carry the rated current of the generator) in the DC series generator is connected in
series with the armature and to the external circuit. The DC series generator, which maintains
constant voltage, is used for constant current utility. When the DC series generator is being tested
to determine its characteristic, it is assumed that the generator speed is maintained at a constant
value i.e., the rated speed of the generator.

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Procedure:

1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Start the D.C shunt motor which is the prime mover to the series generator by using three
point starter.
3. Run the motor at the rated speed of D.C series Generator by varying the field rheostat of the
D.C shunt motor
4. Ensure that the D.C series generator will develop its rated voltage
5. At no-load condition, note down the readings of the ammeter & voltmeter.
6. Apply the load to the generator gradually.
7. Apply different loads and take the readings of voltmeter & ammeter.

Tabular Form:

S. No. Voltmeter Reading (V) Load Current (A)

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Model Graph:

Precautions:

1. Load should be gradually applied but not suddenly.

2. At no-load, speed of the motor and generator voltage should be adjusted
to rated value.

3. The motor field regulator should be in minimum resistance position and

the generator field regulator should be in maximum resistance position.

Result:

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LOAD TEST ON DC COMPOUND GENERATOR

Aim: To obtain the load characteristics of a DC compound generator with long shunt and short shunt
connections, when the machine is cumulatively and differentially compounded.

Name-plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 1

2. Ammeter MC 1

3. Rheostat WW 1

4. Rheostat WW 1

5. Load Box - 1

Theory:

The terminal voltage drop of the D.C shunt generator with load makes this type of D.C generator
undesirable where constancy of voltage is necessary. A substantial constant voltage in the terminal may
be achieved when both the series and shunt field coils are present. Shunt field acts as the main field and
the series field either helps or opposes this shunt field. When both the fields help each other, the
generator is called cumulative type and while they opposes each other, it is differential type. Thus by
controlling the series field ampere-turns, it is possible to get a number of load characteristics.

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Procedure:

1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Supply is given to the compound motor and it is started with the help of a 3-point starter.
3. The speed of the motor is adjusted to rated speed of D.C compound generator by adjusting the
shunt field rheostat.
4. The generator is allowed to build up its rated voltage by adjusting the generator shunt field rheostat.
5. The generator is loaded step by step with the help of loading rheostat. For each step, the terminal
voltage and load current are noted.
6. The generator is loaded up to its full load current.
7. The above procedure is repeated for long shunt cumulative, long shunt differential, short shunt
cumulative & short shunt differential.
Tabular Form:

Long Shunt Long Shunt Short Shunt Short Shunt

S. Cumulative Differential Cumulative Differential
No.
Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage Current

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Model Graph:

Precautions:

1. All the connections are made tightly.

2. Readings should be taken without parallax error.

Result:

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HOPKINSON‟S TEST

Aim: To find out the efficiency of a DC motor & generator by conducting Hopkinson‟s test.

Name-plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 1

2. Ammeter MC 3

3. Ammeter MC 1

4. Ammeter MC 1

5. Rheostat WW 1

6. Rheostat WW 1

7.. Switch SPST 1

Theory:

The efficiency of the DC machine can be accurately determined by the regenerative method,
normally known as Hopkinson‟s test. This test overcomes the drawback of Swinburne‟s test,
which does not take into account of the stray load losses occurring in DC machines under loaded
conditions. As such the efficiency, calculated by Swinburne‟s test is comparatively higher than
the actual one. Hopkinson‟s test needs two identical DC machines coupled mechanically and
connected electrically as shown in the figure. One of the machines is operated as motor, driving
the other machine as a generator. The output power of the generator is fed to the motor. Thus the
power drawn from the supply is only to overcome the losses of both the machines. By varying
the field currents of generator and motor, any desired load can be adjusted on these two
machines.

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Procedure:

1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Motor is started with the help of a 3-point starter.
3. The speed of the motor is adjusted to rated speed by adjusting the shunt field rheostat.
4. The generator excitation is increased with the help of generator field regulator until voltmeter
connected across it gives zero deflection.
5. The SPST switch is closed at this condition & all the meter readings are noted.
6. The generator excitation is changed such that the generator armature current increases
gradually & two readings are tabulated for different loads.
Tabular Form:

Voltmeter Ammeter Ammeter Ammeter Ammeter Ammeter

S. No.
V1 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5

Test to find armature resistance Ra:

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Procedure:

1. Apply 30V D.C supply

2. Vary the rheostat in suitable steps and note down the ammeter & voltmeter readings
3. Find armature resistance
Tabular Form:

S. Voltage across Armature current Armature resistance

No. armature (Va) (Ia) (Ra)

Precautions:

1. The two machines should be identical.

2. The SPST switch should be in open condition at the starting of the experiment. It should be
closed, when the voltmeter across it reads zero.
3. The motor field regulator should in minimum resistance position & the generator field
regulator should be in the maximum resistance position.
Result:

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Total Output
Stray Total
Motor Stray Losse Armature of
Input Motor Losses Losses η of
Shunt Losse s Cu. Losses Shunt field η of
S.N of Armature
s Cu. Loss of Generat
o Per Of Gene
Field Of Of generator or Motor
Motor Cu. Loss machi Generat rator
Losses (W3) Moto generator
ne or
r

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FIELD‟S TEST ON DC SERIES MACHINE

Aim: To conduct field‟s test on two identical DC series machines and to find

out the efficiency of each machine.

Name-plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 3

2. Ammeter MC 2

3. Rheostat TWW 1

Theory:

Series motors which are mainly used for traction work are easily available in pairs. The two machines
are coupled mechanically. One machine runs as a motor and drives generator whose output is wasted in
a variable load. Iron and friction losses of two machines are made equal by joining the series field
winding of the generator in the motor armature circuit so that both machines are equally excited and by
running them at equal speed. Load resistance is varied till the motor current reaches its Full-load value
indicated by ammeter. After this adjustment for full-load current, different ammeter and voltmeter
readings are noted.

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Procedure:

1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the load rheostat at suitable value on generator side before starting the motor.
3. Series motor is started with the help, of a 2-point starter.
4. Load is increased until full load value is obtained and corresponding readings are noted.
5. Stray losses for each machine are calculated.
6. For 30V DC supply, armature resistance & series resistance of machines will be measured.
7. Then the efficiency of each machine is evaluated.

Test to find armature resistance Ra:

Procedure:

1. Apply 30V D.C supply

2. Vary the rheostat in suitable steps and note down the ammeter & voltmeter readings
3. Find armature resistance

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Tabular Form:

Voltage across Armature current Armature resistance

S. No.
armature (Va) (Ia) (Ra)

Precautions:

1. There should not be any loose connections.

2. There should be some load on the generator at the time of starting.
3. There should be no parallax error while taking the readings.

Result:

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SWINBURNE‟S TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR

Aim: To predetermine the efficiency of a DC shunt machine as a motor & as a generator by

conducting Swinburne‟s test.

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 1

2. Ammeter MC 1

3. Ammeter MC 1

4. Rheostat WW 1

5. Rheostat WW 1

6. Tachometer - 1

Name-plate Details:

Theory:

Swinburne‟s test is an indirect method (without loading) for finding out the efficiency of D.C
machine. Various losses occurring in a D.C machine can be classified as (i) constant losses and

(ii) variable losses. Variable losses are directly proportional to the square of armature current or
approximately the load current, where as constant losses are independent of load conditions.

In this method, constant losses are determined experimentally by operating the D.C
machine as motor running at no load. Variable losses occurring on load are calculated from the
known specifications of the machine.

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Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Supply is given to the motor and the motor is started with the help of a 3-point starter.
3. The speed of the motor is adjusted to its rated value with the help of a shunt field regulator.
4. The line current, armature voltage, shunt field current and speed are noted at no-load.
5. The resistance of the armature is measured with the help of ammeter – voltmeter method.

Tabular Form:

S. No. Voltage (V) Line Current (IL0) Field Current (If) Speed (rpm)

Constant losses = No. load input – No load armature Cu. Loss

= VILO – (ILO – If)2Ra

Test to find armature resistance Ra:

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Procedure:

1. Apply 30V D.C supply

2. Vary the rheostat in suitable steps and note down the ammeter & voltmeter readings
3. Find armature resistance

Tabular Form:

S. Voltage across Armature current Armature resistance

No. armature (Va) (Ia) (Ra)

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Generator:

Load Output Constant Arm. Total Input= η=

Voltage Current Cu. losses=
(V*IL) Losses output+losses Output
S.No
(V) Loss Wc+ / Input
(IL) (Wc) Ia2*Ra * 100
(Ia2*Ra)

Motor:

Load Input Constant Arm. Total Output= η=

Voltage Current Cu. losses=
(V*IL) Losses Input – Output /
S.No
(V) Loss Wc+ losses Input *
(IL) (Wc) Ia2*Ra 100
(Ia2*Ra)

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Model Graph:

Precautions:

1. Connections must be made carefully & very tight.

2. Take all the meter readings without parallax error.

Result:

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SPEED CONTROL OF DC SHUNT MOTOR

Aim: a) To study the speed control of DC shunt motor below the normal

speed by armature resistance control and to plot armature voltage

Vs speed characteristic.

b) To study the speed control of DC motor above the normal speed by

field control and to plot field current Vs speed characteristic.

Name-plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 1

2. Ammeter MC 1

3. Rheostat WW 1

WW 1

4. Tachometer - 1

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Theory:

The back emf for a D.C motor is given by

PNZ
Back emf, E b 
60 A

The number of poles P, the armature conductors Z and the number of parallel paths A are constant for a
particular machine. Thus the speed of the D.C motor is given by,

Eb V  I a Ra
Speed of the motor, N  K K
 

The equation for the speed of the motor clearly indicates the following,

(i) Speed of the D.C motor can be controlled below the normal range of speed by varying the
resistance in the armature circuit included in the form of a rheostat as a variable resistance (armature
control).
(ii) Speed of the D.C motor can be controlled above the normal range speed by decreasing the flux φ
i.e. by decreasing the current in the field circuit by including an external resistance in the form of a
rheostat as variable resistance (field control).
1. Field control method:
Let the external resistance in the armature circuit of a D.C shunt motor be R ohms, then the speed
equation modifies to,

V  I a ( Ra  R)
N k rpm


Hence the speed of the motor decreases with an increase in the value of external resistance R. Thus
reduced speeds lower than the no load speed can be obtained by this method. However, there is an
excessive wastage of power in the additional resistance, which lowers the efficiency of the motor
considerably.

2. Armature control method:

The speed of the D.C motor can be increased beyond the no load speed by inserting an external
resistance in the shunt field circuit. The current in the external resistance is very low, hence the losses
occurring in the additional resistance is quite small.

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Procedure:

 Armature Control Method:

2. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
3. Start the motor with the help of a 3-point starter.
4. Take the no-load readings.Vary the rheostat in the armature circuit. At
each time note down the readings of voltmeter and speed.

 Field Control Method:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Start the motor with the help of a 3-point starter.
3. Take the no-load readings.
4. Note down the current in the field circuit by varying the field rheostat.
5. Note down the readings of ammeter and speed.
Tabular Form:

 Armature Control Method:

S. No. Voltage (V) Speed (rpm)

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 Field Control Method:

S. No. Current (A) Speed (rpm)

Model Graph:

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Precautions:

1. Connections should be made carefully.

2. Readings should be taken without any parallax error.

Result:

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BRAKE TEST ON DC COMPOUND MOTOR

Aim: To conduct brake test on DC compound motor & draw its performance curve.

Name-plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 1

2. Ammeter MC 1

3. Tachometer - 1

Theory:

Brake test is a direct method and consists of applying a brake to a water-cooled pulley mounted
on the motor shaft. The brake band is fixed with the help of wooden blocks gripping the pulley.
The motor is run and the load on the motor is adjusted till it carries its full load current. This
simple brake test can be used for small motors only, because in case of large motors, it is
difficult to dissipate the large amount of heat generated at the brake.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Give the supply to the circuit by closing the DPST switch.
3. Start the motor with the help of a 4-point starter.
4. Note down the readings of voltage & current for no-load.
5. Apply the load gradually & note down the readings.
6. Each time note down the readings of S1 & S2.
7. Calculate the torque, output power, input power and efficiency.
8. Repeat the procedure until the ammeter reads the full load current.

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Tabular Form:

Weights Torque = η=
Input
Voltage Current Speed Output =
= Output
S. No. 9.81*R*
(V) (A) (rpm)
S1~S 2ΠNT / 60 / Input
S1 S2 V *I
2 (S1~S2) * 100

Model Graph:

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Precautions:

1. Load should be applied gradually, but not suddenly.

2. Load should be removed before switching of the motor.

Result:

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BRAKE TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR

Aim: To conduct brake test on DC shunt motor and to draw its characteristics.

Name-plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 1

2. Ammeter MC 1

3. Rheostat WW 1

4. Tachometer - 1

Theory:

The load test on a D.C motor is performed to obtain its various performance
characteristics including efficiency. The motor can be loaded by a belt and pulley
arrangement as shown in Fig(1). If W1 and W2 are the tensions in Kg indicated by the two
spring balances provided on the two sides of the belt, then the load torque on the motor is
given by,

Load torque, T  W1  W2   r Kg – m

Then, the mechanical power output of the motor,

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2NT
Pm  watts
60  0.102

Power input to the motor, Pi  V  I watts

Pm
Hence, efficiency of the motor,    100 %
Pi

Where, r – radius of the pulley in meter

N – speed of the motor in rpm

V – voltage applied to the motor

I – input current drawn by the motor

The speed of the D.C motor is given by the following expression,

V  I a Ra
Speed of rotation, N  k


Where the applied voltage V is constant, more over the flux Ф is nearly constant for
shunt motor. Thus the speed of the D.C shunt motor will decrease as the load on the motor
increases, because of the increase in the armature voltage drop, I aRa. The drop in speed from
no load to full load operation is hardly 4 to 5% of the rated speed, as such D.C shunt motor is
regarded as constant speed motor for all practical purposes.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Give the supply to the circuit by closing the DPST switch.
3. Start the motor with the help of a 3-poinrt starter.
5. Note down the voltage and current readings for no-load condition.
6. Apply the load gradually & note down the readings of voltmeter, ammeter &
tachometer.
7. Each time note down the readings of S1 & S2.

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8. Calculate the output power, input power and efficiency.

9. Repeat the procedure until the ammeter reads full load current.

Tabular Form:

Weights Torque
= Input
Voltage Current Speed Output = η = Output
S. =
/ Input *
No. 9.81*R*
(V) (A) (rpm) S1 S2 S1~S2 2ΠNT / 60 100
V *I
(S1~S2)

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Note: R – Radius of Brake Drum

Model Graph:

Precautions:

1. Load must be applied gradually, but not suddenly.

2. Load should be removed before switching of the motor.

Result:

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RETARDATION TEST

Aim: To conduct the retardation test for finding out the stray losses and efficiency of a DC
shunt Motor & Generator.

Name-Plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 1

2. Ammeter MC 1

3. Rheostat WW 1

4. Rheostat WW 1

5. Rheostat WW 1

6. DPDT Switch - 1

7. Tachometer - 1

Theory:

This method is applicable to shunt motors and generators and is used for finding the stray
losses. The machine under test is speeded up slightly beyond its normal speed and then
supply is cut off from the armature while keeping the field excited. Consequently, the
armature slows down and its kinetic energy is used to meet the rotational losses i.e. friction,

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windage and iron losses, which are obviously known as stray losses. The n knowing the
armature and shunt copper losses at a given load current, efficiency can be calculated.

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the armature rheostat at maximum resistance position while starting the motor.
3. Supply is given to the shunt motor (Throwing a DPDT switch on the supply side).
4. Gradually cut out the armature resistance until the voltmeter across the armature reads the
rated voltage
5. Rated speed is obtained by adjusting the field rheostat of the motor.
6. The time t1 is noted corresponding 20% voltage drop in the voltmeter across the armature.
7. Repeat the steps 2, 3, 4 to run the motor at its rated speed and voltage.
8. The DPDT switch is kept on load side and time t 2 is noted corresponding 20% voltage
drop in the voltmeter across the armature.
9. Load current will be noted down when the DPDT switch is kept on load side.

Tabular Form:

Voltage (Volts) Current (Amps)

Speed Time (sec)
S. No. V2 (20% of I1 (Current in
(rpm) V1 (Rated)
rated) T1 T2 load circuit)

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Calculations:

V1  V2
Average voltage (Vavg) =
2

Average power (W1) = Vavg  I 1

Ish = V / Rsh,

Ts  W 1
Stray Losses = Watts,
T1  T2 

Ia = I - Ish (where Ia is armature current & I is rated current)

Total losses = Stray losses + Ia2Ra +Ish2Rsh,

Efficiency =
Input  totallosse s   100 for generator,
Input

Output
Efficiency =  100 for motor.
Output  totallosse s 

Note: Ra & Rsh can be found from separate tests

Test to find armature resistance Ra:

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Procedure:

1. Apply 30V D.C supply

2. Vary the rheostat in suitable steps and note down the ammeter & voltmeter readings

Tabular Form:

Find armature resistance:

S. Voltage across Armature current Armature resistance

No. armature (Va) (Ia) (Ra)

Precautions:

2. DPDT switch is kept on load side very quickly.

3. All the connections are made tightly.
4. Ratings of the fuses are to be properly selected.
5. Take the readings from the meters without parallax error.
6. Multiple connections at the meters should be avoided.
Result:

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CHAPTER – III

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Lab Manual For III-I B.Tech EEE Students

Name of the Lab:

Control System Lab

Prepared By:
Dr.M.SIVA KUMAR, Professor.
D.SRINIVASA RAO, Associate Professor.
G.RAMESH, Assistant Professor.

GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE :: GUDLAVALLERU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CONTROL SYSTEMS LAB

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LIST OF EXPERMENTS LIST

1. TIME RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

2. EFFECT OF P,PI,PD,PID CONTROLLERS ON A SECOND OREDER SYSTEM

3. TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM

4. PROGRAMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

(STUDY AND VERIFICATION OF TRUTH TABLES OF LOGIC GATES, SIMPLE

BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS AND APPLICATION OF SPEED CONTROL OF A
MOTOR)

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHROS

6. CHARACTERISTICS OF BRIDGE TYPE MAGNETIC AMPLIFIER

7. EFECT OF FEED BACK ON DC SERVO MOTOR

8. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

9. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF SEPERATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR

10. CHARECTERISTICS OF AC SERVO MOTOR

11. CONTROL OF TRAFFIC LIGHT SIGNALS USING PLC

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TIME RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

Aim: To determine the time response of second order system.

Apparatus:

1. Process Control Simulator PCS - 01

2. CRO with probes

3. Patch Cards

Theory:

Closed loop Systems:

Feed back systems involves the measurement of the output of the system and generation

of control signals, which is based upon the error under the influence of a „command‟ or

„reference‟ and the measured value of output. The closed loop unity feedback system is

given by the block diagram.

Fig.2 BLOCK DAIGRAM OF CLOSED LOOP SYSATEM

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The open loop forward path transfer function for the figure (2) shown is given by

G(s)= ω2n / (S2+ 2ξωn s) -1

Where

ξ = Damping ratio

ωn = un damped natural frequency.

The closed loop transfer function is given by

T (s)=C(s)/R(s)= ω2n / (S2+ 2ξωn s+ ω2n) -2

Which gives response of the second order system depending up on the values of ξ and

ωn

Thus the response of a closed loop system can be altered by varying the open gain and

hence it should be possible to choose ξ and ωn to obtain a suitable performance

characteristics.

The transient response of a system to a unit step input depends on the initial Conditions.

For convenience in comparing transient responses of various subsystems, it is a common

practice to use the standard initial condition that the system is at initially with output

and all time derivatives there of zero.

The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped Oscillations

before reaching steady state. The time response of the system is given by

C(t) = 1 - (e-ξωnt/√(1- ξ2 )) sin (ωdt+tan-1 (√(1- ξ2) / ξ) -3

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To specify the transient response characteristics of a control system to unit step input, it

is common to specify the following

1.Delay time td

2 Rise time tr

3. Peak time tp

4. Maximum overshoot M p

5. Settling time ts

Delay time td: The delay time is the time required for the response

to reach half the final value.

Rise time tr: Rise time is time required for the response to rise

from 0% to 100% of its final value.

tr= (Π-Ø)/ ωn √(1- ξ2) -4

Where

2
Ø=tan -1 (√(1- ξ )/ ξ)

Peak time tp: The peak time is the time required for the response to

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reach the first peak overshoot.

tp = Π/ ωn √(1- ξ2) -5

Maximum overshoot Mp: The maximum overshoot is the max. Peak value of the response

curve measured from unity. If the final steady state response differs from unity, then it

is common to use max. Percent overshoot. The amount of max. Overshoot directly

indicates the relative stability of system.

MP = e – ξΠ/√(1- ξ2) -6

Settling time ts: It is the time required for response to reach and

stay with in the specified range (2% to 5%) of

the final value.

ts = 4/ξωn ( for 2% tolerance)

Procedure:

1. Patch the connections in the front panel as shown in the circuit diagram of Figure

(1).

2. Switch ON the supply to the unit.

3. Square wave amplitude 2 VPP is given as a input to the system at a certain

frequency.

4. Adjust the value of proportional band such that there is a sustained oscillations

(without damping) for each step input.

5. Under this condition, note the frequency of oscillations, this value gives the natural

frequency of oscillation of this system.

6. Set ξ at some particular value by varying the proportional band.

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7. Note the amplitude of peak overshoot for an unit step input.

8. Using the formula (6) determine the value of ξ

9 .repeat the experiment for different values proportional band.

10. Note time domain specifications from the response (in CRO) for this system.

11. Substitute these values of ξ and ωn in the standard equation to derive the time

response of the second order system.

Tabular Form:

Peak
Proportional Delay Rise Settling Peak
Over
Time Time Time Time (tp)
Shoot
Band (td)msec (tr) msec (ts) msec msec
(MP)V
200%

100%

50%

30%

5%

From the maximum peak over shoot MP = e – ξΠ/√(1- ξ2)

ξ = (log MP )/√ ( Π 2+ (log MP) 2) -7

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From the peak time tp = Π/ ωn √(1- ξ2)

The value of damped frequency ωd = Π/ tp --. 8

The time response of this system is

C(t) = 1 - (e-ξωnt/√(1- ξ2 )) sin (ωdt+tan-1 (√(1- ξ2) / ξ)

C(t) = ______________

Model Graph:

Step response of under damped systems

Precautions:

1. Connections must be done carefully.

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2. Readings should be taken without any parallel error.

Result: From this experiment the time domain specifications are noted. From that the
damping factor ξ and undamped natural frequency ωn are determined. Using the
damping factor ξ and undamped natural frequency ωn, time response of under damped
second order system can be determined .

The time response C (t) = 1-e-608.6t sin (3141.5t+79.220)

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EFFECT OF P,PI,PD,PID CONTROLLERS ON A SECOND OREDER SYSTEM

Aim: To study the time response of a second order system using P, PI, PD and PID

controllers i.e. to study their effects.

Apparatus: 1. process control simulator (PCS-01)

2. C.R.O

Theory:

Closed loop Systems:

Feed back systems involves the measurement of the output of the system and generation

of control signals, which is based upon the error under the influence of a „command‟ or

„reference‟ and the measured value of output. The closed loop unity feedback system is

given by the block diagram.

Fig.2 BLOCK DAIGRAM OF CLOSED LOOP SYSATEM

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The open loop forward path transfer function for the figure (2) shown is given by

G(s)= ω2n / (S2+ 2ξωn s) -1

Where

ξ = Damping ratio

ωn = un damped natural frequency.

The closed loop transfer function is given by

T (s)=C(s)/R(s)= ω2n / (S2+ 2ξωn s+ ω2n) -2

Which gives response of the second order system depending up on the values of ξ and

ωn

Thus the response of a closed loop system can be altered by varying the open gain and

hence it should be possible to choose ξ and ωn to obtain a suitable performance

characteristics.

The transient response of a system to a unit step input depends on the initial Conditions.

For convenience in comparing transient responses of various subsystems, it is a common

practice to use the standard initial condition that the system is at initially with output

and all time derivatives there of zero.

The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped Oscillations

before reaching steady state. The time response of the system is given by

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C(t) = 1 - (e-ξωnt/√(1- ξ2 )) sin (ωdt+tan-1 (√(1- ξ2) / ξ) -3

To specify the transient response characteristics of a control system to unit step input, it

is common to specify the following

1.Delay time td

2 Rise time tr

3. Peak time tp

4. Maximum overshoot M p

5. Settling time ts

Delay time td: The delay time is the time required for the response to

reach half the final value.

Rise time tr: Rise time is time required for the response to rise from

0% to 100% of its final value.

tr= (Π-Ø)/ ωn √(1- ξ2) -4

Where

2
Ø=tan -1 (√(1- ξ )/ ξ)

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Peak time tp: The peak time is the time required for the response to reach the first peak

overshoot.

tp = Π/ ωn √(1- ξ2) -5

Maximum overshoot Mp: The maximum overshoot is the max. Peak value of the

response curve measured from unity. If the final steady state response differs from

unity, then it is common to use max. Percent overshoot. The amount of max. Overshoot

directly indicates the relative stability of system.

MP = e – ξΠ/√(1- ξ2) -6

Settling time ts: It is the time required for response to reach and

stay with in the specified range (2% to 5%) of

the final value.

ts = 4/ξωn ( for 2% tolerance)

P Controller:

In proportional control, the activating signal for the control action in a control system is

proportional to the error signal. The error signal being the difference between the

reference input signal and feedback signal obtained form the output.

PI

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Controller:

In an integral error compensation scheme, the output response depends is upon the

integral of the actuating signal.

This type of compensation is introduced by using a controller which produces an output

signal consisting of two terms, one proportional to the actuating signal and the other

proportional to its integral such a controller is called proportional plus integral

controller.

PD

Controller:

A system is said to possess derivative error compensation when the generation of its

output depends some way on the rate of change of actuating signal. This type of

compensation is easily introduced by using an amplifier which produces an output

signal containing two terms one proportional to the derivative of the actuating signal

and the other proportional to actuating itself

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PID Controller:

For PID control, the activating signal consists of proportional error signal added with

derivative and integral of the error signal. The

proportional controller stabilizes the gain but produces steady state error.

The integral controller reduces the steady state error. The derivative controller reduces

the rate of change of error. The combined effect of all the three cannot be judged from

the parameters. PID control combines the advantages of proportional, derivative and

integral control actions.

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Procedure for P Controller:

1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram of Fig.3.

2. Switch ON the power supply unit.

3. Square wave of amplitude 2 Vpp is given as input with optimum frequency setting

so, as to view the response and measure the peak overshoot from the settling time.

4. Adjust the values of proportional band and view the response on C.R.O.

5. Note down the rise time, peak time, and settling time for given step input and

tabulate the values.

6. Repeat the above experiment for various values of proportional band note down the

reading.

Procedure for PD Controller:

1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram of Fig.5.

2. Switch ON the power supply unit.

3. Square wave of amplitude 2 Vpp is given as input with optimum frequency setting

so, as to view the response and measure the peak overshoot from the settling time.

4. Adjust the values of proportional band and derivative time knob and view the

response on C.R.O.

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5. Note down the rise time, peak time, and settling time for different given step input

and tabulate the values.

6. Repeat the above experiment for various values of proportional band and derivative

time note down the reading.

Procedure for PI Controller:

1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram of Fig.4.

2. Switch ON the power supply unit.

3. Square wave of amplitude 2 Vpp is given as input with optimum frequency setting

so, as to view the response and measure the peak overshoot from the settling time.

4. Adjust the values of proportional band and integral time knob and view the

response on C.R.O.

5. Note down the rise time, peak time, and settling time for different given step input

and tabulate the values.

6. Repeat the above experiment for various values of proportional band and integral

time note down the reading.

Procedure for PID Controller:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram of Fig.6. Such that the integral time
knob and derivative knob also includes the circuit.
2. Switch ON the power supply to the circuit.
3. Square wave of 2 Vpp is given an input with optimum frequency setting so as to view
the response and measure the peak overshoot from settling value.
4. Adjust the value of proportional band knob, integral band knob, derivative knob to
view the response on C.R.C

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5. Note down the rise time, peak time, settling time for different step input and
tabulate the readings.
6. The experiment is repeated for different values of proportional band integral time,
derivative knob, and note down the readings.
Tabular Forms

„P‟ Controller:

Peak Over Delay Settling Peak

Proportional Rise Time
Shoot Time Time Time (tp)
Band (td)msec (tr) msec msec
(ts) msec
(MP)V
200%

100%

50%

30%

5%

„PI‟ Controller:

Proportional Peak Over Rise Time Settling Peak

Band Integral Shoot (tr) msec Time Time
Time (ts)msec (tp)msec
(MP)V
200%

100%

50%

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30%

5%

„PD‟ Controller:

Proportional Peak Over Rise Settling Peak Time

Band Derivative Shoot Time Time (tp)msec
Time (tr)msec (ts)msec
(MP)V

200%

100%

50%

30%

5%

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„PID‟ Controller:

Proportional Peak Over Rise Time Settling Peak Time

Band Integral Derivative Shoot (tr)msec Time (tp)msec
Time Time (ts)msec
(MP)V

200%

100%

50%

30%

5%

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Model Graph:

Step response of under damped systems

Precautions:

1. Connections should be given carefully.

2. Readings should be taken without parallax error.

Result:

The time response for P – Controller is

C(t) =

The time response for PI – Controller is

C(t) =

The time response for PD – Controller is

C(t) =

The time response for PID – Controller is

C(t) =

Thus the effect of P, PI, PD, PID Controllers on second order system is studied.

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TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM

Aim: To study the performance of PID controller used to control the temperature of a system

Apparatus Required:

1. Temperature control system trainer kit

2. Oven
3. Patch chords

Theory:

THE PLANT

Plant to be controlled is an electric oven, the temperature of which must adjust itself
in accordance with the reference or command. This is a thermal system which basically
involves transfer of the heat from one section to another. In the present case we are interested
in the transfer of heat from the heater coil to the oven and the leakage of heat from the oven
to the atmosphere. Such systems may be conveniently analyzed in terms of thermal resistance
and capacitance. However, this analysis is not very accurate, since the transfer of heat
essentially takes place from every part of the oven thermal resistance and capacitance are
obviously distributed. The lumped parameter model described here is therefore only an
approximation. For precise analysis, a distributed parameter model must be used. Another
difficulty associated with temperature control system is that whereas the temperature rise is
produced by energy input, which is controllable; the temperature fall is due to heat loss which
is uncontrollable and unpredictable. This implies that the oven will have different time
constants while heating and cooling. Again these will depend on the ambient temperature and
the set point chosen. Such a system is therefore rather difficult to control.

There are three modes of heat transfer viz. conduction, convection and radiation. Heat
transfer through radiation may be neglected in the resent case since the temperatures involved
are quite small. For conductive and convective heat transfer Ө = 𝜶∆𝑻

Where Ө = rate of heat flow in Joule/sec.

∆𝑻 = temperature difference in oC

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𝜶 = constant

t = time in sec.

Under assumptions of linearity, the thermal resistance is defined as, R=Temperature

difference/rate of heat flow=ΔT/Θ=1/α. This is analogous to electrical resistance defined by
I=V/R. In a similar manner thermal capacitance of the mass is defined by

𝐝∆𝑻
Ө=𝐂
𝐝𝐭

Which is analogous to the V-I relationship of a capacitor, namely I=C dV/dt. In the case of
heat,

C=Rate of heat flow/Rate of temperature change

The equation of an oven may now be written by combining the above two equations,
implying that a part of the heat input is used in increasing the temperature of the oven and the
rest goes out as a loss. Thus

𝐝𝐭
Ө=𝐂 + (𝟏/𝐑)𝐓
𝐝𝐓

With the initial condition T(t=0)=𝐓𝐚𝐦𝐛 . Now, taking Laplace transform with zero initial
condition

𝐓(𝐬) 𝐑
= 𝟏+𝐬𝐂𝐑 … . . (𝟏)
𝚯(𝐬)

Electrical Analog

An analogous electrical network can be drawn defined by the equation

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𝒅𝑽 𝑽
𝑰=𝑪 +
𝒅𝒕 𝑹
Eq.(i) is a n extremely simplified representation of thermal system under consideration and it
gives rise to transfer function of the first order and type zero. Such a system should be easily
controlled in the closed loop. Difficulties are however faced in the system due to the
following reasons:

a) The temperature rise in response to the heat input is not instantaneous. A certain
amount of time is needed to transfer the heat by convection and conduction inside the
oven. This requires a delay or transportation lag term, exp (-sT1), to be included in the
transfer function, where T1 is the time lag in seconds.
b) Unlike the equivalent electrical circuit, the heat input in the thermal system cannot
have a negative sign. This means that although the rate of temperature rise would
depend on the heat input, the rate of temperature fall would depend on thermal
resistance R. The conventional analysis methods then become inapplicable.
c) Referring to the closed loop oven control system, it may be seen that in the steady
state error 𝐞𝐬𝐬 is given as
𝐞𝐬𝐬 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝐓𝐫𝐞𝐟 − 𝐓) = 𝐓𝐫𝐞𝐟 /(𝟏 + 𝐀𝐑)
𝒕→∞

In this system, A cannot be increased excessively in an attempt to reduce

error, since a large gain is likely to lead to instability due to transportation lag. Also,
every time (𝐓𝐫𝐞𝐟 − 𝐓) becomes negative, the heat input is cut off and the oven must
cool down slowly. The temperature T therefore oscillates around the nominal value.

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller:

Mathematical equations governing the operation of the PID controller is as

𝒕
𝑲𝑫 𝒅𝒆 𝒕
𝒎 𝒕 = 𝑲𝑷 (𝒆 𝒕 + 𝑲𝑰 𝒆 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 + )
𝒅𝒕
𝟎

𝟏 𝒕 𝑻𝑫 𝒅𝒆 𝒕
= 𝑲𝑷 (𝒆 𝒕 + 𝑻𝟏 𝟎
𝒆 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 + )
𝒅𝒕

So that in Laplace domain,

M(s)/E(s) = (𝐊 𝐏 + 𝐓𝐃 𝐬 + 𝟏/𝐓𝟏 𝐬)

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A simple analysis would show that the derivative block essentially increase the
damping ratio of the system and therefore improves the dynamic performance by reducing
overshoot. The PID controller therefore helps inn reducing the steady state error with an
improvement in the transient response.

Circuit for Integrator

The Integral (I) block in this system is realized with the circuit in above figure. This has a
transfer function

𝐆𝐈 (𝐬) = 𝟏/𝟐𝟖𝐬

Circuit for derivation

The Derivative (D) block in this system is realized with the circuit in above figure.
This has a transfer function

𝐆𝐃 (𝐬) = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟗𝟕𝐬

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The derivative gain is therefore adjustable in the range 0 to 20 approximately. Again, the
approximation is justified due to the higher tolerance in the values of large electrolytic
capacitances.

PID controller is one of the most widely used controllers because of its simplicity. By
adjusting its coefficients 𝐊 𝐏 , 𝐊 𝐃 and 𝐊 𝐈 the controller can be used with a variety of systems.
The process of setting the controller coefficients to suit a given plant is known as tuning.
There are many methods of tuning PID controller. In the present case, the method of Ziegler
Nichol has been introduced which is suitable for the oven control system, although better
methods are available and may be attempted.

PROCEDURE:

IDENTIFICATION OF OVEN PARAMETERS:

In the open loop testing, the oven is driven through the P-amplifier set to a gain of 10.
The input to this amplifier is adjusted through reference potentiometer (the one next to switch
S2). This input can be seen on digital display, so that when you set 𝟓. 𝟎𝒐 C, THE INNPUT TO
Proportional amplifier is 50 mV (@ 𝟏𝟎𝐦𝐕/𝒐C) and its output (which acts as input to driver
circuit is 0.5V (50mVx10).

 Keep switch S1 to „WAIT‟, S2 to „SET‟ and open „FEEDBACK‟ terminals.

 Connect P output to the driver input and switch ON the unit.
 Set P potentiometer to 0.5 which gives 𝐊 𝐩 =10. Adjust reference potentiometer to read
5.0 on the DVM. T his provides an input of 0.5 V to the driver.
 Put switch S2 to the „MEASURE‟ position and note down the room temperature.
 Put switch S1 to „RUN‟ position and note temperature readings every 10 sec., till the
temperature becomes almost constant. Use the timer on the panel to monitor time.
 Plot temperature-time curve on a graph paper. Referring to figure, calculate T1 and
T2 and hence write the transfer function of the oven including its driver as
G(s) = K exp (-sT2)/ (1+sT1), with T in ºC

PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL-DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER

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 Starting with a cool oven, keep switch S1 to „WAIT‟ position and connect P, D and I
outputs to driver input. Keep R output disconnected. Short feedback terminals.
 Set P, I and D potentiometers according to the above calculated values of 𝐊 𝐏 , 𝐊 𝐃 and
𝐊 𝐈 keeping in mind that the maximum values for these are 20, 23.5 and 0.036
respectively.
 Select and set the desired temperature, say 60.0ºC.
 Switch S1 to „RUN‟, and record temperature-time readings.
 Plot the response on a linear graph paper and observe the rise time, steady state error
and percent overshoot.
 Compare the results with the open loop system.

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐎𝐯𝐞𝐧 – 𝐀𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞

K= 𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭(𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬)

The values of 𝐊 𝐏 , 𝐊 𝐃 and 𝐊 𝐈 of the controller are

𝟏. 𝟐 𝐓𝟏
𝐊𝐏 = 𝐗
𝐊 𝐓𝟐
𝟏
𝑲𝑰 =
𝟐 𝐓𝟐

𝐊 𝐃 = 𝐓𝐃 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝐓𝟐

MODEL GRAPHS:

Identification of oven parameters:

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Proportional-integral-derivative controller:

RESULT:

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PROGRAMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

(STUDY AND VERIFICATION OF TRUTH TABLES OF LOGIC GATES, SIMPLE

BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS AND APPLICATION OF SPEED CONTROL OF A
MOTOR)

Aim: To study and verify the truth table of logic functions and simple Boolean
expression, and verify the speed control of motor (12v dc motor) with Versapro
software using PLC.

Apparatus:

1. PLC trainer

2. Patch cards

3. Versapro software

4. PC

Theory:

AND WORD:

In an AND word, there are 2 inputs and one output. Enable input of AND word is

connected to the supply with hep of coil or connector. If both the inputs are high, output

is high and if anyone of the inputs is low, output is low and if both the inputs are low,

output is low.

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OR Word :

In OR Word, there are 2 inputs and one output. Enable input of OR word is connected

to supply with help of coil or connector. If both the inputs are high, output is high and if

anyone of the inputs is high, output is high and if both inputs are low, output is low.

NOT Word:

In NOT Word, there is one input and one output. Enable input of Not word is connected

to supply with help of coil or connector. If the input is high, output is low and if input is

low, output is high i-e output is complement of input.

Boolean Expressions:

Normally Open Contact :

A Normally open contact acts as a switch that passes power flow if the associated

reference is ON (1)

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Normally Closed Contact :

A Normally closed contact acts as a switch that passes power flow if the associated

reference is OFF (0)

References and Coil Checking:

When the level of coil checking is set to “Single”, you can use a specific % M or % Q

reference with only one Coil, but you use it with on Set Coil and one Reset Coil

simultaneously. When the level of coil checking is “Warn multiple” or “Multiple”, each

reference can be used with multiple Coils, Set Coils, and Reset Coils. With multiple

usage, a reference could be turned on by either a Set Coil or a normal coil and could be

turned Off by a Reset Coil by a normal Coil.

Type of Contact / Coil Symbol Result

Normally Open contact When reference is on

Normally Closed contact When reference is off

Sets reference ON,non-retentive

Normally Open Coil
Sets referenceOFF, non-retentive

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For A+B Expression:

When two inputs are High, Output is High. When two inputs are Low, Output is Low.
When one of the inputs is High, Output is High.

For A.B Expression:

When two inputs are High, Output is Low. When two inputs are Low, Output is Low.
When one of the inputs is High, Output is Low.

For Ā Expression:

When input is High, Output is Low and vice versa.

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Pulse Width Modulation:

PWM output can be used to control DC and Stepper Motors. Configuring output as a

PWM output is done in the PLC configuration.

A PWM output is enabled from the application program by setting its output enable bit

to „1‟. Setting its output enabled to „0‟ disables the output. Once a PWM output starts

operating, it continues until anew configuration is received (logic and/or configuration),

a write to the user storage device occurs, or the output enable bit is cleared. A PWM

output will also stop if an invalid frequency or duty cycle is commanded.

When the PLC goes from run to stop mode, PWM outputs continue to operate. PWM

outputs also continue to operate over a power cycle. There fore if PWM is running when

power is lost, it will start again as soon as power is restored and the PLC configuration

transitions to run mode and the output enable bit are set to one.

The frequency of PWM out put (15Hz to 5KHz) is specified form the application

program by writing a value to the associated frequency reference as shown below. The

PWM duty cycle is selected using the associated duty cycle reference. Both frequency

and duty cycle can be changed while the output is enabled. The minimum and

maximum values depend on the frequency.

Output 1 Output 2 Output 3 Output 4 Description

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PWM frequency
AQ002 AQ004 AQ006 AQ008
(15 to 50000)

AQ003 AQ005 AQ007 AQ009 PWM duty cycle (0-10000)

QO50 QO50 QO50 QO50 Enable Output 1

LADDER NETWORK

Procedure (Logic Gates):

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1. Connect common terminal to 24 V supply source.

2. Connect negative terminal of 24 V dc source to C1.

3 PLC trainer in run mode and input should be enable.

4. Give 220V AC supply to PLC controller.

5 Go to GE fanue automation in programs, click on versapro – 2.

6 Now create a new folder.

7 Click on bit operations and select AND, OR, NOT logic functions

8 Connect AND, OR, NOT logic functions with the help of a coil to

supply.

9. Type input 1i between supply and logic gates (AND, OR, NOT)

10. Select the registers from 2-250 for inputs and outputs.

11. Go to hardware configurations.

12. Right click on the hardware configuration and change the hardware

to 200ND0101.

13. Store the logic gates in PLC.

14. Click on PLC and operate in run mode.

15. Change inputs and verify outputs.

16. Do the same procedure for all logic functions.

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Implement same procedure for Boolean Expressions

Tabular Form for Logic Opertions:

AND WORD:

A B AAOUTPUT AAA A

OR WORD:

A B OUTPUT

NOT WORD:

A OUTPUT

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Tabular form for Boolean Expressions:

a) For A+B

A B A+B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

b) For A.B

A B A+B

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

c) For Ā

A Ā

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0 1

1 0

Procedure (PWM):

1. Do the same as mentioned in the above procedure up to 6 steps.

2. Click the all functions and go to DATA MOVE and MOVE INT.

3. Connect the MOVE INT block with the help of a coil to supply.

4. Then type registers from 2-256 for inputs of frequency, locations for duty cycle and

output of counter.

5. Go to hardware configuration.

6. Right click on it and change the hardware 200NDD101

7. Go to module operation and then to configure parameters and enable the PWM and

counter in channel1 and channel2.

8. Store the operation in PWM

9. Click on PLC and operate in run mode.

10.Then the motor runs and note the duty cycle and frequency and

note the pulses of the counter.

11. Note the observations.

Tabular form for PWM:

S.NO FREQUENCY(Hz) DUTY CYCLE

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Precautions:

1. Negative terminal of 24V dc source should be connected to C

(Common Point).

2. PLC trainer should be in run mode and input should be enable to 1.

Result:

Using programmable logic controller, the outputs of AND, OR and NOT gate and

bollen expressions are verified.The speed control of motor are verified using versapro-

programming software the help of PLC.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHROS
Aim: To study the operation of synchro transmitter and receiver

Apparatus:

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1. Synchro transmitter and receiver unit

2. Power Supply Unit

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1 00 Phase Difference

Fig. 2 1200 Phase Difference

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Fig. 3 2400 Phase Difference

Theory:

Synchros:

A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer which converts the angular position of a

shaft into an electric signal. Synchros are used as detectors and encoders.

Synchro Transmitter

The construction of synchro transmitter is very similar to that of a three phase

alternator. The stator is made of laminated silicon steel and caries three phase star

connected windings. The rotor is a rotating part, dumb-bell shaped magnet with a

single winding.

A single phase a.c. voltage is applied to the rotor through slip rings. Let applied a.c.

voltage to the rotor is

er = Er sin ωot ……… 1

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due to this applied voltage, magnetizing current will flow in the rotor coil. This

magnetizing current produces sinusoidally varying flux and distributed in the air gap.

Because of transformer action, voltages get induced in all stator coils which are

proportional to cosine of angle between stator and rotor coil axes.

Fig. 4 Schematic Diagram of Synchro Transmitter.

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Now, consider the rotor axis of synchro transmitter is at an angle θ with the axis of s 2

winding of the stator, then voltages in each stator coil with respect to neutral are

Es1n = KEr sin ωot cos ( θ +1200 ) …2

Es2n = KEr sin ωot cos θ …3

Es3n = KEr sin ωot cos (θ + 240º) .. 4

Magnitudes of stator terminal voltages are

Es1s2 = Es1n – Es2n

= KEr sin ωot [cos (θ + 240º) – cos θ ] .. 5

= KEr sin ωot [ √3 sin (θ + 240º ) ]

Es1s2 = √3 KEr sin ωot sin (θ + 240º) …. 6

Similarly,

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Es2s3 = √3 KEr sin ωot sin (θ + 120º) … .7

Es3s1 = √3 KEr sin ωot sin θ) …. 8

When θ = 0, the axis of the magnetic field coincides with the axis of coil S 2 and

maximum voltage is induced in it. For this position of the rotor, the voltage Es3s2 will be

zero. This position of the rotor is defined as electrical zero of the transmitter and is

used as the reference for indicating the angular position of the rotor.

Thus, the input to the synchro transmitter is the angular position of the rotor shaft and

the output are the three single phase voltages which are the function of the shaft

position.

Synchro Control Transformer

Principle of operation of synchro control transformer is same as that of synchro

transmitter. Rotor of synchro control transformer is cylindrical type. Synchro control

transformer is an electromechanical device. The combination of synchro transmitter

and synchro control transformer is used as an error detector. The function of error

detector is to convert the difference of two shaft positions into an electrical signal. The

fig.5, shows schematic diagram of synchro error detector.

The output of synchro transmitter is connected to the stator winding of the synchro

control transformer. Therefore the same current will flow in the stator windings of

synchro control transformer, but in opposite direction. The voltage across the rotor

terminals of control transformer is

e(t) = K1 Vr cos Ф sin ωot …. 9

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Where Ф = angular displacement between the two rotors.

When the two rotors are at an angle 90o, the voltage induced in control transformer is

zero. This position is known as electrical zero position control transformer.

Let the transmitter rotate through an angle „θ‟ in the direction indicated and let control

transformer rotor rotates in the same direction through an angle‟α‟. Then

Ф = (90o -- θ + α) … 10

Put the value of Ф in equation (9),we get

e(t) = K1 Vr sin (θ – α) sin ωot …. 11

From eqn. (11) it is clear that when two rotor shafts are not in alignment, the rotor

voltage of control transformer is approximately a sine function of the difference

between the two shaft angles.

For small angular displacement between two rotor position

e(t) = K1 Vr (θ - α) sin ωot

Fig. 5 Synchro Error Detector.

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The synchro transmitter – control transformer pair thus acts as an error detector giving

a voltage signal at the rotor terminals of the control transformer proportional to the

angular difference between the transmitter and control transformer shaft positions.

Procedure:

1. Arrange synchro transmitter, synchro receiver and power supply unit near to each

other.

2. Connect power supply to the R1 –R2 terminals of the transmitter and receiver.

3. Short S1 – S1, S2 –S2, S3 – S3 winding of transmitter and receiver unit with help of

Patch chords (00 Position).

4. Switch ON the unit, supply, neon will glow on.

5. As the power is switched ON, transmitter and receiver shaft will come to some

position on the dial.

6. Vary the shaft position on the transmitter and observe corresponding change in the

shaft from position on the dial of receiver.

7. Repeat the above steps for different angles of transmitter it will be observed that the

receiver shaft move by an equal amount as that of a transmitter.

8. Repeat the above procedure for 1200 and 2400 .

TABULAR FORMS:

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TABULAR FORM AT 00 PHASE

TRANSMITTER TRANSMITTER

Θ1 Θ2 S1-S2 S2 -S3 S3 - S 1 S1-S2 S2 -S3 S3 - S1

0 0

30 30

06 60

90 90

120 120

150 150

180 180

210 210

240 240

270 270

300 300

330 330

TABULAR FORM AT 1200 PHASE

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TRANSMITTER TRANSMITTER

Θ1 Θ2 S1-S2 S2 -S3 S3 - S1 S1-S2 S2 -S3 S3 - S1

0 120

30 150

60 180

90 210

120 240

150 270

180 300

210 330

240 360

270 30

300 60

330 90

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TABULAR FORM AT 2400 PHASE

TRANSMITTER TRANSMITTER

Θ1 Θ2 S1-S2 S2 -S3 S3 - S1 S1-S2 S2 -S3 S3 - S1

0 240

30 270

60 300

90 330

120 360

150 30

180 60

210 90

240 120

270 150

300 180

330 210

MODEL GRAPH:

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Precautions:

1. Connections must be done carefully.

2. Make sure that the supply is on and connections are not skipped.

Result :

From this experiment, the characteristics of synchro transmitter and receiver are

drawn at 00 , 1200 and 2400 position.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF BRIDGE TYPE MAGNETIC AMPLIFIER

AIM: To determine the characteristics of Magnetic Amplifier using With and without
feedback.

APPARATUS:

1. 0 – 30V DC continuously variable power supply.

2. 0 – 1A moving iron ammeter
3. 0 – 100mA moving coil ammeter.
4. 270 ohms / 1.1A Rheostat
5. Magnetic Amplifier trainer kit.
6. Patch cords.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig.1 Circuit Diagram for Bridge Type DC out put with and

Without Feed back

THEORY:

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Small electronic tube and transistors, by themselves are not sufficient to control larger

AC circuits. Using magnetic device such as saturable reactor in association with these

active components, a large AC load (of up to hundred of amperes and kilowatts) may be

controlled by a small direct current (part of an ampere).

The saturable is the connecting link and acts as a large power amplifier, and by itself

can serve as a low gain amplifier of larger loads. The usefulness of this magnetic device

can be greatly increased by the addition of rectifiers in the output circuit and this

combination for saturable reactor with rectifiers is called a half saturated amplifier of

magnetic amplifier.

The part played by the saturable reactor in a circuit, when it is connected in series with

load across an AC power supply, is that of a variable inductance. It consists of two or

more windings around a core of steel; one of these windings received a small direct

current which acts as an input signal that controls the amount of AC that can flow

through the other winding s and the load. The reactor can have a single core and only

on AC winding or load winding in which case the alternating current in the load

winding produces an objectionable AC voltage in the control windings that may disturb

or damage the DC control circuit. Also, the output will be delivered only during one half

cycle. To overcome these drawbacks, most saturable reactors include two identical steel

cores. Each core has its own winding, while the DC coil surrounds on leg of each core.

Here the two load windings can be connected in parallel or in series, but the connections

to one of the coils reversed to meet the above objections. When the gate winding of the

reactor is excited with an AC voltage during one half cycle varying flux cycle is caused

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in the upper core. This excitation is adjusted such that the core flux variation is with in

the upper knee pf the RR curve (i.e., with in the saturation limits) and hence the current

drawn by the gate winding will only be the magnetizing current.

If now a small direct current is passed through the control winding ,a steady amount of

flux will be added to the above varying flux.

And the total flux in the upper core varies along with flat portion of the magnetization

curve during the entire half cycle; the core is almost completely saturated. Such a small

change of flux causes no little inductance in the steel core that nearly all the supply

voltage appears across the load and the load current approaches its largest value. at the

same time the lower core which is in parallel with the upper core is not saturated during

this small half cycle. By increasing the DC control signal further one can force each core

to be saturated during both half cycles. Since both cores are now saturated at all time,

the load current becomes maximum. Thus, as the DC control current is increased from

a low value, the core will saturate earlier in the half cycle thus delivering more current

to the load.

BIAS WINDING:

It is observed in the above case that the DC input must decreases to cause greater load

current. Both the load current and the control signal can be made to increase together

by making use of an adding called as biasing provided in the Truohm magnetic

amplifier. A separate DC supply is given to bias winding such that the direct flux due to

this winding oppose the flux due to DC winding to such an extent that the whole reactor

becomes unsaturated. Now if the polarity of the direct current to the control winding is

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reversed that the direct flux produced in the core assists the gate winding flux , then the

load can be increased from its minimum by increasing the control current starting from

zero value. By adjustment of the ampere turns of the bias winding, the zero current

point of the control winding can be moved to any desired point on the curve of AC load

current.

FEEDBACK WINDING:

Feedback winding has been included in the Truohm Magnetic Amplifier to provide

whether positive or negative feedback. When the feedback winding is connected into the

load circuit such that flux produced by the load current passing through the feedback

winding assists the flux of the control winding due to DC through it, so that the total

flux becomes larger than further increasing the load current . this action is called

positive feedback. The effect of positive feedback is to increase the value of load current

at a particular value of control current from the without feedback. Also, it is seen that

the positive feedback causes the characteristics curve to become steeper, thus providing

increased gain but less linearity, decreases stability and slower response. If the feedback

connections are reversed, then the flux due to this winding opposes the flux of the

control winding. Thus as control current increases thereby increasing the load current,

the feedback flux offsets or prevents some of this action is called negative feedback. The

effect of negative feedback is to increase the value of load current at a particular value

of control current from that without feedback. The characteristics curve shows that the

current gain of a Megamp has been decrease because of the negative feedback. Negative

feedback provides a more linear output, greater stability and faster response.

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PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram of fig.1.(positive feedback)

2. Switch ON power supply.

3. Keep output terminals at 0-50V

4. Set Ic to minimum value with help of RPS, corresponding changes of current I g in

power circuit is noted.

5. By varying Ic in progressive steps and corresponding changes in Ig

6. Plot the graph between Ic and Ig.

7. Repeat the same experiment with negative feedback and without feedback.

TABULAR FORMS:

Control Load Winding Current Ig (Amp)

Winding
S.No
Current
Positive Negative
Ic(ma) Without Feedback
Feedback Feedback

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MODEL GRAPH:

With positive feed back

Without feed back

With negative feed back

Il (mA) ac

Ic(mA)dc

Characteristics of Magnetic Amplifier

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PRECAUTION:

1.Use the AC voltage available on the panel to excite the megamp.A step down

transformer is provided on megamp to furnish the desired AC voltage.

2.Make use of the voltage of 5V to check the connections of the load winding. The

voltage induced in winding should be small.

3.Do not exceed the output ratings and maximum current permissible in the controlled

winding (100mA) load winding is rated at approximately 2A.

4.Ensure that the load impedance is not less that the permissible limit.

RESULT:

The characteristics of Magnetic Amplifier of bridge type DC output with and without

feedback are drawn.

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EFECT OF FEED BACK ON DC SERVO MOTOR

Aim: To determine the transfer function of Dc Servomotor, feedback gain kW and motor

gain constant km

Apparatus:

1. C.R.O with probes

2. Patch Cards

3. DC servomotor control system.

Circuit Diagram

Fig. 1 DC Servo Motor Control System

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Theory:

A DC Servo Motor is used as an actuator to drive a load. It is usually a DC motor of low

power rating. DC servomotors have a high ratio of starting torque to inertia and

therefore they have a faster dynamic response. DC motors are constructed using rare

earth permanent magnets, which have high residual flux density and high coercively. As

no field winding is used, the field copper loses are zero and hence, the overall efficiency

of the motor is high. The speed torque characteristics of this motor is flat over a wide

range, as the armature reaction is negligible. Moreover speed is directly proportional to

the armature voltage for a given torque. Armature of a DC servomotor is specially

designed to have low inertia.

In some application DC servomotors are used with magnetic flux produced by field

windings. The speed of PMDC motors can be controlled by applying variable armature

voltage. These are called armature voltage controlled DC servomotors. Wound field DC

motors can be controlled by either controlling the armature voltage or controlling the

field current. Let us now consider modelling of these two types of DC servomotors.

The armature winding has a resistance Ra and inductance La. The field is produced either

permanent magnet or the winding is separately excited and supplied with constant voltage so

that the field current If is a constant.

When the armature is supplied with a DC voltage of va volts, the armature rotates and

produces a back e.m.f eb.The armature current ia depends on the difference of va and eb . The

armature as a moment of inertia J, frictional coefficient B 0 .The angular velocity of the motor

is .

The torque produced by the motor is given by,

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T= Kt ia ….1

Where Kt is the motor torque constant.

The back emf is proportional to the speed of the motor and hence

eb = Kb  .. 2

The differential equation representing the electrical system is given by,

R ia + La (dia/dt) + eb = va …. . 3

The mathematical model of the mechanical system is given by,

J(d /dt)+B0 =T ….. 4

Taking laplace transform on both sides for equations (1),(2),(3) and (4)

T(s)=KtIa(s) …….. 5

Eb(s) = Kb  (s) ………6

Ra Ia(s) + LaSIa(s)+ Eb (s) = Va(s) .….… 7

JS (s)+ B0(s) = T(s) ……. 8

From equations (5),(6),(7)and(8), and assume = (Kb / Kt ) /RaB>>1, a << m and assume a

= 0 where a = La / Ra and m = J / B. Then the transfer function of Dc servo is given by

Gs) = (s)/ va (s) = Km/(ms + 1)

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Where

Km is motor gain constant = 1/ Kb

m is motor time constant = J Ra/ Kb Kt (assume Kb = Kt )

J = 0.037 Kg-m2

Ra =

Speed feed back gain (K ) :This translates the speed signal into voltage whose level is

compatible with speed reference signal. It is defined as

K = (reference voltage for rated speed) / (rated speed radian for second)

= Vf /

Where Vf – reference voltage level for rated speed.

 - 2N/60 radians Per second.

N – rated speed in rpm.

Procedure:

1. Ensure power is OFF to the motor control unit.

2. Set the controller to be proportional controller by connecting the integral controller

input to ground.

3. Ensure the speed feed back loop is open and pulse ON/OFF switch is in OFF

position.

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4. Set the speed controller gain at low value.

5. Make the connections is Fig. 1 . Switch ON the power to the motor controller.

6. Switch ON the pulse ON / OFF Switch and switch ON set speed switch in the output

mode.

7. Set vref = 1V the help of set speed with the help of set speed switch. Run the motor at

various speeds by varying proportional gain.

8. For each speed, note down the speed feed back voltage V f, ammeter reading,

voltmeter reading and measure the speed. Tabulate the readings as shown in table.

9. Reduce the speed by decreasing proportional gain.

10. Switch OFF power to the motor controller.

11. Measure the armature resistance of motor using multimeter.

12. Calculate the k by plotting graph between speed feedback

voltage and speed.

k = ∆vf/∆ 

Calculate the motor gain constant as follows

o Motor back EMF Eb = Va – IaRa.

o Plot the graph between Eb Vs and 

Kb = ∆ Eb/∆ 

The transfer function is given by

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G(S) = Km/ (m S+1)

Tabular Form:

S.No. Va (V) Nrpm Vf (V) Ia (A) Eb = Va-IaRa ω = 2N/60

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Model graph:

CALCULATIN OF BACK EMF CONSTANT CALCULATION OF

SPEED FEEDBACK GAIN

CONSTANT

Precautions:

1. Connections should be done carefully.

2. Readings should be taken without any parallax error.

Result:

The motor gain constant, feed back constant and transfer function of Dc servo motor

are determined.

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The Transfer function G(s) = 20.7/111.02S+1

TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

Aim: To determine the transfer function of an armature controlled

DC motor and to study the performance of the motor.

Apparatus:

1. DC motor transfer function study trainer.

2.Tachometer.

3.1 HP DC Shunt Motor.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig.1 Block diagram of armature controlled dc motor

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Theory:

The mathematical model for DC motor is derived by writing down the differential

equations for the armature circuit,field circuit and mechanical system of the armature.

In the case of permanent magnet motor, the field flux is produced by the permanent

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magnets of the poles which is assumed to be constant. In case of separately excited DC

motor, the magnetic flux is produced by exciting the field windings with a DC current ,if

the field is kept constant, the flux will remain constant.

From the armature circuit, we know that

Raia+ La (dia/dt)+eb=va --1

The back emf eb is given by

eb = kb  …2

Where kb is the back emf constant in volts per radians per second

The torque produced by the motor is given by

T=ktia .. 3

The mathematical model of the mechanical system is given by

T=J(d/dt)+B+TL …….4

Taking laplace transform on both sides for equations (1),(2),(3)and(4)

T(s)=KtIa(s) .. 5

Eb(s)=Kb (s) ……6

RaIa(s)+LaSIa(s)+Eb(s) = Va(s) …… 7

JS(s)+B0 (s)+TL(S)=T(s) …. 8

From equations (5),(6),(7)and(8),

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The closed loop transfer function is obtained

 1 1
 k t  
 Ra B
 s  s a  1s m  1
G (S) = 
Va s  1 1
 kt  kb
Ra B
1
s a  1s m  1

kt
 Ra B 
 ……. 9
k k 
s 2  a m   s a   m   1  b t
(R a B)

Where m = J/B – Mechanical time constant

a = La/Ra – Armature time constant

Generally, (kb kt) / (Ra B) >> 1. Therefore, eqn (9) can be written as

kt
 s   Ra B 

Va s  s 2     s     k b k t 
G (S) = ----- 10
a m a m (R a B)

Also the armature time constant τa << τm and assuming τa = 0, as La is very small, eqn
(10) can be further simplified as a first order transfer function i.e.,

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kt
 s   Ra B 

Va s  s   k b k t 
----- 11
m (R a B)

= Km / (m s+1 )

Where

Km is motor gain constant = 1/ Kb

m is motor time constant = J Ra/ Kb Kt (Kb = Kt )

J=

B=

The motor torque and back emf constants Kt, Kb are interrelated. Their relationship is

deduced given below.

Electrical power converted to mechanical form = eb ia = kb ia 

Power at shaft = P = ktia 

At steady state speed ,these two power balance

Hence kb ia  = ktia 

kb = kt

This result can be used to advantage in practise as kb can be measured more easily and

with greater accuracy than kt.

Procedure:

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Measurement of back EMF Constant:

1. Ensure that all the switches are in OFF position.

2. Ensure that armature voltage control pot is in minimum position and field voltage

control pot is maximum position.

3. Make the connections as shown in fig.2.

4. Adjust the field current to the rated value.

5. Switch ON control power supply by switching ON the power switch.

6. Switch ON power input to the converter by switching ON the MCB and release

the gate signal to the converter.

7. Run the motor by controlling the armature voltage control pot.

8. Note down the readings of armature voltage, armature current and measure the

speed.

9. Repeat step7 for different Values of armature voltage and tabulate the readings in

the table.

10. Plot the graph Eb Vs ω. Calculate the back emf constant kb as shown in the figure.

Measurement of Torque Constant:

1. Ensure all switches are OFF.

2. Make the connections as shown. in fig.3 with suitable load arrangements.

3. Switch ON control power supply.

4. switch power input to the converters by switching ON the MCB.

5. Release the gating signals to the converter.

6. keep field control pot. at maximum position.

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7. Run the motor at rated speed on no-load by adjusting the armature voltage control

pot.

8. Apply 25% of full load torque.

9. Slowly reduce the armature voltage so that motor just stops. Ensure that the

armature current corresponds to 25% of full load current. If necessary adjust the

armature rheostat.

10. Take voltage, currents and spring balance readings. Tabulate the

readings as shown in the table.

11. Repeat the steps 6,7,8,9 and 10 for 50%, 75%,100% of full load.

12. Draw the graph between torque and armature current.

13. Calculate the torque constant.

Measurement of Armature Resistance:

1. Ensure all switches are in OFF position before making connections.

2. Ensure that the armature voltage control pot. is in minimum position.

3. connect the motor armature through a 50ohm/5A rheostat to the armature voltage

terminals A and AA as shown in the fig.4

4. Connect a voltmeter across the motor terminals.

5. Switch ON control power supply to the trainer module by switching ON the power

switch.

6. Switch ON power input to the converter by switching ON the MCB.

7. Release the gating signal to the converter.

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Apply different voltage to the armature by varying the armature voltage control pot

and note down the ammeter and the voltmeter readings in each step. . Tabulate the

readings as in table. While taking readings ensure that the motor armature is standstill.

8. Calculate the value of armature resistance.

Measurement of armature inductance:

1. Ensure all Switches are in OFF position before making the connection.

2. Ensure that the AC voltage control pot is at minimum position.

Connect the variable ac voltage to the motor armature through a 50ohm/5A rheostat.

Connect an ac voltmeter across the motor armature as shown in the fig.5.

3. Switch ON the control power supply to the trainer module by switching ON power

switch.

4. Switch ON the supply to the ac regulator by switching ON the MCB

5. Release the gating signals to the ac regulator by switching ON the concerned toggle

switch.

6. Apply different voltages to the motor armature by varying the ac voltage control pot

and note down the ac meter reading and voltmeter reading connected across the

armature. Tabulate the readings as shown in the table

7. Reduce the voltages and Switch OFF power to the trainer module.

8. calculate armature inductance impedance of the armature = V/I

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also Za=(R2a+X2a)1/2

X a=armature reactance

Ra=armature resistance

f=supply frequency

Xa=(Z2 a-R2a)1/2

Armature inductance

La= X a/2∏f

Transfer Function Of Armature Controlled Motor can be expressed as,

G(s)= ω(S)/Va(S) = Km/ (STm+1)

Where Km = motor gain constant =K t/(RaB+KtKb)

Tm motor time constant = RaJ/(RaB+KtKb)

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Tabular Forms:

To Find Ra

Va(V) Ia(A) Ra(Ω)

Avg

To Find Z

V(V) I(A) Z(Ω)

Avg

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To Find La

Xa=√(Z2 – Ra2)

La=Xa/(2πf)

To Measure Back EMF Constant(Kb):

Va Ia Eb = V-IaRa N ω=2Π N/60

To Measure Torque Constant(Kt):

Va Ia S1 S2 S1S2 T=(S1S2)*R*9.87

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Model Graphs:

Eb
T

Kt Kb

IA ω

CALCULATION OF TORQUE CONSTANT CALCULATION OF BACK EMF

CONSTANT

Precautions:

1. Readings should be taken without parallax error.

2. Connections should be properly done.

Result:

kt is calculated by drawing graph between Torque T and armature current i a Kt =0.829

Kb is calculated by drawing graph between Eb and ω. Kb =0.925

The transfer function of dc motor is determined from this experiment.

G(S)=1.08/0.277S+1

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TRANSFER FUNCTION OF SEPERATELY EXCITED DC

GENERATOR
Aim: To derive the transfer function of the separately excited dc generator.

Apparatus Required:

1. DC Ammeter (0-1A Mc)

2. DC Voltmeters (0-300 V Mc)

3. Rheostats. (800 ohms / 1.1A, 292/1.8 A)

4. Tachometer

5. SPST Switch

Circuit Diagram :

1 I (s) 1
V f(s) f E g(s)
K f + SL f Kg

Fig.1 Block Diagram

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Fig.2 Circuit Diagram to determine generated e m f constant

Theory:

Fig3. Shows the schematic diagram of the separately excited dc generator.

Fig.3 Separately Excited DC generator

The generated e.m.f.

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eg(t) = kg if (t) ……(1)

kg – generated e.m.f constant

if(t) – field current

The field circuit dynamic is described by

Vf(t) = Rf if(t) + Lf dif(t)/dt ……(2)

Taking Laplace transform,

Vf(s) = (Rf + sLf) If(s)

If(s) = Vf(s)/Rf * 1/(sf + 1) ……(3)

Where f = Lf / Rf– field circuit time constant

Taking Laplace Transform for equation (1)

Eg(s) = kg If(s) ……(4)

Substituting for If from equation (3 ) into equation ( 4 )

k g  V f s  
Eg(s) =  
R f  s f  1 

( EG(s) / Vf(s) ) = ((kg / Rf) / (sf + 1))

= k1 / (sf +1). ……(5)

Which is required transfer function.

Where k1 - generator gain constant = kg / Rf

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Lf = 8.9 H ; Rf =187Ω

Measurement of generated e.m.f. constant:

1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in fig.

2. Keep the field circuit rheostat of the motor at minimum resistance position and

adjusting the field circuit rheostat of the generator for minimum voltage.

3. Start the motor through the 3 point starter and run it at rated speed by adjusting

the field circuit resistance.

4. By increasing the generator field current in steps, note down the generated e,m,f for

each field current. Tabulate the readings as shown in table.

5. Plot the graph between the generated emf and field current.

6. Calculate Kg as shown in the graph.

7. Measure the field inductance and field resistance the help of LCR – Q Meter.

DETERMINATION OF Kg:

S.No. If Eg

Measure the field circuit resistance and inductance as explained in

The generator gain constant

k1 = kg / Rf

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f = Lf / Rf

Transfer function

Eg(s) / Vf(s) = k1 / (sf +1).

Model Graph:

Tangent through the

origin to the linear
portion of the graph
Eg
in volts

E g
E g K g =
f
If

Field Current in Amps I f

Precautions:

1. Connections should be properly done.

2. Readings should be taken without parallax error.

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Result:

The transfer function of the separately excited dc generator is

determined.

T(S) = 2.35/0.0476S+1

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CHARECTERISTICS OF AC SERVO MOTOR

AIM: To determine the transfer function of two phase AC servo motor.

APPARATURS:

1. Two phase AC servo motor study trainee

2. Patch chords.

3. Voltmeter (0-20v),MC.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.1. Block Diagram of two phase AC Servo motor

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THEORY:

The AC servo motor is basically a two phase induction motor with some special design

features. The stator consists of two pair of poles mounted on the inner periphery of the

stator ,such that their axes are at an angle of 90 deg in space .Each pole pair carries a

winding one winding is called reference winding and the other is called a controlled

winding .The exciting current in the winding should have a phase displacement of 90

deg .The supply drives the motor in single phase and a phase advancing capacitor is

connected one of the phase to produce a phase difference of 90deg .The stator

constructional features of AC servo motor is shown in the fig 2.

Fig.2. Stator of two phase AC Servo Motor

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The rotor construction is usually squirrel cage or drag-cup type .Rotor construction of

AC servo motor is shown in fig 3.The squirrel cage rotor is made of laminations. The

rotor bars are placed on the slots and short circuited at both ends by end rings. The

diameter of the rotor is kept small in order to reduce inertia and to obtain good

accelerating characteristics. The drag cup construction is employed for very low inertia

applications. In this type of construction the rotor will be in the form of hollow cylinder

made of aluminum. The aluminum cylinder itself acts as shot circuited rotor

conductors.

Fig.3. Rotor of two phase AC Servo Motor

The reference winding of AC servomotor is excited by a constant voltage source with

frequency of 50 Hz. The speed of AC servo motor is controlled by controlling the

control voltage. The error output of error detector is fed to PI controller, due to the

error, controller take control action that is to give control voltage to the firing circuit.

The firing circuit generates the pulses to rotate the motor at required speed.

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The Transfer function of the AC servo motor is obtained using the torque equation. The

developed torque is given by

TC=K1ec(t) – K2 ω (t) ……..(1)

Where K1 ,K2 are motor parameters which depend on the control voltage e c (t).

K1 is expressed in Nm / Volt

K2 is expressed in Nm / rad / sec

Mechanical system consisting of the rotor, is described by the dynamic equation.

d
Te = J + B ω+ TL ……..(2)
dt

TL – Load torque

J - moment of inertia kg.cm2

B – Viscous friction co-efficient

ω - Speed in rad/sec

Equating equations (1) and(2)

d
K1 ec(t) – K2 ω (t) = J + B ω + TL
dt

Taking Lap lace transform,

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K1 Es(s) – K2 ω (s) = Js ω (s) + B ω (s) + TL (s)

This is represented by the block diagram of fig 1 .The disturbance inputs are E e(s) and

TL (s) .The transfer function between ω (s)and Ee(s) is obtained by putting TL (s) = 0.

K1 Es(s) = ( Js + B + K 2 ) ω (s)

ω(s) / Es(s) = K1 / ( Js + B + K2 )

= Km / (1+ s m )

Where Km = K1 / (K2 + B) motor gain constant

And m = J / (K2 + B) = motor time constant.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect G1 K1 of pulse isolation output to G1 K1 of SCR1.

2. Connect G2K2 of pulse isolation output to G2K2 of SCR1.

3. To operate open loop control mode using switch S1.

4. 9 pin D-Connector is connected from motor setup to backside of the trainer.

5. Keep speed indicator switch in PV mode.

6. Connect ac voltmeter (0-20V) multimeter across the control phase winding (C1,C2).

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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MOTOR

CONSTANT K2:

1. Switch ON the 230V ac supply to reference winding.

2. Switch ON the 230V ac supply to the motor setup.

3. Swith ON the pulse ON/OFF switch S2.

4. Vary the control voltage pot (C.V) and set the rated voltage (11.4V) to control phase

winding.

5. Apply the load on the motor setup by step upto motor will run at

0 r.p.m.

6. For each step note the readings (load , Speed).

7. To calculate the torque value plot the graphs speed Vs Torque.

8. The slope of speed torque curve gives the motor constant K2.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MOTOR

CONSTANT K1:

1. Switch ON the 230V ac supply to reference winding.

2. Switch ON the 230V ac supply to the motor setup.
3. Switch ON the pulse ON/OFF switch S2.
4. Vary the control voltage pot (C.V) and set the rated voltage (11.4V) to control phase
winding.

5. Apply the load on the motor setup by step upto motor will run at 0 r.p.m.
6. For each step note the load and volt-meter readings.
7. Calculate the torque value.
8. Plot the graph Torque Vs control voltage.
9. The slope of Torque-Control voltage gives the motor torque.

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FORMULAE TO BE USED:

Torque T = 9.81*r*s.

S= applied load in Kg.

r =radius of the shaft in mts.=0.068 mts

TABULAR FORM FOR K2:

S.NO Speed N in r.p.m Load in Kg Torque in Nm

TABULAR FORM FOR K1:

S.No Load in Kg Control voltage Vc in volts Torque in

Nm

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MODEL GRAPHS:

PRECAUTIONS

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1.Connections should be made carefully.

2.Readings should be taken without parallax error.

RESULT :

The transfer function of two phase AC servo motor G(s) =

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CONTROL OF TRAFFIC LIGHT SIGNALS USING PLC

Aim: To Control the traffic light signals using programmable logic controller .

Apparatus:

1.PLC Trainer.

2.Patch chords.

3.Versa Pro software.

4.PC.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig.1 Ladder Diagram of Traffic Light Signals.

Theory:

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This simple sequence application allows simple traffic light control of a crossroads to be

implemented on a timed sequence. The control program can be further developed to

cope with interrupts generated from pedestrian crossing requests or off-peak vehicle

detector inputs.

Curriculum Coverage:

1. Fundamental of logic

2. Basics of PLC programming

3. Developing ladder logic programs

4. Programming timers

5. Setting initial conditions

6. Time based process control

7. Use of interrupts and emergency stop

Features:

1. Time sequence control

2. Interrupts device control

3. Easy to understand process

4. Low cost

The PLC programming development ladder logic program is based on the bit operation

function .For that purpose, Bit sequencer is used.

The bit sequencer function performs a bit sequence shift through an array of bits.

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Fig.2 Bit Sequencer

The operation of the function depends on the previous value of the parameter EN:

R Current EN previous EN Current

Bit Sequencer Execution
Execution Execution Execution

OFF OFF OFF Bit Sequencer does not execute.

Bit Sequencer Increments / Decrements

OFF OFF ON
by 1

OFF ON Bit Sequencer

OFF does not execute.

OFF ON ON Bit Sequencer does not execute.

ON ON/ OFF ON/ OFF Bit Sequencer resets.

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The reset input ( R ) overrides the enable( EN ) and always resets the sequencer.

When R is active, the current step number parameter. If no step number is passed

in, step is set to 1. All of the bits in the sequencer are set to 0,except for the bit

pointed to by the current step, which is set to 1.

When enable is active and Reset is not active, the bit pointed to by the current step

number is cleared. The current step number is incremented or decremented, based

on the direction parameter. Then the bit pointed to by the new step number is set to

1.

The parameter ST is optional. If it is not used, the bit sequencer function operates as

described above, except that no bits are set or cleared. The function just cycles the

current step number through its legal range.

Parameters for the Bit Sequencer Function:

Input/Output Choices Description

Address is the location of the bit

Address R sequencer‟s current step, length and
the last enable and OK status.

When the function is enabled, if it

was not enabled on the previous
Enable Flow
sweep and if R is not energized, the
bit sequence shift is performed.

When R is energized, the bit

sequencer‟s step number is set to the
R Flow value in STEP (default=1) and the bit
sequencer is filled with zeros, except
for the current step number bit.

When Dir is energized, the bit

sequencer‟s step number is
Dir Flow
incremented prior to the shift.
Otherwise, it is decremented.

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I, Q, M, T, G, R, AI, AQ, When R is energized, the step

STEP
constant, none number is set to this value.

I, Q, M, T,SA, SB, SC, G, R, ST contains the first word of the bit

ST
AI, AQ, NONE sequencer. Optional.

The OK output is energized

Ok Flow, none
whenever the function is enabled.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect common terminal to 24V supply source.

2. Connect negative terminal of 24V dc source to C1.

3. Connect logical outputs of PLC (Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4) to inputs of traffic light signals.

4. PLC trainer in run mode and input should be enabled.

5. Give 220V AC supply to PLC controller.

6. Go to GE fanue automation in programs click on versapro-2.

7. Now create a new folder.

8. Click on the function tool bar and select “All function” and in that “select bit

sequencer”.

9. Connect the bit sequencer block to the supply through “normal open contact”.

10. Double click above the contact and choose T_100MS (timer block)from the list box.

11. Connect R and DIR to the enable input through discrete internal coils with different

address locations. (%M0001-%M1024).

12. The step number is set to constant value 4.

13. Connect the ST to the enable input through any discrete output (%Q0001-

%Q0512).

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14. Set memory location (%R0001-%R0256) to the bit sequencer.

15. Go to hardware configuration.

16. Right click on it and change the hardware 200NDD101.

17. Store the hardware configuration.

18. Click on PLC and operate it in run mode and observe the traffic lights.

19. Observe the traffic lights control signals with different time durations by selecting

timer block.

TABULAR FORM:

S.NO TIME DURATION

PRECAUTIONS:

1.Negative terminal of 24V dc source should be connected to C (Common Point).

2.PLC trainer should be in run mode.

Result:

Control of traffic light signals are observed.

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Lab Manual For III-I B.Tech EEE Students

Name of the Lab:

Electrical Machines Lab-II

Prepared By:
M.KIRAN KUMAR, Assistant Professor.
K.PAVAN KUMAR, Assistant Professor.

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GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE :: GUDLAVALLERU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL MACHINES LAB - II

LIST OF EXPERMENTS LIST

1. OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

2. SUMPNER‟S TEST ON A PAIR OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

3. SCOTT CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMERS

4. NO-LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TESTS ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION

MOTOR

5. REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR BY SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE AND M.M.F

METHODS

6.„ V‟ AND„INVERTED V‟ CURVES OF THREE PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

7. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

8. DETERMINATION OF Xd AND Xq OF SALIENT POLE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

9. PARALLEL OPERATION OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

10. BRAKE TEST ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

11. REGULATION OF THREE PHASE ALTERNATOR BY ZPF METHOD

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OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Aim: To predetermine the Efficiency and Regulation of a given single phase

transformer by conducting the Open Circuit test and Short Circuit test and also
to draw its Equivalent circuit.

Name Plate Details:

1-Ф Transformer:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI 2

2. Voltmeter MI 1

3. Ammeter MI 1

4. Ammeter MI 1

5. Wattmeter Dynamometer 1

6. Wattmeter Dynamometer 1

7. Auto Transformer 1–Φ 1

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Fuse Rating:

Primary Current = KVA Rating of Transformer/primary Voltage.

Secondary Current=KVA Rating of Transformer/Secondary Voltage.

10% of Primary current (fuse rating for Open Current test)

125% of secondary current (fuse rating for Short circuit test)

Theory:

OC-test:-In this text low voltage winding is connected to the supply of normal
voltage and frequency and the high voltage winding is left open as. The primary
winding draws very low current hardly 3 to 5% of full load current under this
condition .As such copper loss in the primary winding will be negligible. Thus mainly
iron losses will occur in the transformer under no load or open circuit condition,
which are indicated by the wattmeter reading connected in the circuit.

SC-test:- In this test low voltage winding in short circuited and a low voltage
hardly 10 to 20% of the rated voltage of the high voltage winding is applied to this
winding. This test is performed at rated current flowing in both the windings. Iron
losses occurring in the transformer under this condition is negligible, because of very
low applied voltage. Hence the total losses occurring under short circuit are mainly
copper losses of both the windings, which are indicated by wattmeter connected in the
circuit.

Normally it is conducted at the HV side but if it is conducted on the LV

side voltage would be very less and current will be very high so there is a possibility
of damage for the windings. Formulae:

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Equivalent Circuit

Open Circuit Test:

Wo
1. No Load Power Factor (CosΦ0) =
V1 I o
Where, Wo - Open Circuit Power in Watts

V1 - Open Circuit Voltage in Volts

Io - Open Circuit Current in Amps.

2. Magnetizing component of No load current, I m = Io sinΦ o

3. Working component of No load current, I w = Io cosΦo
V1
4. Core loss resistance, Ro = 
Iw

V1
Magnetizing Reactance, Xo= 
Im

Short Circuit Test:

Vsc
5. Equivalent impedance referred to HV side (Z02) = 
I sc
Where, Vsc – Voltage applied to circulate rated current

Isc – short circuit current

Wsc
6. Equivalent resistance referred to HV side (R02)= 2

I sc
Where, Wsc – Short circuit Power in Watts

7. Equivalent reactance refereed to HV side (X02) = ( Z 02  R02 )

2 2

8. Transformation ratio (K) = V2 / V1

Where V1 – primary voltage

V2 – Secondary voltage

R02
9. Equivalent resistance referred to LV side (R01) = 
K2

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X 02
10. Equivalent reactance referred to LV side (X01) = 
K2

Efficiency & Regulation:

11. Output power = (X × KVA × cosΦ) in watts.

Where, X - Fraction of load

KVA - power rating of Transformer

CosΦ- Power Factor

12. Copper loss = (X2 × Wsc) in watts.

Where, Wsc – Copper Loss in Short Circuit Condition

13. Total Loss = (Cu Loss + Iron Loss) in watts

Outputpower
14. Efficiency =  100%
Outputpower  totallosse s

X  I 2 ( R02 cos   X 02 sin )

15. Regulation =  100
V02

Procedure:

Open Circuit Test:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The SPST switch on the primary side is closed.
3. The auto-transformer is adjusted to energize the transformer with the rated
primary voltage on the LV side.
4. The voltmeter, wattmeter and ammeter readings are noted at no-load
condition.
5. The auto-transformer is brought to, its initial position.
6. The supply is switched off.

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Short-Circuit Test:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The SPST switch on the primary side is closed.
3. The auto-transformer is slowly increased such that rated current will flow in
the HV winding.
4. The voltmeter, wattmeter and ammeter readings are noted at no-load
condition.
5. The auto-transformer is brought to, its initial position.
6. The supply is switched off.
Tabular Form for OC & SC Test on 1- Φ transformer:

Open Circuit Open Circuit

Open Circuit Power (Woc)
S. No. Primary Primary

Current (Io) Voltage (V1)

Short Circuit Short Circuit

Short Circuit Power (Wsc)
S. No. Primary Primary

Current (Isc) Voltage (Vsc)

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Model Graph:

The graph are drawn as

Efficiency Vs Output power Regulation Vs Power factor

Precautions:

1. At the time of starting auto transformer should be at minimum voltage

position.
2. High voltage and low voltage sides of the transformer should be properly used
as primary or secondary with respect to the experiments.
Result:

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Resultant Tabulation to find out the Efficiency

Core (or) Iron loss (Wo) = KVA rating of transformer =

Short Circuit Current (Isc) = Short Circuit Power (Wsc) =

Fraction of CosΦ = CosΦ = CosΦ =

CosΦ = 1 CosΦ = 0.4
load (x) 0.8 0.6 0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Resultant Tabulation to find out the Regulation

Isc = R02 = X02 = V02 =

Full load ¾load ½load ¼ load

Cos Φ
Lag lead lag lead lag lead lag lead

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

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SUMPNER‟S TEST ON A PAIR OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Aim: To predetermine the Efficiency and Regulation of a given single phase

transformer by conducting the Sumpner‟s test and also to draw its Equivalent
circuit.

Name Plate Details:

Apparatus:

S.No Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI 1

2. Voltmeter MI 1

3. Voltmeter MI 1

4. Ammeter MI 1

5. Ammeter MI 2

6. Wattmeter Dynamometer 1

7. Wattmeter Dynamometer 1

8. Auto Transformer 230 / (0 – 270V) 1

9. SPST Switch - 1

10. Transformer 1

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Fuse Rating:

Primary Current = KVA Rating of Transformer/primary Voltage.

Secondary Current= KVA Rating of Transformer/Secondary Voltage.

THEORY:

This test needs two identical transformers. The primary windings of these
transformers are connected in parallel and supplied at rated voltage and frequency,
while the two secondary are connected in phase opposition as shown. Thus the
voltage across the two secondaries is zero, when the primary windings are energized
.As such, this test is also called back to back test. In this test iron losses occur in the
cores and full load copper losses occurs in the windings of the two transformers.
Currents flowing in the two secondaries is rated full load current of the transformer.
Thus heat run test can be conducted on the transformers without actually loading them
and hence steady-state temperature –rise on the transformers can be estimated. The
current drawn by the primaries is twice the no load current of each transformer. The
wattmeter W1 connected in the circuit of the primaries measure the total core losses
of both the transformers.

Thus the iron losses of each transformer = Wo/2

Where, Wo is the reading of the wattmeter, W1, when rated voltage is applied to the
primaries of the transformers.

Similarly, wattmeter W2, connected in the secondary circuit measures the total
full load copper losses of the two transformers.

Hence, full load copper losses of each transformer = Wsc/2

Where, Wsc is the reading of wattmeter W2 when the full load current is flowing in the
secondary circuit. A low voltage, hardly 8 to 10% of the rated value is applied across
the secondaries for full load current to flow.

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Formulae:

Equivalent Circuit:

Open Circuit Test:

Wo
1. No Load Power Factor (CosΦ0) =
V1 I o
Where, Wo - Open Circuit Power in Watts

V1 - Open Circuit Voltage in Volts

Io - Open Circuit Current in Amps.

2. Magnetizing component of No load current, Im = Io sinΦ o

3. Working component of No load current, I w = Io cosΦo

V1
4. Core loss resistance, Ro = 
Iw

Vsc
5. Magnetizing Reactance, Xo= 
I sc

Short Circuit Test:

Vsc
6. Equivalent impedance referred to HV side (Z02) = 
I sc

Wsc
7. Equivalent resistance referred to HV side (R02)= 2

I sc

Where, Wsc – Short circuit Power in Watts

( Z 02  R02 )
2 2
8. Equivalent reactance refereed to HV side (X02) =

9. Transformation ratio (K) = V2 / V1

Where V1 – primary voltage

V2 – Secondary voltage

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R02
10. Equivalent resistance referred to LV side (R01) = 
K2

X 02
11. Equivalent reactance referred to LV side (X01) = 
K2

Efficiency & Regulation:

12. Output power = (X × KVA × cosΦ) in watts.

Where, X - Fraction of load

KVA - power rating of Transformer

CosΦ- Power Factor

13. Copper loss = (X2 × Wsc) in watts.

Where, Wsc – Copper Loss in Short Circuit Condition

14. Total Loss = (Cu Loss + Iron Loss) in Watts

Outputpower
15. Efficiency =  100%
Outputpower  totallosse s

X  I 2 ( R02 cos   X 02 sin )

16. Regulation =  100
V02

Where, V02 – No Load Voltage on HV side

+ For lagging - for leading

Procedure:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The DPST1 switch on the primary side is closed.
3. The auto-transformer1 is adjusted to energize the transformer with rated
primary voltage on the LV side, when the DPST 2 switch is open.
4. The HV sides of the transformers are so connected that their polarities are in
phase opposition to each other by confirming zero voltage across switch S.

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5. Then by closing the SPSTS2 the auto-transformer2 is adjusted to apply the

rated current at the HV side of the transformer and all the meter readings are
noted down.
6. After observing all the readings the auto-transformer2 and auto-transformer1
are brought to their initial position respectively and the supply is switched off.

Tabulation for Sumpner‟s test:

Open No load Power Short

No Load Circuit (Wo) Short Short Circuit
Circuit
S.No Circuit Power (Wsc)
Current Primary Current
(Io) Voltage (Vsc)
Voltage (V1) (Isc)

Model Graph:

The graph are drawn as

Efficiency Vs Output power Regulation Vs Power factor

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Precautions:

1. Two identical transformers should be used for this back to back test.
2. The SPSTS2 should be kept open till the voltage across it is brought to zero.
Result:

Resultant Tabulation to find out the Efficiency

Core (or) Iron loss (Wo) = KVA rating of transformer =
Short Circuit Current (Isc) = Short Circuit Power (Wsc) =

Fraction of CosΦ = CosΦ = CosΦ =

CosΦ = 0.8 CosΦ = 1
load (x) 0.2 0.4 0.6

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Resultant Tabulation to find out the Regulation

Isc = R02 = X02 = V02 =
¼ load ½ load ¾ load Full load
Cos Φ
Lag lead lag lead lag lead lag lead

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

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SCOTT CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMERS

Aim: To convert the three phase supply into two single phase supplies by the method
of Scott connection and to verify the following criteria:

1. Teaser transformer primary has √3/2 times the turns of main primary. But
volt/turn is the same. Their secondaries have the same turns, which results
in equal secondary voltages.
2. If main primary has N1 turns and main secondary has N2 turns, then main
transformers ratio N2/N1. However, the transformation ratio of teaser will
be equal to 1.15 times if the transformation ratio of main.
3. If the load is balanced on one side, it is balanced on the other side as well.
4. Under balanced load condition, main transformer rating is 15% grater than
that of the teaser.
5. The currents in either of the two halves of the main primary are the vector
sum of KI2M and KI2T (or 0.5 I2T).
Name Plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI 2

2. Voltmeter MI 2

3. Ammeter MI 5

4. 1-Φ Load Resistive 2

3-Ф Auto
5. 1
Transformer

Tapped
6. 2
Transformer

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Fuse Rating:

Primary Current = KVA Rating of Transformer/primary Voltage.

Secondary Current= KVA Rating of Transformer/Secondary Voltage.

Theory:

Three phase to two phase conversion or vice versa is essential under the
following circumstances

(i) To supply power to two phase electric furnaces.

(ii) To supply power to two phase apparatus from a three phase source
(iii) To interlink three phase system and two phase systems.
(iv) To supply power to three phase apparatus from a two phase source.
The common type of connection which can achieve the above conversion is
normally called

Scott – connection.

Two single phase transformers of identical rating with suitable tappings

provided on both, are required for Scott connection. The two transformers used for
this conversion must have the following tappings on their primary windings.

Transformer A – 50% tapping and is called the main transformer.

Transformer B – 86.6% tapping and is called the teaser transformer.

(a) Primary Voltages (b) Secondary Voltages

Fig: Phasor diagram for Scott connection

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The voltage across the primary, CO of the teaser transformer will be 86.6% of
the voltage across the primary AB of the main transformer. The neutral point of the
three phase system will be on the teaser transformer such that the voltage between O
and N is 28.8% of the applied voltage. Thus the neutral point divided the teaser
primary winding, CO in the ratio 1:2.

The voltages across the two secondaries a1a2 and b1 b2 should be same in
magnitude but in phase quadrature, which may be verified experimentally by
recording the voltage across the two secondaries Va1a2, Vb1b2 and the voltage across
a2b2 with a1 and b1 connected together. The voltage Va1a2 and Vb1b2 will be in phased
quadrature, if the following relationship holds good between the three voltages.

Va2b2 = √ (V2a1a2 + V2b1b2)

The behaviour of the above circuit can be studied experimentally, under the
following different conditions of loading.

(i) Equal loading on the two secondaries at unity power factor:

If the two secondaries of main and teaser transformers carry equal currents at
unity power factor (resistive load), the current flowing in the primary windings on
three phase side will also will be equal and that too at unity power factor. This fact
may be verified experimentally.

Formulae:

1. N1T = √3/2N1M
2. VST = VSM
3. KT = 1.15 KM; where KM = N2M/N1M, KT = N2T/N1T
Also KM = VSM/VPM; KT=VST/VPT

4. If ISM = IST, Then IR = IY = IB

5. Under balanced condition KVA (Main) = 15%KVA (Teaser)

6. I1M = ( KI 2 M ) 2  (0.58KI 2T ) 2 where 0.58KI2T = 0.5I1T

Note: N1T – Number of primary turns in teaser transformer

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N1M – Number of primary turns in main transformer

VST – Secondary voltage of teaser transformer in volts

VSM - Secondary voltage of Main transformer in volts

KT – Transformation ratio of teaser transformer

KM – Transformation ratio of main transformer

ISM – Current at the secondary of the main transformer in amps

IST – Current at the secondary of the teaser transformer in amps

IR, IY, IB – Current drawn from the three phase source in amps

I1M – Current in main primary in amps

I2M – Current in main secondary in amps

I1T – Current in teaser primary in amps

I2T – Current in teaser secondary in amps

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. 3 – Φ Auto transformer is kept at minimum voltage position. The rated three
phase supply is given at the 86.6% of the teaser transformer, 0% and 100% of
the main transformer by adjusting the auto transformer.
3. The two secondaries of the transformers are loaded with separate loads and all
the meter readings are noted down. (The balanced load condition is
maintained).
4. Transformers are loaded upto rated current.
5. Repeat the above procedure for unbalanced load condition.
6. The criteria for the Scott connection are verified using the formulae.

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Observations:

(i) When only main transformer is loaded

Practical Theoretical

I1 (I1T) I2 (I1M) I3 I4 (I2T) I5 (I2M) I1 (I1T) I2 (I1M)

(ii) When only teaser transformer is loaded

Practical Theoretical

I1 (I1T) I2 (I1M) I3 I4 (I2T) I5 (I2M) I1 (I1T) I2 (I1M)

(iii) When both transformers are loaded equally

Practical Theoretical

I1 (I1T) I2 (I1M) I3 I4 (I2T) I5 (I2M) I1 (I1T) I2 (I1M)

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Precaution:

1. Scott connection should be performed with two transformers tapped at 50%

and 86.6%.
2. In case of two single phase conversion from three phases, the neutrals of the
secondary sides should be tied up. (Note: Two phase in not equal to two single
phase).
Result:

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NO-LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TESTS ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Aim: To conduct the No-load and blocked rotor test on the given three phase slip ring
induction motor and to predetermine the performance using the circle diagram.

Name Plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI 1

2. Voltmeter MI 1

3. Voltmeter MC 1

4. Ammeter MC 1

5. Ammeter MI 2

6. Wattmeter Dynamometer 2

7. Wattmeter Dynamometer 2

8. Rheostat Wire Wound 3

9. Tachometer - 1

Fuse Rating:

No Load: 10% of rated current

Load: 125%of rated current

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Theory:

The efficiency of small motors can be determined by directly loading them

and by measuring their input and output powers. For larger motors, it may be difficult
to arrange loads for them. Moreover, the power loss will be large with direct loading
tests. Therefore, indirect methods are used to determine the efficiency of

three phase induction motors. The following tests are performed on the motor:

(a) No – load test (b) Blocked – rotor test

These tests also enable us to determine the circuit parameters of the equivalent
circuit of a 3 – phase induction motor.

No Load Test or Open Circuit Test:

This test is similar to the open – circuit test on a transformer. The motor is
uncoupled from its load and the rated voltage at the rated frequency is applied to the
stator to run the motor without load. The input power is measured by the two –
wattmeter method. The ammeter measures the no-load current and the voltmeter gives
the normal rated supply voltage. Since the no-load current is 20 - 30% of the full load
current, the I2R losses in the primary may be neglected as they vary with the square of
the current. Since the motor is running at no load, total input power is equal to
constant iron loss, friction and windage losses of the motor.

Blocked Rotor Or Short Circuit Test:

This test is analogous to the short circuit test of a transformer. In this test, the
shaft of the motor is clamped so that it cannot move and rotor winding is short
circuited. In a slip ring motor, the rotor winding is short-circuited through slip rings
and in cage motors, the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited. This test is also
called as locked – rotor test.

A reduced voltage at normal frequency is applied to the stator through a 3 –

phase auto transformer so that full –load rated current flows in the stator. The
following three readings are obtained:

(i) Total power input on short – circuit Wsc = algebraic sum of the two
wattmeter readings
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The power input in this test is equal to the sum of copper losses of stator and
rotor for all the three phases. This is due to the fact that a reduced voltage is applied to
the stator, and rotation is not allowed and therefore, core and mechanical losses are
negligible.

5. Reading of ammeter Isc = line current on short circuit

6. Reading of voltmeter Vsc = line voltage on short circuit
Procedure:

1. Note down the nameplate details of motor.

2. For no-load or open circuit test by adjusting autotransformer, apply rated
voltage and note down the voltmeter and wattmeter readings. In this test rotor
is free to rotate.
3. For short circuit or blocked rotor test by adjusting autotransformer, apply rated
current and note down the voltmeter and wattmeter readings. In this test rotor
is blocked.
4. After that make the connection to measure the stator resistance as per the
circuit diagram.
5. By adding the load through the loading rheostat note down the ammeter,
voltmeter reading for various values of load.
Procedure to draw the circle diagram:

1. Draw the lines by taking the current (I) in x-axis, voltage (V) in Y-axis.
2. From the No-load test find out the current Io and draw the OA vector with the
magnitude of Io from the origin by suitable current scale, which lags the
voltage (Y-axis) V by an angle Φ0.
Where Φ0 = cos-1(Woc / √3V0I0)

3. From the current Isc find out the ISN (short circuit current corresponding to the
normal voltage) through the formula I SN=Isc (V (rated) / Vsc), draw the OB
vector with the magnitude of ISN from the origin by the same current scale,
which lags the voltage (y-axis) V by an angle Φsc.
Where Φsc = cos-1(Wsc / √3VscIsc)

4. Join the points B and A to get the output line.

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5. Draw the parallel line for the X-axis from point A and for the y-axis from
point B up to the x-axis (point E), let both the lines intersects at point D.
6. Then draw the Bisector for the output line and extend it to the line AD let the
point of intersection be C.
7. By keeping the point C as center draw a semi circle with the radius CA.
8. Let EB be the line of total loss [ED (constant loss) + DB (variable loss)].
9. In the line DB locate the point G to separate the stator and rotor copper losses
by using the formula

Where, Rotor copper loss / Stator copper loss =

W s  3 I s Rs
2

2
3 I s Rs

RS - Stator resistance per phase in ohms

Is - Stator current from the short circuit test

Variable loss=Stator copper loss + Rotor copper loss.

10. To get the Torque line, join the points A and G.

To find out the maximum quantities:

11. Draw tangent to the semi circle in such a way that should be parallel to the
output line. Let the point of tangent be H.

12. Join the points H and C that will be perpendicular to the output line then
draw a parallel line to the y-axis from H to output line. The point at where the
parallel line meets the output line is named as H1.

13. Here the HH1 will be the maximum output power.

14. Draw tangent to the semi circle in such a way that should be parallel to the
torque line. Let the point of tangent be I.

14. Join the points I and C that will be perpendicular to the torque line then draw
a parallel to the y-axis from I to torque line. The point at where the parallel line
meets the output line is named as I1.

15. Here the II1 will be the maximum torque.

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16. Draw the tangent to the semi circle in such a way that should be parallel to
the x-axis. Let the point of tangent be J.

17. Join the points J and C and extend the same up to x-axis. The point at where
the line meets the input line is named as J1.

18. Here the JJ1 will be the maximum input power.

19. From the circle diagram, find maximum input power, maximum torque,
maximum output power, rotor copper loss, stator copper loss and slip.

[Note: To find the total input power on short circuit with normal voltage PSN
by following formula, PSN=WSC (V (rated) / VSC)2 and value of line BE is
equal to PSN, So power for 1cm is equal to ratio between the P SN and length of
EB in cm.

To find out the full load quantities:

20. Extend the line EB from B to K such that

BK = Rated Output power / Power scale.

21. Draw the parallel line to output line AB, which cuts the semicircle at point L
(near by y-axis).

22. Draw the parallel line for y-axis from point L to x-axis (point Q). Then joint
O and L.

Procedure to find out the full load and maximum quantities from the circle
diagram:

1. Fixed loss ( constant loss) = DE  Power scale

2. Stator copper loss = DG  Power scale
3. Rotor copper loss = GB  Power scale

4. Maximum torque =
HH 1
 Powerscale( N  m)
2N / 60
5. Maximum output power = II1  Power scale
6. Maximum input power = JJ1  Power scale

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7. Efficiency at Maximum output =

Maximum output power / Input at that output

8. Full load current = OL  Current scale

9. Full load power factor = cos(angle between OL and Y-axis)

10. Full load torque =

LN  Powerscale  ( N  m)
2N / 60
11. Full load output power = LM  Power scale
12. Full load input power = LQ  Power scale
13. Full load efficiency = Full load output/Full load input
14. Full load stator copper loss = NP  Power scale
15. Full load rotor copper loss = MN  Power scale
16. Full load rotor input = LN  Power scale

Circle Diagram:

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Tabulation for No-load test on 3-Φ Squirrel Cage Induction Motor:

Speed of induction motor: Multiplication Factor:

Power (WOC)
S. No. Voltage(V0) Current (I0)
W1 W2 W1+ W2

Tabulation for Blocked Rotor test on 3-Φ Squirrel Cage Induction Motor:

Multiplication Factor:

S. Power (WSC)
Voltage(Vsc) Current (Isc)
No. W1 W2 W1+W2

Stator Resistance Test:

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Tabulation to find out the Stator Resistance:

Stator Resistance
S.No Stator current(I) Stator voltage(V)
(Rs=V/I)

Precaution:

1. The autotransformer should be kept at minimum voltage position.

Result:

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REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR BY SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE AND

M.M.F METHODS

Aim: To predetermine the regulation of three phase alternator by EMF and MMF
methods and also to draw its vector diagrams.

Name plate details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MC 1

2. Voltmeter MI 1

3. Ammeter MC 1

4. Ammeter MC 1

5. Ammeter MC 1

6. Ammeter MI 1

7. Rheostat Wire Wound 2

8. Rheostat Wire Wound 1

9. Tachometer - 1

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Fuse Rating:

125% of rated current (Full load current)

For DC shunt motor:

For Alternator:

THEORY:-

The following methods are used to determine the voltage regulation of smooth
cylindrical rotor type alternators:

A. Direct load test B. Indirect methods

Indirect Methods:

For large alternators, the two indirect methods which are used to predetermine
the voltage regulation of smooth cylindrical rotor type alternators are as follows:

a. Synchronous Impedance method or EMF method.

b. Ampere – turn method or MMF method.
Synchronous Impedance or EMF method:

The synchronous impedance method is based on the concept of replacing the

effect of armature reaction by a fictitious reactance.

For a synchronous generator

V  Ea  Z s I a
Z s  Ra  jX s

Ampere – turn or MMF method:

The synchronous impedance method is based on the concept of replacing the

effect of armature reaction by a fictitious reactance. The m.m.f. method replaces the
effect of armature leakage reactance by an equivalent additional armature reaction
m.m.f. so that this m.m.f. may be combined with the armature reaction m.m.f. Far.
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The following information is required to predict the regulation by the m.m.f.

method:

(a) the resistance of the stator winding per phase

(b) Open – circuit characteristic at synchronous speed
(c) Short – circuit characteristic.
This method makes use of the phasor diagram of magneto motive forces.

Formulae Used:

1. Armature Resistance, Ra = 1.6Rdc

Rdc is the resistance of DC supply.

2. Synchronous impedance, Zs =
Open circuit voltage (E1 (Ph)) / Short circuit current (Isc).

3. Synchronous reactance, Xs= √ (ZS2 – Ra2).

4. E0 = √ [(Vrated cosΦ + IaRa)2 + (Vrated sinΦ + IaXs)2].

{For Lagging PF}

5. E0 = √ [(Vrated cosΦ + IaRa)2 + (Vrated sinΦ - IaXs)2].

{For Leading PF}

6. E0 = √ [(Vrated + IaRa)2 + (IaXs)2]. {For Unity PF}

7. % Regulation = (E0 – Vrated) / Vrated × 100
Procedure for both EMF and MMF method:

1. Note down the nameplate details of motor and alternator.

2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. Give the supply by closing the DPST Switch.
4. Using the Three point starter, start the motor to run at the synchronous speed
by varying the motor field rheostat.
5. Conduct an open circuit Test by varying the potential Divider for various
values of Field current and tabulate the corresponding open circuit voltage
readings.

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6. Conduct a Short Circuit Test by closing the TPST switch and adjust the
potential divider to set the rated Armature Current, tabulate the corresponding
Field Current.
7. Conduct a Stator Resistance Test by giving connection as per the circuit
diagram and tabulate the voltage and Current readings for various resistive
loads.
Procedure to draw the graph for EMF method:

1. Draw the open Circuit Characteristics curve (Field Current Vs Generated

Voltage per phase).
2. Draw the Short Circuit Characteristics curve (Field Current Vs Short Circuit
Current).
3. The synchronous impedance per phase Z s can be determined by knowing the
value of short circuit current Isc corresponding to a field current that gives
rated terminal voltage per phase
4. By using respective formulae find the Xs, E0 and percentage Regulation.
Procedure to draw the graph for MMF method:

1. Draw the open Circuit Characteristics curve (Generated voltage per phase
Vs Field Current).
2. Draw the Short Circuit Characteristics curve (Short Circuit Current Vs Field
Current).
3. Draw the line OL to represent If‟ which gives the rated generated voltage
(V).
4. Draw the line LA at an angle (90 + Φ) to represent I f11 which gives the rated
full load current (Isc) on short circuit [(90 ± Φ) for lagging power factor and
(90 - Φ) for leading power factor].
5. Join the points O and A, find the field current (I f) by measuring the distance
OA that gives the Open Circuit Characteristics.
6. Find the percentage Regulation by using suitable formula.

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Procedure to draw the vector diagram:

1. Draw the line OA that represents the rated voltage V.

2. Draw the line OB to represent the rated current I a, which makes an angle Φ (It
may lags / leads / in phase) with the voltage.
3. Draw the line AC to represent IRa drop, which is parallel to current Axis (OB).
4. Draw the perpendicular line CD with the line AC (IRa drop) to represent IXs
drop.
5. Join the points D and A to represent the IZs drop.
6. Join the points O and D measure the length OD by Voltage scale to find Open
Circuit Voltage E0.
7. Find the percentage Regulation by using suitable formula.
Tabulation for regulation of three phase alternator by EMF and MMF methods:

Open Circuit Test:

S. Field current Open circuit line Open circuit phase

No. (If) voltage (V0L) voltage (V0 (Ph))

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Short Circuit Test:

Short Circuit Current

S. No. Field Current (If)
(120 of rated Current) (ISC)

Stator Resistance Test:

Tabulation to find out the armature resistance (Ra):

Armature
S. Armature Current Armature Voltage Resistance
No. (I) (V)
(Ra = V/ I)

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Vector Diagrams:

Unity power factor:

Eo
IZs

O IRa C

Lagging power factor:

Eo
IZs

V A IXs
Φ
IRa
I
C

Leading power factor:

IXs
Eo IZs

B
I
Φ
IRa
O V A

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Regulation curve of alternator(EMF, MMF and Vector diagram):

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Model Graph:

EMF Method:

MMF Method:

Open
circuit
voltage

S.C.C
E0(lag)
E0(upf)
O.C.C
Short circuit E0(lead)
current

unity
lead lag
(90+Φ)
(90-Φ)

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Precautions:

1. The motor field rheostat should be kept in the minimum resistance position.
2. The 1-Φ auto transformer in alternator field should be in the minimum voltage
position.
3. Initially all Switches are in open position.
Result:

Resultant tabulation for regulation of three phase alternator by EMF and MMF
methods

Percentage of Regulation
S.
Power EMF Method MMF Method Vector Diagram
No.
Factor Lagging Leading Lagging Leading Lagging Leading

1. 0.2

2. 0.4

3. 0.6

4. 0.8

5. 1.0

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„V‟ AND„INVERTED V‟ CURVES OF THREE PHASE SYNCHRONOUS

MOTOR

Aim: To draw the V and Inverted V Curves of three phase Synchronous Motor.

Name plate details:

Apparatus Required:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI 1

2. Ammeter MC 1

Ammeter MI 1

3. Power factor meter Double Element 1

4. Rheostat Wire wound 2

5. Tachometer - 1

Fuse Rating:

125% of rated current (Full load current)

For DC Excitation:

For Synchronous motor:

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THEORY:

With constant mechanical load on the synchronous motor, the variation of field
current changes the armature current drawn by the motor and also it‟s operating
power factor. As such the behaviour of the synchronous motor is described below
under three different modes of field excitation.

1. Normal excitation:

The armature current is minimum at a particular value of field current, which is

called the normal field excitation. The operating power factor of the motor is unity at
this excitation.

2. under excitation:

When the field current is decreased gradually below the normal excitation, the
armature current increases and the operating power factor of the motor decreases. The
power factor under this condition is lagging. Thus the synchronous motor draws a
lagging current, when it is under excited.

3. over excitation:

When the field current is increased gradually beyond the normal excitation
the armature current again increases and the operating power factor decreases.
However the power factor is leading under this condition. Hence the synchronous
motor draws a leading current, when it is over excited.

Procedure:

1. Note down the name-plate details of motor.

2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. Close the TPST Switch.
4. By adjusting the Autotransformer from minimum position to maximum
position the rated supply is given to the motor. The motor starts as an
induction motor.
5. In order to give the excitation to the field for making it to run as the
synchronous motor close the DPST switch.

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6. By varying the field rheostat note down the excitation current, armature
current and the power factor for various values of excitation.
7. The same process has to be repeated for loaded condition.
8. Later the motor is switched off and the graph is drawn.

Model Graph:

Armature current Vs Excitation current

Power factor Vs Excitation current

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Precautions:

1. The potential divider should be in the minimum voltage position.

2. The motor should be started without any load.
3. Initially TPST Switch is in open position.

Result:

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Tabulation for V-curve and Inverted V-curve of three phase synchronous motor

Without Load With Load

S. Wattmeter Power Wattmeter

Power Power Power
No Excitation Armature Reading Factor Excitation Armature Reading
Factor
Current(If) Current(Ia) Current(If) Current(Ia)
(W1+W2) (W1+W2) (CosΦ)
W1 W2 (CosΦ) W1 W2

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EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Aim: To conduct the No-load test and blocked rotor tests on 1-Φ squirrel case
induction motor and to draw the equivalent circuit.

Name-plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI 1

2. Voltmeter MI 1

3. Voltmeter MC 1

4. Ammeter MC 2

5. Wattmeter Dynamometer 1

6. Wattmeter Dynamometer 1

7. Capacitor - 1

8. Tachometer - 1

Fuse Rating:

No-load: 10% of rated current.

Load: 125% of rated current.

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Theory:

Single phase induction motor suffers from several drawbacks such as low
over-load capacity, low efficiency, and low power factor. The peculiar behaviour can
be explained from following two theories.

1. Double revolving field theory

2. Cross field theory.

Double revolving field theory:-

This theory is based on the idea that pulsating field produced in a single
phase motor can be represented by two revolving fluxes each equal to half of the
value of the alternating flux and each rotating at synchronous speed in opposite
direction.

Cross field theory:-

The field created by the rotor currents becomes maximum nearly at ¼ cycle
after the generated EMF has reached its maximum value. Since the field created by
rotor currents is at right angles to the field by the stator currents, it is known as cross-
field theory.

No load and blocked rotor tests are performed on single phase induction motor
to determine its parameters of the equivalent circuit. the motor consists of a stator
winding, represented by its resistance R1 and leakage reactance X1 and two imaginary
rotors, generally called as forward and backward rotors and each rotor has been
assigned half the total magnetizing reactance. Forward rotor has a slip of s then the
backward rotor has a slip of (2-s). The complete parameters of this equivalent circuit
can be calculated from blocked rotor and no load test.

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Formulae used:

OC Test:

1. No load power factor (CosΦ0 ) = Woc / VoIo

Vo – No-load voltage in volts.

Io – No-load current in amps.

Woc – No-load power in watts.

2. Working component current (Iw) = I0 × CosΦ0

3. Magnetizing current (Im) = I0 × sinΦ0
4. No-load resistance (R0) = V0 / I0cosΦ0 in Ω
5. No-load reactance (X0) = V0 / I0cosΦ0 in Ω
SC Test:

6. Equivalent Impedance of motor referred to stator (ZSC)

=VSC / ISC in Ω

7. Equivalent Resistance of motor referred to stator (RSC)

=VSC / ISC2 in Ω

8. Equivalent Reactance of motor referred to stator (XSC)

= Z sc
2
 Rsc
2
 in Ω
9. Rotor Resistance referred to stator (R2I) = RSC – R1 in Ω
10. Rotor Reactance referred to stator (X2I) = XSC/ 2 = X1 in Ω

Where, R1 is stator resistance, R1=R(AC) = 1.6 × R(DC)

X1 is stator reactance

11. Magnetizing Reactance (Xm) = 2(X0 – X1 – X2I/2)

12. Slip (S) = (NS – N) / NS

Where, NS – Synchronous speed in rpm,

N – Speed of motor in rpm.

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Procedure:

Note down the name-plate details of motor.

1) For no-load or open circuit test by adjusting autotransformer, apply rated

voltage and note down the ammeter and wattmeter readings. In this test rotor
is free to rotate.
2) For short circuit or blocked rotor test by adjusting autotransformer, apply rated
current and note down the voltmeter and wattmeter readings. In this test rotor
is blocked.
3) After that make the connection to measure the stator resistance as per the
circuit diagram.
4) By adding the load through the loading rheostat note down the ammeter,
voltmeter reading for various values of load.
Tabulation for No-load test on single phase squirrel cage induction motor:

Speed of Induction motor

Multiplication Factor:

Open Circuit Open Circuit

S. No. Open Circuit Power (Woc)
Current (Ioc) Voltage (Voc)

Tabulation for Short circuit test on single phase squirrel cage induction motor:

Multiplication Factor:

Short Circuit Short Circuit

Short Circuit Power (Wsc)
S. No. Primary Primary

Current (Isc) Voltage (Vsc)

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Stator Resistance Test:

Tabulation to find out the stator resistance:

Stator Resistance
S. No. Stator Current (I) Stator Voltage (V)
(R1 = V/ I)

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Equivalent Circuit:

X1
R1

R21/2s

Xm/2
X21/2

R21/2(2-s)
Xm/2

X21/2

Precautions:

1. The autotransformer should be kept at minimum voltage position.

Result:

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DETERMINATION OF Xd AND Xq OF SALIENT POLE SYNCHRONOUS

MACHINE

Aim: To conduct the slip test on three phase alternator and to predetermine the
regulation through vector diagrams.

Name-plate details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI 1

2. Voltmeter MC 1

3. Ammeter MC 1

4. Ammeter MI 1

5. Rheostat Wire wound 1

6. Tachometer - 1

Fuse Rating:

125% of rated current (Full load current)

For DC shunt motor:

For Alternator:

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Theory:

In order to analyse properly the effect of armature flux on the main field flux
in salient pole alternators, Blondel put forth the Two – Reaction Theory.

According to this theory, the armature m.m.f can be resolved into two
mutually perpendicular components: one along the direct axis (or d – axis) and other
along the quadrature axis (or q – axis).

By direct axis is meant the line joining the centre lines of the field pole and
stator pole, and the axis perpendicular to it is the quadrature axis. (When the three
stator windings carry currents supplied from a balanced 3 – phase A.C source, a
rotating magnetic field develops. This revolves round the stator at synchronous speed,
just like in a 3 – phase induction motor. It is usual to assume that this stator field is
due to stator poles which are produced by the stator currents).

The synchronous reactance X s, which combines the armature leakage

reactance and the armature reaction effect (also considered as an additional reactance)
is similarly resolved into two components: a direct axis reactance X d, and a quadrature
axis reactance Xq.

Formula Used:

1. Armature resistance Ra = 1.6 RDC

Where, RDC is the resistance in DC supply.

2. Direct axis Impedance per phase (Zd) = Vmax / Imin in Ω

3. Quadrature axis Impedance per phase (Zq) = Vmin / Imax in Ω
4. Direct axis Reactance per phase (Xd) = √ (Zd2 – Ra2) in Ω
5. Direct axis Reactance per phase (Xq) = √ (Zd2 – Ra2) in Ω
6. Percentage Regulation = (E0 –Vrated) / Vrated × 100
Procedure:

1. Note down the nameplate details of motor and alternator.

2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. Give the supply by closing the DPST Switch.

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4. Using the Three point starter, start the motor to run at the synchronous speed
by varying the motor field rheostat at the same time check whether the
alternator field has been opened or not.
5. Apply 20% to 30% of the rated voltage to the armature of the alternator by
adjusting the autotransformer.
6. To obtain the slip and the maximum oscillation of pointers, the speed is
reduced slightly lesser than the synchronous speed.
7. Maximum current, minimum current, maximum voltage and minimum voltage
are noted.
8. Find out the direct and quadrature axis Impedances.
Procedure to draw the vector diagram:

1. Draw the line OA vector that represents the rated voltage V.

2. Draw the line OB vector to represent the rated current I, which makes an angle
Φ (It may lag / lead / in phase) with the voltage.
3. Draw the line AC vector to represent IRa drop, which is parallel to OB vector.
4. Draw the perpendicular line CD vector to the line AC (IRa drop) that represent
IXq drop.
5. Draw the line from the origin through the point D, which consist the no load
voltage (E0).
6. Draw the pole Axis through origin, which should be perpendicular to vector
OD.
7. Draw a perpendicular line to the pole axis from the same (point E), which
should be passed through the point B. [where, vector OE represents Direct axis
Current (Id) and vector EB represents Quadrature axis current (I q)].
8. Find out the reactive voltage drops Id Xd and IqXq.
9. Draw a parallel line (i.e. Perpendicular to Id) to OD vector from the point C,
with the magnitude of the drop IdXd (Line CF).
10. Draw a parallel line (i.e. Perpendicular to I q) to OE vector from the point F,
with the magnitude of the drop IqXq (Line FG).

11. Let the point at where the IqXq drop meets the OD line be G. Here the vector
OG is representing the no load voltage (E0).

12. Find out the voltage regulation by using the suitable formula.

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Tabulation to find out the direct axis impedance (Zd):

Speed of the alternator:

Minimum voltage applied to the stator:

Minimum Direct axis

Maximum voltage Direct axis
S. No. Current per impedance Per
Per phase (Vmax) reactance Per
Phase (Imin) phase (Zd)
phase (Xd)

Tabulation to find out the quadrature axis impedanc): (Zq)

Maximum Minimum Quadrature

S. No. Current per voltage Per axis impedance Quadrature

Phase (Imax) phase (Vmin) Per phase (Zq) axis reactance

Per phase (Xq)

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Stator Resistance Test:

Tabulation to find out the Armature Resistance (Ra):

Armature Resistance
S. No. Armature Current (I) Armature Voltage (V)
(Ra = V/ I)

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Vector Diagram:

Lagging power factor:

Result tabulation to find out the regulation:

Percentage of Regulation
S.
No. Power
Lagging Leading
Factor

1. 0.2

2. 0.4

3. 0.6

4. 0.8

5. 1.0

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Model Graph:

Precautions:

1. The motor field rheostat should be kept in the minimum resistance position.
2. The Alternator field should be kept open throughout the experiment.
3. The direction of rotation due to prime mover and due to the alternator run as
the motor should be same.
4. Initially all the switches are kept open.
Result:

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PARALLEL OPERATION OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Aim: To obtain the load sharing of two 1-Φ Transformers when they are parallel to
each other across a common load.

Name-plate details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI 2

2. Voltmeter MI 2

3. Ammeter MI 1

4. Ammeter MI 2

5. Loading Resistance 1-Φ 1

6. Auto Transformer - 1

7. SPST Switch - - 1

Formulae:

IA ≈ I × ZB / (ZA + ZB), IB ≈ I × ZA / (ZA + ZB)

SA ≈ S × ZB / (ZA + ZB), SB ≈ S × ZA / (ZA + ZB)

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Theory:-

For supplying a load in excess of the rating of an existing transformer, a

second transformer may be connected in parallel with it as shown in the circuit
diagram. It is seen that primary windings are connected to the supply and secondary
windings are connected to the load. In connecting two or more than two transformers
in parallel, it is essential that their terminals of similar polarities are joined to the same
terminals. If this is not done, the two e.m.f s induced in the secondaries which are
paralleled with incorrect polarities, will act together in the local secondary circuit
even when supplying no load and will hence produce the equivalent of a dead short
circuit.

There are certain definite conditions which must be satisfied in order to avoid
any local circulating currents and to ensure that the transformers share the common
load in proportion to their KVA ratings. The conditions are:

1. Primary windings of the transformers should be suitable for the supply system
voltage and frequency.
2. The transformers should be properly connected with regard to polarity.
3. The voltage ratings of both primaries and secondaries should be identical. In
other words, the transformers should have the same turn ratio i.e.,
transformation ratio.
4. The percentage impedances should be equal in magnitude and have the same
X/R ratio in order to avoid circulating currents and operation at different
power factors.
5. With transformers having different KVA ratings, the equivalent impedances
should be inversely proportional to the individual KVA rating if the
circulating currents are to be avoided.
Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. DPST Switch is closed and supply is given to the Switch.
3. By applying rated voltage using dimmerstat the reading in the voltmeter across
the Switch is observed. If it shows zero deflection the transformer is connected
to correct polarities.

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4. After observing this zero deflection in the voltmeter SPST is closed.

5. By varying the load using a loading rheostat the readings of three ammeters
are noted.
6. The S.C. test is connected on the transformer and the impedances are
calculated. Apply the rated current after the connections are made note the
ammeter and voltmeter readings.
7. IA, IB is calculated from above formula.
8. Results are verified with the theoretical values and are tabulated.
Precautions:

1. Connections should be made tightly.

2. Readings should be noted without parallax error.
Result:

SC Test:

For T/F-1: For T/F-2:

V(v) I(A) Z1(Ω)

V(v) I(A) Z2(Ω)

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Tabular form:

S. S1 = S2 = S3 =
V1 V2 V3 I1 I2 I3 S1 S2
No. V1I1 V2I2 V3I3

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BRAKE TEST ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Aim: To conduct the load test on three phase slip ring induction motor and to draw
the performance characteristics.

Name-plate details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI 1

2. Ammeter MI 1

3. Wattmeter Dynamometer 2

4. SPST Switch - 1

Fuse Rating:

125% of rated current (Full load current)

Theory:

The brake test on induction motor is performed to compute its complete

performance i.e., torque, slip, efficiency, power factor etc. During this test, the motor
is operated at rated voltage and frequency and normally loaded mechanically by brake
and pulley arrangement from the observed data, the performance can be calculated,
following the steps given below:

Slip: The speed of the rotor, Nr drops slightly as the load on the motor is increased.
The synchronous speed, Ns of the rotating magnetic field is calculated, based on the
number of poles, P and the supply frequency, f i.e.,

120 f
Synchronous speed, Ns = r. p.m
P

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Ns  Nr
Then, slip, S =  100%
Ns

Normally, the range of the slip at full load is from 2 to 5%.

Torque: Mechanical loading is the most common type of method employed in

laboratories. A brake drum is coupled to the shaft of the motor and the load is applied
by tightening the belt, provided on the brake drum. The net force exerted at the brake
drum in Kg is obtained from the readings S1 and S2 of the spring balances i.e.,

Net force exerted, W = (S1 – S2) Kg

Then, load torque T = W  9.81 R  t / 2 N-m

Output Power: The output power in watts developed by the motor is given by

2NT
Output power  watts
60

Where, N is the speed of the motor in r.p.m.

Input Power: Input power is measured by the two wattmeters, properly connected in
the circuit i.e.,

Input power = (W1+W2) watts

Where, W1 and W2 are the readings of the two wattmeters.

Input power factor: Input power factor can also be calculated from the readings of
the two wattmeters for balanced load. If φ is the power factor angle, then

W1  W2
tan  
W1  W2

Knowing the power factor angle, from the above, power factor, cosφ can be
calculated. It may be noted clearly at this stage that the power factor of the induction
motor is very low at no load, hardly 0.1 to 0.25 lagging. As such, one of the wattmeter
will record a negative reading, till the power factor is less than 0.5, which may be
measured by reversing the connections of either the current coil or pressure coil of
this wattmeter.

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Procedure:

1. Note down the nameplate details of motor.

2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. The TPST switch is closed and the motor is started using rotor resistance
starter. Where the Rotor resistance starter is turned from maximum resistance
to minimum resistance position to run at rated speed.
4. At no load the speed, current, voltage and power are noted.
5. By applying the load, for various values of current the above-mentioned
readings are noted.
6. The load is later released and the motor is switched off. The Rotor resistance
starter is brought to the original position before switching off the motor, the
load is later released and the motor is switched off and the graph is drawn.
Observation:

a. Circumference of the brake drum =

b. Thickness of the belt =
Model Graph:

1. Electrical Characteristics:
η s
N,IL,T,s,

cosΦ,η

cosΦ
N

Output power

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2. Mechanical Characteristics:

Speed

Torque

Precautions:

1. Motor should be started without any load.

2. The rotor resistance starter should be in maximum resistance position.

Result:

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Tabulation for Brake test on three phase slip ring Induction Motor

Wattme Efficienc
ter Torque y Power
Load Load Input Spring balance (T) Output
readings Speed Factor
Reading (η) Slip
of
S. Curren Voltag Powe (S1~S2)× Power= (S)
(cosΦ)
No. t e W r o/p / i/p
W1 Moto
(r+T/2) 2ΠNT /
2
r (N) i/p /
(IL) (VL) 60 × 100
(S1~S2) √3VLIL
S1 S2 ×9.81
Kg

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REGULATION OF THREE PHASE ALTERNATOR BY ZPF METHOD

Aim: Predetermination of regulation of an Alternator by ZPF Method.

Name-plate Details:

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI 1

2. Ammeter MI 1

3. Ammeter MC 1

4. Rheostat Wire Wound 1

5. Rheostat Wire Wound 1

Theory:

This method is based on the separation of armature leakage reactance drop and the
armature reaction effects. Hence, it gives more accurate results. It makes use of the first two
methods to some extent. The experimental data required is:

1. No-load curve and

1. Full- load zero power factor curve also called wattless load characteristics. It is the curve
of terminal volts against excitation when armature is delivering F.L current at zero p.f.
The reduction in voltage due to armature reaction is found from above and (ii) voltage
drop due to armature leakage reactance XL (also called Potier Reactance) is found from both. By
combining these two, E0 can be calculated.

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It should be noted that if we vectorially add V to the drop due to resistance and leakage
reactance X2 we get E, add the drop due to armature reaction, to get E 0.

The zero p.f. lagging curve can be obtained

a) If a similar machine is available which may be driven at no-load as a synchronous motor

at practically zero p.f. or
b) By loading the alternator with pure reactors.
c) By connecting the alternator to a 3-Φ line with ammeters and wattmeters connected for
measuring current and power and by so adjusting the field current that we get full load
armature current with zero wattmeter reading.
Procedure:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Give the supply by closing DPST switch
3. Using the three point starter, start the motor to run at the rated speed by varying the motor
field rheostat.
4. Conduct open circuit test by varying the potential divider for various values of field
current and tabulate the corresponding open circuit voltage readings.
5. Conduct a short circuit test by closing TPST switch & adjust the potential divider to set
the rated armature current. Tabulate the corresponding field current.
6. DC supply switch is closed and the load is applied by closing the TPST switch and the
field rheostat at the alternator is varied such that the alternator draws the rated current and
all the meter readings are noted.
7. The load is increased in steps and for each step it is ensured that the alternator draws the
rated current by adjusting the field rheostat of the alternator and all the readings are
noted.
8. Step No.7 is repeated until the rated value of alternator is reached.

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Observations:

From ZPF Method:

Field Current Terminal Voltage

S. No. VPh
(Amps) (Volts)

O.C Test: S.C Test

Field Current Field Current Short.Ckt.

S. No. VOC / Ph S. No.
(Amps) (Amps) Current

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Model Graph:

↑
Air gap line

E0
D
E

V
C E B

O A
Ife
BE = Ifa
If

Precautions:

1. Connections should be made tightly.

2. Readings should be noted without parallax error.
Result:

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Lab Manual For III-II B.Tech EEE Students

Name of the Lab:

Electrical Measurements Lab

Prepared By:
B.DASU, Associate Professor.
Md.RAFI KHAN, Associate Professor.
M.RAVI KANTH, Assistant Professor.

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GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE :: GUDLAVALLERU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS LAB

LIST OF EXPERMENTS LIST

1. CALIBRATION AND TESTING OF SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER BY PHANTOM

LOADING.
2. CALIBRATION OF DYNAMOMETER POWER FACTOR METER
3. CROMPTON D.C. POTENTIOMETER
4. KELVIN‟S DOUBLE BRIDGE
5. ANDERSON BRIDGE.
6. SCHERING BRIDGE.
7. MEASUREMENT OF 3 PHASE REACTIVE POWER WITH SINGLE-PHASE
WATTMETER.
8. CALIBRATION LPF WATTMETER – BY PHANTOM TESTING.
9. DIELECTRIC OIL TESTING USING H.T. TESTING KIT.
10. LVDT
11. RESISTANCE WIRE STRAIN GAUGE
12. MEASUREMENT OF CHOKE-COIL PARAMETERS BY 3-AMMETER METHOD
13. MEASUREMENT OF CHOKE-COIL PARAMETERS BY 3-VOLTMETER METHOD

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Calibration of Single Phase Energy Meter by phantom loading

AIM:

To calibrate a given single phase energy meter by phantom loading

APPARATUS:

SL.No APPRATUS Type Range Quantity

1 Energy meter Induction 10A,240V 1

2 Ammeter MI (0-10)A 1

3 Voltmeter MI (0-300)V 1

4 Wattmeter Dynamometer 300V,10A,LPF

4 Stop watch Digital - 1

5 Load Resistive - 1

(230V/0-40V),
6 Booster transformer - 1
10A

(230/(0-270V),
7 Auto Transformer 1-Φ 1
10A

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

THEORY:

Generally the measurement of energy is essentially the same process as the measurement of
power, except that the instrument used must not merely indicate the power, or rate of supply of
energy, but must take in to account also the length of time for which this rate of supply is
continued.

The constructional details of single phase induction energy meter. It mainly

consists of two electromagnets.

One electro magnet carries current coil in which load current flows and other carries current
proportional to supply voltage. Since it applied across which is know as pressure coil
consequently the two electromagnets are known as series and shunt magnets

Td=K1Ø 1Ø2

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Observations calculations

Load Indicated % error %

S. Voltage Wattmeter Actual
Current T energy energy= F-S/S x Correction
No (v) „W‟ (IL) (sec)
= N/K wT/3600 100 S-F/F x100

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PROCEDURE

1. Connections are made as per CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.

2. Set the variac at zero output voltage position &switch on the supply.

3. Then the out put of variac at rated voltage of the precision coil is

adjusted by using voltmeter.

4. Switch on the booster transformer on the load and allow certain amount

of current then the al, disc of energy meter starts rotating. Note down

the time taken for 20 revolutions by a standard stop watch.

5. Determine the indicated energy (f) by using meter constant.

6. Find the actual energy by using (s) W*T / 3600 Whrs.

7. The error was determined by using formula (S-F)/F.

8. Repeat the experiment by increasing the load current.

9. The graphs were plotted b/w %error & I (load).

MODEL GRAPH

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PRECAUTIONS

1. Connections should be tight enough.

2. Reading should be with out any parallax error.

3. Both the input sources should be of same phase

RESULT:

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CALIBRATION OF DYNAMOMETER POWER FACTOR METER

AIM: To calibrate the Dynamometer Power-factor meter by Phantom Loading Method.

APPARATUS:

S.No APPARATUS Range Type Quantity

1 Ammeter (0-5)A MI 1

2 Voltmeter (0-300)V MI 1

Dynamo
3 Wattmeter 300V,5A,UPF 1
meter

Dynamo
4 P.F.Meter 300V,5A 1
meter

5 Rheostat 20 Ω/10A TWW 1

Phase Shifting
6 415V / 15A - 1
Transformer

Dynamo
7 1 Ф Variac 230V/(0-270)V 1
Meter

Booster
8 (230/(0-40V), 10A 1
Transformer

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

The meter essentially consists of two fixed coils joined in series, and two moving coils
which are rigidly fixed to each other such that their axes are mutually perpendicular. The fixed
coils carry the current to the circuit whose power factor is to be measured. The coils produce
strong magnetic field whose strength is the greatest along with axis in the region in between
them. Placed in this magnetic field are the moving coils. These two coils are identical and are
connected in parallel across the voltage of the system. One coil has non-inductive resistance R in
series with it, and another coil has an inductance L in series with it.

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In practice, R and L are so chosen that both coils carry equal currents. It is evident that
the current in coil 1 is in phase with the system voltage, and the current in coil 2 lags behind the
voltage by 90˚.

Since the currents in both the coils are equal, they produce magnetic fields of equal
strength; have a phase angle of 90˚ between them, in addition to a space displacement of 90˚.

The meter does not have any built in mechanism to develop controlling torque.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Rated voltage is applied to the circuit using 3-Φ variac continuously.
3. Adjust the phase shifting transformer and say particular value of current as designed, by
varying the Booster Transformer provided.
4. Adjust the phase shifting transformer to particular phase angle by varying the knob.
5. As the power factor of the circuit is varied, readings of various meters are to be noted
carefully.
6. Percentage error is calculated as
% error= (Reading by P.F meter-Calculated P.F)*100/Calculated P.F

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connection should be tight.

2. The Initial terminals of booster Transformer & Rheostat are to be taken care so that
current does not exceed the limits for which it is designed.
3. Reading should be taken without parallax error.

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Tabular Form:

Load Load Wattmeter

P.F.meter cosΦ= %error= %correction
Sl.no voltage current Reading
reading W/V.I F-S*100/S = % error
(v) (A) (W)

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MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:

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CROMPTON‟S DC POTENTIOMETER

AIM:

To calibrate the given voltmeter using potentiometer.

To calibrate the given ammeter using potentiometer.

APPARATUS:

S. No. APPARATUS Range Type Quantity

1. Potentiometer - Dial Pattern 1

2. Regulated Power Supply (0 – 30V), 5A Digital 2

3. Regulated Power Supply 2V,250mA - 1

4. Weston Standard Cell 1.0186V Centre Zero 1

5. Galvanometer (30 – 0 – 30)mA Centre Zero 1

6. Ammeter ( 0 – 1A ) MC 1

7. Volt ratio box - - 1

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

1.Calibration of Ammeter

Where E1 and E2 are RPS units (0-5/101V); where RPS - Regulated Power Supply

G- Galvanometer; R Unknown Resistance; K-Switch;

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2.Calibration of Voltmeter

THEORY:

A potentiometer is an instrument designed to measure an unknown voltage by

comparing it with a known voltage. The known voltage may be supplied by a standard cell or
any other known voltage reference source. The advantage of these potentiometers is that since a
potentiometer makes uses of a balance or null condition, no current flows through and hence no
power is consumed in the circuit containing the unknown emf or component. True E.M.F‟s of
batteries can be obtained..

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The potentiometers are extensively used for the calibration of voltmeters and ammeters
and have infact become the standard for the calibration of these instruments. One such an
instrument is the “CROMPTON‟S POTENTIOMETER”, which is also known as
“LABORATORY POTENTIOMETER”.

“The process of adjusting the working current so as to match the voltage drop across a
portion of sliding wire against a standard reference source is known as STANDARDISATION”

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the galvanometer at the terminals “GALVO”, Standard cell to the terminals marked
E1 & either unknown resistor or standard resistor across terminals E 2.
2. Connect RPS to the terminals marked “BATT”.

STANDARDIZATION:

1. The EMF of a standard cell is 1.0816V. So, set the dial switch & slide wire contacts at 1V &
16.8mV which is equal to 1.0816V.
2. Adjust the output voltage of RPS to get 2V.
3. Adjust the regulating rheostat to get the null deflection in the galvanometer.
Calibration of Unknown Ammeter:

1. Replace the unknown resistance with the standard resistance of 1Ω and standard ammeter
with ammeter which is to be calibrated.
2. Adjust the ammeter reading to 0.1A and dial switch & jockey positions till null deflection is
obtained in the galvanometer.
3. Read the value of potential difference across the standard resistor directly from dial switch
and jockey positions.
4. Find the current (I) passing through standard resistor.
5. Compare the value with the ammeter reading and find the % correction & % error.
6. Repeat the experiment by increasing the ammeter reading.

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Calibration of Unknown Voltmeter:

1. Apply some voltage to the potentiometer test terminals with help of RPS & Volt Ratio Box.
2. Adjust the dial switch and jockey position on the slide wire till null deflection is achieved in the
galvanometer.
3. Now, note down the reading (add the Main dial switch & Slide wire reading).
4. Repeat the experiment by applying is different voltages.

TABULAR FORM:

Calibration of Ammeter

P.D. across standard

Standard value of
Ammeter reading in resistance measured
S.No current I (Amps) % Error
amps(I) by pot in (Volts)
= V/R
at R = 0.1 Ω

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Calibration of Voltmeter

Potentiometer
Applied Voltage Volt Ratio Box
S.No Reading % Error
(V) Voltage
(V)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Make the connections tightly

2. Ensure that the output voltage of the power supplies is zero before the supply is switched
on.
3. Ensure that the rheostats are at maximum resistance position at the time of switching on the
supply.
4. Insert high resistance in galvanometer circuit initially and cut out completely when null
deflection is observed in the galvanometer.
5. Keep the voltage across the terminals “BATT” to be more than across the terminals “E1”,
“E2”.
RESULT:

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KELVINS DOUBLE BRIDGE

AIM : To determine the low range resistance of a given resistor using Kelvin‟s Double Bridge.

APPARATUS:

SL.NO. APPARATUS Type Range Quantity

1 Kelvin‟s Double Bridge - - 1NO.

2 Given resistor of low range - - 1NO.

resistance

- - 1NO.
Spot reflection galvanometer
3

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Details of panel:-

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+C and –C - Current terminals – to connect a h- terminal unknown

+P and –P - Potential terminals – resistance „X‟

Selector or current switch – To set the battery circuit in OFF Position,

Forward Position or reverse position.

Range multiplier - To select proper range depending on the value

of Unknown resistance.

Main dial - For course adjustment.

Slide Wire - For fine adjustment.

THEORY:

Kelvin Bridge is a modification of the Wheatstone bridge and provides high accuracy in
measurement of law value resistances.

The Kelvin‟s Double Bridge incorporates the idea of a second set of ratio arms and hence the
name double bridge and the use of four terminal resistors for the low resistance arms.

When the bridge is adjusted for balance.

Let i1 = Current in arm P = Current in arm Q

i2 = Current in arm P = Current in arm q

I = Current in arm R = Current in arm S.

Current i2 = I r/ P+q+r ………….(1)

Now P.d across “P” = P.d across “R” + P.d across “P”

i1P = IR + I pr/ P+q+r

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= I (R+Pr/P+q+r) …………….(2)

Similarly, P.d across “Q” = P.d across “S” + P.d across ”q”

i1Q = IS + I qr/P+q+r

= I (S + qr/P+q+r) ……………..(3)

By division,

(2)/(3) = i1P/ I1Q = I (R+Pr/P+q+r)/ I (S + qr/P+q+r)

PS + Pqr/P+q+r = QR+Qpr/P+q+r

QR = PS + r/P+q+r(Pq-Qp)

R = PS/Q + r/Q(p+q+r) (Pq-Qp)

R = PS/Q + rq/p+q+r (P/Q – P/q)

If P/Q = p/q R = PS/Q

This indicates that the resistance of connecting lead r, has no effect on the measurement,
provided that the two sets of ratio arms have equal ratios.

From this the unknown resistance can be found.

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PROCEDURE:

Zero adjustment of the bridge :

If the bridge is used after a long time zero reading of the bridge may be Checked.

1. Connect the regulated power supply to the terminals marked “BATT” in series with a
rheostat and an ammeter.
2. Connect the spot deflection galvanometer to the terminals “GALVO”.
3. Connect the terminals +C, +P, -C and –P by means of a copper strips so that they are
shorted together.
4. Set the main dial and slide wire dial at zero position range multiplier switch at 10 or 1
position and selector switch at forward position.
5. Switch on the A.C supply to the galvanometer and adjust zero.
6. Switch on the regulated power supply and adjust its output voltage to about 5V.
7. Press the current key first and then galvanometer key. Observe the galvanometer
deflection, if any. Now the null point should be obtained with the main and slide wire dial both
indicating zero.
8. If there is any difference on the scale, loosen the brass screw on the knob of the circular
scale with the help of a screw driver. Then turn the white scale slightly to give correct zero and
tighten the brass screw again.
9. Switch off the supply to galvanometer and power supply.

Measurement of unknown resistance of low range :

1. Disconnect the copper strip connected between +C, +P and – P, -C. keeping the other
connections as it is.
2. Connect the given unknown resistor “R” (Its current terminals to +C and –C and potential
terminals to +P and –P of the bridge).
3. Set the range multiplier switch at a suitable range (10 or 1) and selector switch in the forward
position.
4. Switch on the spot reflection galvanometer and regulated power supply.
5. Press the current key first and then the galvanometer key.

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6. Now adjust the main dial and slide wire dial to get null deflection in the galvanometer.
7. Note down the main dial reading and slide wire dial reading and calculate the resistance of the
given resistor (R) using the formula
R = (Main dial reading + slide wire dial reading) * range multiplier used.

8. Next set the selector switch in the reverse position. Repeat the experiment and find the value of
“R” in the zero manner. Find the mean of these values of get the correct value of “R”. This is to
be done be eliminate thermal effect.

PRECAUTIONS :

1. All connections should be done tightly.

2. It should be ensured that the knobs of the regulated power supply are at zero output voltage
position, before it is switched on.
3. Minimum possible current, should be passed through the bridge.
4. Continuous flow of current should be avoided and current key should be pressed only for a short
– while.
5. The spot reflection galvanometer should be locked after use.
6. During null point determination, positions of low sensitivity (1/1000 or 0.0001) should be used
initially. As null point approaches, position “1” should be used for maximum sensitivity.

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TABULAR FORM :

SL. Standard Position of Range Main dial Slide wire Unknown

resistance selector multiplier reading readin resistance
NO.
(mΩ) ”R” (mΩ)
(Ω) (mΩ)

RESULT:

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SCHERING BRIDGE

AIM : To find the value of unknown given capacitance using “SCHERING BRIDGE”

APPARATUS:

S.No APPARATUS Type Range Quantity

1 SCHERING BRIDGE - - 1No

2 HEAD-PHONES - - 1No

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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THEORY:

Schering bridge is widely used for capacitance and dissipation factor measurements. Infact

Schering Bridge is one of the most important of the AC bridges. It is extensively used in the

measurement of capacitance, in general and in particular in the measurement of properties of

insulators, capacitors bushings, insulating oils and other insulating materials. This bridge is

particularly suitable for small capacitors and is then usually supplied from high frequency or a

high voltage source.

LAY OUT OF THE DIADRAM :

R1 = A plug type resistance bar of 10, 100, 200, 500, 1000 , 2000 & 5000 ohms . Constitute one
arm of bridge.

R2 = Four decade dials of 1, 1, 10, 100 & 1000 ohms Constitute the second arm

C3 = A calibrated variable capacitor (of air type) of 0 to 1000 Pf connected to R2 in parallel

C2 = Standard variable capacitances arranged ion four decade over the range of mfd constitute
the third arm of the bridge.

C1 = Experimental capacitance placed in fourth arm of the bridge.

R = Imaginary resistance refresinting dielectric less in C1.

For the Schering bridge network shown

Impedance of arm ab = r1 + ______ = Z1

Jwc1

Impedance of arm bc = r1 + jo = Z2

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Impedance of arm ca = r2 // _______

Jwc3

R2 * 1/jwc3

= _______________

R2 + 1/jwc3

R2

= _______________ = Z3

1 + jwc3R2

Impedance of arm da = 1/jwc2 = Z4

When the bridge is adjusted for balance Z1 Z3 = Z2 Z4

( R1 + 1/jwc1) ( R2 /1+ jwc3 R2 ) = R1 ( 1/jwc2)

r1R2 + 1/ jwc1 * R2 = R1 /jwc2 (1+ jwc3 R2 )

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r1R2 + 1/ jwc1 R2 = R1 /jwc2 + R1 C3 R2 / C2

Equating the real terms

R1 C3 R2

r1R2 = _________

C2

C3

r1 = R1 * ___

C2

Now equating the imaginary parts

(1/jwc1) R2 = (1/jwc2) R1 R2

C1 = C2 * ___

R2/ C1 = R1/ C2 R1

Dissipation factor, = wc1r1

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the terminal marked ac supply with the oscillator and head phones to the terminal
marked detector and unknown capacitor.
2. Connect the supply to ac supply of 1 KHZ terminal.
3. Switch on the supply.
4. Introduce some resistance (say 10Ω) from resistance box in the circuit.
5. Adjust the variable capacitor C2 to settle to a certain value between (400 – 500) pfd and R2
about 10 to 100 Ω.
6. Then adjust C-C2 to minimize the sound in head phones.
7. For achieving this, adjust the lowest dial value first. If the sound in the head phones doesn‟t
decrease, adjust the remaining dials, the sound starts decreasing.
8. Next adjust the resistance in arm, R1 in the same manner described above to minimize the
sound further in the headphones. A shape balance point can be obtained by alternative
adjustment of C3 and R1.
9. Repeat the experiment for different values of Resistance.
10. Note C3,C2 * R1 * R2
11. Take No. of readings.
12. Check the values by LCR Q-meter.

PRECAUTIONS :

 Make the connections tightly.

 Note the readings at minimum sound.
 Take care while handling with the switches.

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TABULAR FORM

𝑹𝟐
Sl.No R1 R2 C2 C3 𝑪𝟏 = 𝑪𝟐 .
𝑹𝟏
(Ω) (Ω) (µF) (PF)
(nf)

PHASOR DIAGRAM:

RESULT :

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ANDERSON’S BRIDGE
AIM: To determine resistance and self-inductance of an inductor using Anderson‟s bridge.

APPARATUS:

S.No. APPARATUS Type Range Quantity

1 Andersons Bridge ------ ------ 1 No.

2 Inductance ------ ------ 1 No.

3 CRO ------ -------- 1 No.

4 Galvanometer Current Zero (30 – 0 – 30) 1 No.

5 High resistances Box ------ 1 No.

6 Patch chords ------ ------ ------

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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THEORY:

The Anderson‟s bridge is the modification of the Maxwell‟s inductance Capacitance Bridge. In
this method, the self-inductance is measured in terms of a standard capacitor. This method is
applicable for precise measurement of self-inductance over a very wide range of values.

PROCEDURE:

To find Internal Resistance:

1. Connect the regulated power supply across the terminals marked

“D.C.Supply” a sensitive galvanometer in series with a high Reisistance across the

terminals marked “detector” given inductor across the terminals marked “L”

and the standard capacitor across the terminals marked “C”

2. Set the output of regulated power supply to zero volts.

3. Switch on the regulated power supply and adjust the output voltage to 2 to 3
Volts.

4. Switch on the regulated supply and adjust the voltage to 2 to 3Volts.

5. Adjust the resistance in the arm to obtain the balance condition.
To find Inductance:

1. Replace the Battery with audio oscillator and galvanometer with a pair of head phones.

2. Without disturbing the DC balance , switch on the audio oscillator and adjust its

frequency to 1KHz.

3. If the capacitor is loss-free , obtain the balance i.e, minimum sound in head phones by

varying “r” only when all other resistances are fixed.

4. If the capacitance is not perfect t, but has dielectric loss, self-inductance will not be affected

but the value of “S” will be affected. And to obtain the second balance first vary “S” slightly to

decrease the sound and “r” may be adjusted alternatively to obtain the balance.

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5. Note down the values of C,r and S for which the balance is achieved and calculated the value

of self inductance by formula.

L=((C*R)/P)*((r(P+Q)+PQ))

6. Repeat the experiment for different values of “C”.

TABULAR FORM:

P=Q R S R C Unknown
S.No. inductance
(Ω) (Ω) (Ω) (Ω) (µF) “L”(mH)

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. The value of “C” must be small to allow sufficient variation of “r”, for good Result
0.01,0.02,………….0.007µ F capacitor are generally used.
2. In all calculations, the value of “S” the resistance of the given inductor.
3. Due to the presence of harmonics in the source, perfect balance cannot be achieved hence
minimum sound heard is be taken as balance point.
4. Balance should be obtained by varying “s” and “r” alternatively.
5. Should be performed at a silence place.

ADVANTAGES:

1. In case are carried out by manipulating control over r1 & r2 they become independent of each

other. This is a marked superiority over sliding balance conditions met with low Q coils when

measuring with Maxwell‟s bridge.

2. A fixed capacitor can be used instead of a variable capacitor as in the case of Maxwell‟s

bridge.

3. This bridge may be used for accurate determination of capacitance in terms of inductance.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. The Anderson‟s bridge is more complex than it‟s prototype Maxwell‟s bridge.

The balance equations are not simple & in fact are much more tedious.

2. An additional junction point increases the difficulty of shielding the bridge.

Considering the above complications of the Anderson‟s bridge, in all the cases where a

variable capacitor is permissible the simpler Maxwell‟s bridge is used instead of Anderson‟s

bridge.

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PHASOR DIAGRAM:

RESULT:

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Measurement of 3 Ø reactive power by single Wattmeter Method

AIM: - To measure 3 Ø reactive power by using one wattmeter method and two waters method

APPARATUS:-

S.No. Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1 Voltmeter (0-600)V MI 1

2 Ammeter (0-10)A MI 1

3 Wattmeter UPF (600V/ 10A) Dynamometer 1

3 phase Auto
4 (415V/0-470V) 15A --- 1
transformer

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:-

Circuit to measure 3 Ø reactive power using single wattmeter

PHASOR DIAGRAM of single wattmeter method:

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Circuit to measure 3 Ø reactive power using two Wattmeters

THEORY:-

Reactive power is caused entirely by energy storage components inductors & capacitors.
Although it does not contribute to transfer of energy it also the equipment as if it did consume
active power Capacitors are positive storage of energy. Inductors are negative storage of energy
For sinusoidal circuit relative power =VIsinΦ. For non sinusoidal circuit reactive power q =
En

In a phase a.c circuit, reactive power is given as √3 E LIL sin Φ where is the phase angle (angle
between phase voltage and phase current). With a single wattmeter, it is possible to measure
three phase reactive, provided the connections to its current coil and potential.Coil is made as
shown in figure. The current coil is connected in series with one of the lines and the voltage coil
is thrown across the other two lines the phasor diagram is as shown.

ERN=phase voltage ERY ,EYB and EBR are lines voltage RYB phase sequence is assumed.

ERN lags behind ERY by 30, and current lr lags behind ERN by angle

It is evident the at the power measured by the wattmeter

=EYB .IR. cos (90- Φ) =EYB.lR.sin Φ if the lode is star-connected, we have:

EYB=EL, line voltage and lr=line (or phase) current

Wattmeter reading =ELIL sin c where IL=line current

We have 3-phase reactive power = √3 ELIL sin Φ

PROCEDURE

1. Connections are made as per the CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

2. 3-Φ supply is given and variac is adjusted till the voltmeter show rated voltage
3. Gradually load is applied and corresponding voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter reading are
noted down
4.The wattmeter reading multiplied by √3 gives reactive power in one wattmeter method

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OBSERVATIONS:-

Single Wattmeter method

CURRENT W
S.NO VOLTAGE √3 VL IL sin 𝜽
(I) (WATT)
(V)

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. Loose connections are to be avoided.

2. Reading is to be noted without parallax error

RESULT:-

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CALIBRATION OF LOW POWERFACTORWATTMETER BY PHANTOM LOADING

AIM:

To calibrate the given single phase Dynamometer type UPF wattmeter by Phantom loading
method.

APPARATUS:

S.No. APPARATUS Range Type Quantity

1 Voltmeter (0-300)V MI 1

2 Ammeter (0-5)A MI 1

3 Rheostat 20 ohms/ 10A TWW 1

4 Wattmeter LPF (300V/5A) Dynamometer 1

Faulty wattmeter
5 300V/5A) Dynamometer 1
LPF

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

Wattmeter reads the power in the circuit. UPF refers to unity power factor. And basically, a
wattmeter consists of two coils i.e., a voltage coil or pressure coil and a current coil.

The applied voltage is impressed across the pressure coil and the current coil carries the load
current.

The voltage coil consists of more number of turns, in comparison with current coil, so that the
resistance is increased to limit the current to lower values. And the current coil has relatively less
number of turns. The fluxes set up by the voltage and current coils interact with each other to get
a RESULTant torque on the needle which is calibrated over a scale. Because of large time
constant of the system, it cannot follow the rapid variation of the torque having the double of that
of voltage and the instrument takes up a position at which the average deflecting torque is
balanced by the controlling torque.

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.

2. By varying the Variac, the voltage across the pressure coil is maintained 230V.
3. The current through the current coil is varied by charging the
rheostat position.

4. By changing the current, the values of voltmeter, ammeter, and standard and
faulty wattmeter readings are taken.

5. The above values are tabulated.

6. The percentage error and the percentage corrections are calculated.
7. A graph is plotted between the current and percentage error and the current
and percentage correction.

TABULAR FORM:

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MODEL GRAPH:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections are made tight enough, so that loose connections are

avoided.

2. The readings are taken without parallax errors.

RESULT:

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DIELECTRIC STRENGTH OF TRANSFORMER OIL BY KIT

AIM: To find the Dielectric strength of given sample of Oil by using HT oil testing kit.

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of equipment

1 Portable oil testing kit

2 Oil sample

3 Standard Gaps adjusting bars (in mm‟s)

BLOCK DIAGRAM

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THEORY:-

High voltage distribution and power transformers are mostly filled with oil. The functions of the
oil are to provide additional cooling to the core and the earth. Similarly insulating oil is used in
low and medium voltage switch gears. Since it is mostly used in transformer it is commonly
known as transformer oil. The transformer oil is obtained by refining suitably selected natural
petroleum crude. The synthetic transformer oil is also available in the market but the use of
mineral oil is preferred due to its property of self-restore after dielectric discharge or puncture.
The transformer oil must comply with the bureau of Indian standard specification ISS 555 -1988
in respect of its tendency towards slugging acidity flash point dielectric strength Description of
all the tests performed to ascertain suitability if the oil is beyond the scope of this experiment and
only dielectric strength verification will be dealt with.

The electric strength of transformer oil as per IS 335 1988 should be given below:

a) New unfiltered oil 30 kV (rms)

b) After filtration 60 kV (rms)

The electric strength of the oil is tested by finding the breakdown voltage at which there is
visible arching through the oil across two electrodes. in order to standardize the Results, the test
has to be carried out in a standard vessel as described in IS 6792.since high voltage ac is to be
applied across two electrodes dipped in the test oil safety PRECAUTIONS are to be taken for
safety of the operation personnel. Different manufactures are producing portable oil testing set
for this purpose. these oil testing sets consisting of three main parts i.e. oil testing cell H.T
transformer and control circuit .The necessary operation instructions as laid down by the
manufactures of the set in their manual must be understood before starting the test and followed
during the test. General constructional features of such set are described below.

The input voltage of such oil testing set is 230 volts, 50hz ac supply which is stepped
up through a HT transformer while carrying out the test voltage is increased in steps by a
variable auto transformer which controls the primary voltage.

of the HT transformer .secondary side of the HT transformer is connected to the electrodes

arranged in the oil test cell. The voltage is increased till the spark between the electrodes occurs.

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The display of flash voltage is held up in the volt meter and is brought to zero after reading it .
the voltmeter is calibrated to read kV of the break down voltage.

The voltage can be increased either manually by turning a knob or automatically by

built in motor which starts rotating the knob gradually as the test switch is turned on. Salient
controls of a typical portable oil test get shown in fig 1.

The test cell dimensions are also standardized in IS 6792and are given in fig2. The cell
is made of glass or rigid oil resistance plastic and should be transplanted . it should he
transparent. It should have an effective volume between 300ml and 500ml.it should be covered.

IS 679. The copper brass or stainless steel polished electrodes are in common use.
There surface is made up of spherical shape and dimensions are given in fig2. the electrodes are
mounted on a horizontal as is 2.5mm apart .the gap between the electrodes is set to an accuracy
of 0.01mm by means of thick ness gauge the electrodes is immersed to the depth of
approximately 10mm .electrodes should be replaced as soon as pitting caused by the discharge is
observed.

The Indian standards specifications that the sample vessel containing the test oil shall
be gently agitated and turned over several times in such a way as to ensure as thin as possibly a
homogeneous distribution of the impurities contained in the oil with out causing the formation of
air bubbles. Immediately after this the sample should be poured down into the test cell slowly in
order to avoid formation of air bubbles.

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PROCEDURE:-

1) Read the instructions manual supplied by the manufacture of the set keep the set ready as pre
instructions given in the manual.
2) Clean the test cell by rinsing with the test oil least twice before the final filling.
3) Fill the cell by sample oil up to the mark and place the cell in the proper place in the test set.
close the lid and switch on the ac supply.
4) Check whether the voltmeter is reading zero at this stage.
5) Press the HT on push button and turn the knob for increasing the HT voltage across the
electrodes keep the rate of increase of the voltage uniform and equal to approximately 2kv per
second starting from zero up to the value producing breaking down step moving the knob any
more as soon as break down. stop the moving the knob any more as soon as breakdown occurs.
6) Record the voltmeter reading and reset the konb and the voltmeter for the next observation.
7) Repeat the same test six times on the same cell filling. After each breakdown the oil is gently
stirred so as to keep away the carbon practically formed between the electrodes .avoiding the
production of air bubbles. Approximately a gap of 5min as recommended before two consecutive
break downs .
8) Calculate arithmetic mean of the six RESULTs which is the reflective strength of the given
sample.

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OBSERVATION:-

SL.No Break down voltage Dielectric strength in

(KV) (KV/mm)

RESULT:-

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LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (L.V.D.T.)

AIM : To measure the electric voltage corresponding to the Mechanical displacement of core.

APPARATUS:

1. Digital IT LVDT model.

2. LVDT with calibrated scale arrangement.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Internal CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:-

One of the most useful variable inductance transducer is the differential transformer, which
provides an a.c. voltage output proportional to the displacement of core passing through the
windings. It is a mutual inductance device making use of three coils arranged generally on a
single cylindrical concentric nonmagnetic form. The centre coil is energized from an external
power source and the two end coils connected in series opposition to each other, are used as pick
up coils, output amplitude and phase depend on the relative coupling between the two pick up
coils and the primary coil. Relative coupling in them is dependent on the position of the core.
Theoretically there should be core position for which, the voltage induced in each of the pick up
coil or secondary will be of the same magnitude and Resulting output should be zero, because of
series opposition connection.

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the terminals marked “PRIMARY” on the front panel of the instrument to the
terminals marked “PRIMARY” on the transducer itself, with the help of the flexible wires
provided along with. Observe the Colour code for the wires provided and the Colour of the
binding posts.

2. Identically establish connections from terminals marked “SECONDARY”. Observe the

Colour code for the wires provided and the Colour of the binding posts.

3. Keep pot marked “MAX” in most anticlockwise position.

4. The magnetic core may be displaced and the pointer may be brought to zero position. If the
DPM is not indicating zero, use potentiometer marked “MIN” to get a zero on DPM at zero
mechanical position. If the core is displaced in both directions, the meter must show indications
with appropriate polarity. Now displace the core to 19 mm positions in one of the directions.
Adjust the “MAX” pot to get an indication of 19.00 on the DPM under these conditions. Now the
set up is ready for experimentation. You may again check for zero position also.

5. Now the core can be displaced by a known amount in the range of +19 and -19 mm and the
meter readings can be entered in the table given below. It may noted that by inter changing the
secondary terminals or the primary, the polarity of the meter indication can be reversed for a
given direction of input displacement.

6.For LVDT provided with dial gage (range 0 to 10 mm or 0 to 25 mm or 0 to 20 mm), adjust the
magnetic core carefully by rotating the control knob in the clockwise direction. Note that for
these type (Dial gage type) arrangement, displacement in only one direction i.e. positive
direction is possible. OPERATAE THE CONTROL KNOB VERY CAREFULLY.

1. Plot the graph of input displacement and the output indication on the X and Y axis respectively.

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TABULAR FORM:

Sl.No. Input displacement Output indication % Error

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MODEL GRAPH:

Maximum displacement 10 mm/20 mm/25 mm as per the model.

Observation of waveforms:

1. When C.R.O. is connected between terminal and ground, one can observe the waveform of
amplified secondary of pick up coil voltage (TP-1). Between terminal 2 and ground observe the
waveform of phase sensitive detector (half sinusoidal TP-2).

2. Between terminal 3 and ground observe the square waveform of reference signal used for
phase sensitive detection (TP-3).

3. Across the primary terminals, waveform for excitation voltage can be observed.

Important points to be noted:

a) Study the linearity of input and output displacements.

b) Note the effects of interchanging the secondary connections on the meter output

polarity.

c) Note that when the core is mechanically at zero position, a small electrical output is

obtained due to imperfections of the transducer.

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. While connecting lead wire from panel to transducer, make proper connections following
colour code. Avoid shorting of the excitation source terminals.

2. Move the core with a gentle fashion by operating the knob for core movement very

carefully. Do not try to effect the core movement beyond 10 mm/ 20 mm / 25 mm as

per the given range.

RESULT:

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RESISTANCE WIRE STRAIN GAUGE

AIM : To determine the weight of weights by using strain-gauge and to observe the error

between actual weight and strain gauge meter reading.

APPARATUS:

1. Strain gauge
2. Weights of different types.

THEORY:

Resistance wire strain gages are transducers applied to the surface of structural; members under
test in order to sense the elongation or strain due to applied loads.

The wire strain gages depend upon the fact that when the wire is stretched elastically, its length
and diameter are altered. This Results in overall change of resistance due to both the dimensional
change and reactivity change.

R= RHO X A/L where RHO is the resistively of material.

In addition to single bonded wire strain gages we can have metal foil gages, rosette gangs and
semiconductor strain gages. Normally strain gages with nominal values of 120 ohms, 240 ohms
and 350ohms are available.

Strain gauge transducers find applications in measurement of such variables as load, force,
thrust, pressure, torque, displacement and flow etc.

The main problem with the resistance wire string age is the extremely small change in resistance
as a RESULT of change in the applied load.

This makes the circuit operation and strain gage installation very critical.

Moreover temperature effects are also required to be taken care of.

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Circuit operation:

On a mild steel bar two single element bakelite based strain gages with nominal value of R = 350
ohms are mounted with the help of adhesive cement, on the upper surface and two are mounted
on the lower surface.

When all four gages are used in the bridge we have a four arm system.

If only two gages (1 from upper surface and one from lower surface) are used, we have a two
arm system with two resistances of 350 ohms forming other two arms.

The bridge is excited with the help of fixed 5.00 volts supply using regulator I.C. 7805. a 10 kilo
ohm helical pot (P2) and 100 kilo ohms carbon pot (P1) form the coarse and fine balancing
controls respectively.

The output of the bridge which is in the range of few hundreds of microvolts is amplified with
the help of an instrumentation amplifier whose gain is adjusted by means of AMPLIFIER
amplifier is exactly 100. The DPM used is 1.999 volt or1999mv DPM. Hence when the gain
adjust pot is in maximum clockwise position, the DPM reading exhibits directly the microvolt
neglecting the decimal point.

The instrumentation amplifier is having low drift, high stable gain and high CMRR. The output
is taken from the filter GAIN ADJUST POT 910 K ohm Pot P3) in maximum clockwise
position, the gain of the to avoid any unwanted noise disturbance etc.

Use of strain gage as load cell:

1. Apply a weight of 1kg on the cantilever and adjust the gain pot so that reading of 1.00 is
obtained on the DPM. Now remove the weight and check for bridge balance. After one or two
such adjustments you will be able get a reading of 1.00 pm the DPM. Here we may note that the
least count of this arrangement becomes equal to 0.01 kg or10gm.
2. You can add weights up to 5kg and enter Results in the following table.
3. Plot graph of applied load versus the indicated meter reading.

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4. For 2 arm operation, keep switch SW2 in upward position and remove connection from
terminal No.4. In this case only two strain gages SG1 and SG2 contribute to the output
while two internal resistances of 350 ohms each form two remaining arms of the bridge.
The sensitivity of the two arm operation is 50% of that of four arm bridge.

OBSERVATION:

We can see from the graph that the stain gage response is almost linear with respect to the
amount of applied load.

We have Exc * ∆R

Eout = ---------------- (for 2 arm bridge)

2R

∆R

----------- = Gage factor * strain

= 2.00* strain where Gage factor = 2.00

Stress

Strain = ------- (Modulus of elasticity = 2* 106 kg / cm2 )

2*106

Stress = f = ----- Where Z = moment of cross section = 1/6 bt 2

Z B = width and t = thickness of cantilever beam

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4 ARM CONFIGURATION :

Make all the four connections as shown in the figure with switch SW2 in four arm position.
Make firm connections, sensitivity of 4 arm bridge is seen to be double in comparison with two
arm position.

Suppose for getting 1.00 indication of DPM for 1 kilogram applied load, the system gain is 140
(1.4 * 100). If you do not disturb the gain pot and use two arm configuration for the system, them
you would note that for 1 kilogram applied load, the DPM indicates 0.50 (i.e. half kg ). This
means for two arm configuration, the output is only 50% of that for 4 arm configuration for the
same amplifier gain.

For two arm system we have

Exc * ∆R

Eout = ---------- ------------- (1)

2R

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And for 4 arm system we have

Exc * ∆R

Eout = ---------- -------------(2)

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS FOR 4ARMCONFIGURATION.

Exc * ∆R

Eout = ----------

Where Exc = 5 volts ………………..(A)

And ∆R = change in strain gage resistance with nominal value of R ohms (normally R =
350ohms)

By definition ∆R / R = Strain * gage factor (GF)……………………….(1)

And strain = Stress / E where E = 2* 106 kg/cm2 for mild steel.

If gage factor GF = 2.0(typical Value)

Then ∆R / R = strain * 2.0

For cantilever with length = L = 16.4, b = 2.469cm and t = 0.563cm

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Where stress = f = M/Z where Z = 1/6 bt 2

And M = W * L (bending Moment) = Modulus of elasticity.

If W = 1kg, we have,

1 *16.4

F= -------------------------------------

1/6 * 2.469 * 0.563 * 0.563

=125.73kg/cm2

Therefore,

Stress f 125.73

Strain = ------------ = -------- = ----------------------

E E 2 * 106 kg/cm2

= 62.87 microstrains

Now ∆R / R = Strain + gage factor (GF)

(62.87 * 2)

= ------------- = 125.7 *10-6

106

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From the equation A and 2 with 5 volts excitation

Eout = 628.68 microvolt = 0.6287 mv ………(3)

This is theoretical value. Now for experimental value, if gain of the amplifier is 160 as set by
gain control pot and DPM reading for 1 kg load with 4 arm operation is 100 mill volt, then
experimental value of output = 100 mill volt / 160.

= 0.625mv ………………………..(4)

We observe Results (3 and 4) are in good agreement. These calculations are shown for a
particular cantilever beam and hence if dimensions of the beam are different, the numerical
Results will change but methods remains the same.

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PROCEDURE:

1. Ensure that the instrument is switched off.

2. Connect the flexible wires provided with the strain gage cantilever beam between terminals
1-1,2-2and 3-3 and4-4. You may observe. The colour code provided for the flexible wires
and the colour of the Binding posts. If terminals 1 and 3 are interchanged or 2 and 4 are
Interchanged, only the output polarity will be changed.
3. Amp. Gain pot may be kept in the position of 100 (note that 1.00 x 100 gives a gain of 100).
4. Keep the switch SM2 in the downward position (I.e. four arm Operation).
5. Turn on the mains supply. By gently moving the balance pot P1 and P2, obtain initial balance
on the meter and wait for 5 minutes to allow the strain gage temp. to stabilize.
6. Now apply a gentle pressure by hand on the end of cantilever beam, the DPM should indicate
some change in readings. This indicates that strain gage set up is ready for experimentation.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the dimensions must be consistent. One may calculate stress and then strain and then E out
to verify with the experimental value. Excitation voltage of the bridge can be measured
across the terminals 1 and 3 of the bridge.
2. Make the connections to the binding posts and terminals very carefully.
3. Provide a warm up time of about 10 to 15 minutes before taking readings.
4. Ensure that the cantilever arrangement is securely fixed to the table.
5. Operate the gain control knob very carefully.

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TABLE FOR 4 ARM OPERATION:

Sl.No Weight on the D.P.M. readings % Error

cantilever

Graph:

RESULT:

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MEASUREMENT OF CHOKE-COIL PARAMETERS BY 3-AMMETER METHOD

AIM: To measure the choke coil parameters in 1- circuit by using 3- ammeter method.

APPARATUS:

S.NO APPARATUS Range Type Quantity

1 Ammeter (0-5) A MI 1

2 Ammeter (0-3) A MI 2

3 Rheostat 296/ 1.8A TWW 1

4 Inductive Load(choke) **** **** 1

5 Dimmerstat 230V/(0-270) V **** 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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THEORY:

Parameters of Choke coil are found in different ways which include

 Ammeter Voltmeter method ( involving both AC & DC)

 By using bridge circuits.
 Ammeter Voltmeter method ( involving both AC & DC)
 By using bridge circuits.
Apart from above mentioned methods parameters may be found out by some other alternative
methods also, and one such method is the experiment which is being dealt in this experiment.

From the PHASOR DIAGRAM

I02 = I12 I22  2 I1 I2 cos

I02 = I12 I22  2 (V/R) I2 cos

(since I1=V/R)

But, P=VI2cos

P VI2cos = (I02 - I12 I22) R /2

cos = [ (I02 - I12 I22) R /2 VI2 ]

cos = [ (I02 - I12 I22) /2 I1I2 ]

So R = Z cos  ; XL = Z sin 

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PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.

2. Vary the voltage applied to the circuit with the help of 1- Variac.

3. Note the corresponding ammeter reading for each step of voltage.

4. Calculate the choke coil parameters using known formulae.

5. Verify the parametric values by connecting to L-C-R Q-Meter.

TABULAR FORM

Sl. I2 I3
I1 (AMPS) Z ohms cos R ohms L Henries
No (AMPS) (AMPS) V= I2 R

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Current flowing through the circuit should not exceed the rated value of experiment.

2. Connections should be tight enough.

RESULT:

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MEASUREMENT OF CHOKE COIL PARAMETERS BY 3-VOLTMETER METHOD

AIM: To measure the choke coil parameters in 1- circuit by using 3-voltmeter method

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS Range Type Quantity

1 Voltmeters (0-300) V MI 1

2 Ammeter (0-150) V MI 2

3 Rheostat 296 Ω/ 1.8A TWW 1

Inductive Load Heavy

4 220V 1
( choke ) duty

5 1-sAuto-transformer 230V/(0-270) V ------ 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

220V,50Hz,

AC Supply

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THEORY:

. Parameters of Choke coil are found in different ways which include

 Ammeter Voltmeter method ( involving both AC & DC)

 By using bridge circuits.
 Ammeter Voltmeter method ( involving both AC & DC)
 By using bridge circuits.

Apart from above mentioned methods parameters may be found out by some other alternative
methods also, and one such method is the experiment which is being dealt in this experiment.

From the PHASOR DIAGRAM

V0 = V1 + V2

V02 = V12  V22 + 2V1V2 cos

cos = (V02-V12-V22)  (2V1V2)

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P=V2I2cos

This is power consumed in a coil

So R = Z cos  ; XL = Z sin 

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.

2. Adjust the voltage applied to the circuit slowly using the 1- variac.

3. Note the corresponding voltmeter reading for an increment of each step of voltage.

4. Calculate the choke coil parameters using known formulae.

5. Verify the parametric values by connecting to L-C-R Q-Meter.

TABULAR FORM:

S.No V1 (Volts) V2 (Volts) V3 (Volts) I= V2 / Z Z ohms R ohms L Henries

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. The current flowing through the circuit should not exceed the rated value of experiment.

2. Connections should be tight enough.

RESULT:

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Lab Manual For III-II B.Tech EEE Students

Name of the Lab:

Power Electronics Lab

Prepared By:
CH.SUJATHA, Associate Professor.
K.BHAVYA, Assistant Professor.
K.SUMALA, Assistant Professor.

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GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE :: GUDLAVALLERU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

POWER ELECTRONICS LAB

LIST OF EXPERMENTS LIST

1. CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR, MOSFET, IGBT

2. GATE FIRING CIRCUITS
3. PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER
4. SINGLE PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE RECTIFIER
5. DC JONES CHOPPER
6. SINGLE PHASE CYCLO CONVERTER
7. SINGLE PHASE PARALLEL INVERTER
8. SINGLE PHASE HALF CONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTER
9. SINGLE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLED USING R & RL LOADS
10. SINGLE PHASE INVERTER WITH PWM CONTROL
11. POWER MOSFET CHOPPER
12. SIMULATION OF SINGLE PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED CONVERTER WITH R
AND RL LOAD USING MATLAB
13. AUXILIARY COMMUTATION OF SCR
14. DUAL CONVERTER
15. SIMULATION OF Three phase fully controlled bridge CONVERTER USING
MATLAB
16. SINGLE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER USING MATLAB

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CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR, MOSFET, IGBT

AIM: To study the characteristics of SCR, Power MOSFET, Power IGBT

APPARATUS:

1. characteristics kit
2. Patch Chords etc
3. CRO

THEORY:

SCR

When SCR anode is connected to positive through an external resistance, Junction J1 (P1 N1)
and junction J3 (P2 N2) are forward biased. But junction J2 is reverse biased. Hence the total
voltage applied to the device appears across reverse biased junction J2. The block over capability
of this junction is the maximum forward blocking voltage with gate open. When a small gate
current is applied between gate and cathode (i.e.juction J3 (P2 N2), the junction tries to conduct
resulting in reducing the depletion layer on P2 side. Hence the forward break over voltage
decreases. If the gate current is increased, the forward break over voltage further decreases.
When SCR is fired gate loses its control, the current in the circuit is maintained by the external
load resistance. The anode current must be more than a value known as latching current I L, in
order to maintain the required amount of carrier flow across the junction. Otherwise the device
will revert to the blocking condition as the anode-to-cathode voltage is reduced. The minimum
current which keeps the SCR in ON state immediately after a Thyristor has been turned on and
gate signal has been removed is called latching current.

When a Thyristor conducts, it behaves like a conducting diode and there is no control over the
device. The device will continue to conduct because there is no depletion layer on the junction J2
due to movement of carriers. However, if the forward anode current is reduced below a level
known as the holding current IH, a depletion region will develop around junction J2 due to
reduced number of carriers and the Thyristor will be in the blocking state. The holding current is
in the order of milliamps and is less than the latching current I L. Holding current IH is the

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minimum anode current to maintain the Thyristor in the on-state. The holding current is less than
the latching current.

When the cathode voltage is positive with respect to the anode, the junction J2 is forward biased,
but junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased. This is like two series-connected diodes with reverse
voltage across them. The Thyristor will be in the reverse blocking state and the reverse current is
of the order of few micro amps due to minority carriers. However Thyristor can be made on in
reverse direction by applying large reverse voltage of the order of few hundred volts

MOSFET

A power MOSFET has three terminals called drain, source and gate. MOSFET is a voltage
controlled device. As its operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only, MOSFET is
unipolar device. The control signal, or gate current is lesser than a BJT. This is because of the
fact that gate circuit impedance in MOSFET is extremely high, of the order of 10 9 ohm. This
large impedance permits the MOSFET gate to be driven directly from microelectronic circuits.
Power MOSFET‟s are now finding increasing applications in low-power high frequency
converters.

Power MOSFET‟s are of two types: n-channel enhancement MOSFET and

p-channel enhancement MOSFET. Out of these two types, n-channel

enhancement MOSFET is more common because of higher mobility of electrons. As such, only
this type of MOSFET is studied.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

Power MOSFET output characteristics shown in fig. indicate the variation of drain current I D as
a function of drain-source voltage VGS as a parameter. For low values of VDS the graph between
IE-VDS is almost linear; this indicates a constant value of on-resistance RDS=VDS/IK. For given
VGS, if VDS is increased, output characteristic is relatively flat indicating that drain current is
nearly constant.

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TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

This characteristics shows the variation of drain current I D as a function of gate-source voltage
VGS. Fig. shows typical transfer characteristics for n-channel power MOSFET. It is seen that
there is threshold voltage VGST below

IGBT:

IGBT is a new development in the area of power MOSFET technology. This device combines
the advantages of both MOSFET and BJT. So an IGBT has high input impedance like a
MOSFET and low-on-state power loss as in BJT. Further, IGBT is free from second breakdown
problem present in BJT. IGBT is also known as metal-oxide insulated gate transistor (MOSIGT),
conductively-modulated field effect transistor (COMFET) or gain modulated FET (GEMFET). It
was initially called insulated gate transistor (IGT).

Static V-I or output characteristics of an IGBT (n-channel type) shows the plot of collector
current IC verses collector-emitter voltage VCE for various values of gate-emitter voltages. These
characteristics are show in fig. In the forward direction, the shape of the output characteristic is
similar to that of BJT. But here the controlling parameter is gate-emitter voltage VGE because
IGBT is a voltage controlled device.

The transfer characteristic of an IGBT is a plot collector current IC verses gate-emitter voltage
VGE as shown in fig. This characteristic is identical to that of power MOSFET. When V GE is less
than the threshold voltage VGET,

IGBT is in the off state. When the device is off, junction J2 blocks forward voltage and in case
reverse voltage appear across collector and emitter, junction J1 blocks it.

IGBTs are widely used in medium power applications such as dc and ac motor drives, UPS
systems and power supplies. Though IGBTs are some3 what more expensive than BJTs, yet they
are becoming popular because of lower gate-drive requirements, lower switching losses and
smaller snubber circuit requirements. IGBT converters are more efficient with less size as wall as
cost, as compared to converters based on BJTs. Recently, IGBT inverter induction-motor drives
using 15-20 KHz switching frequency are finding favour where audio-noise is objectionable. In
most applications, IGBTs will eventually push out BJTs.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig (1) SCR CHARACTERISTICS:

Fig (2) MOSFET CHARACTERISTICS

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Fig (3) IGBT CHARACTERISTICS:

PROCEDURE:

SCR:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram

2. Switch on the module and apply a certain voltage say20V between anode and cathode to
bring it to forward blocking state.
3. By adjusting 𝑉𝐺𝐺 apply gate current so that the SCR gets turned on.
4. Observe the values of 𝑉𝐴𝐾 and I𝐼𝑔 .
5. Keeping gate current constant vary 𝑉𝐴𝐾 and observe increase in 𝐼𝑎 .
6. Repeat same procedure and tabulate 𝑉𝐴𝐾 and Ia for different values of 𝐼𝑔
7. Plot a graph between 𝑉𝐴𝐾 and 𝐼𝑎 for different values of 𝐼𝑔

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To measure Latching Current and Holding Current

1. Apply a certain voltage say 20V between anode and cathode.

2. Keep 2.5kΩ Pot at minimum resistance position. The SCR should be in OFF state with gate
open.
3. Gradually increase gate supply voltage and observe minimum value of gate current.
4. Now adjust the gate voltage slightly higher than the set value and keep it constant.
5. Set 2.5kΩ Pot at maximum resistance position, vary it and observe a gradual increase in 𝐼𝑎
in steps
6. Open and close the gate switch for each step, If 𝐼𝑎 > 𝐼𝐿 the SCR is on even when gate
switch is open.
7. Observe the value of latching current.
8. Increase the value of 𝐼𝑎 more than 𝐼𝐿 and open the gate switch permanently.
9. Reduce the anode current and observe the value of holding current.
POWER MOSFET:

Output characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram

2. Switch on the Module and keep say 𝑉𝐷𝑆 10V, vary 𝑉𝐺𝑆 and observe the range of 𝑉𝐺𝑆 for
which drain current is varying for constant 𝑉𝐷𝑆
3. Set 𝑉𝐺𝑆 constant (𝑉𝐺𝑆 must be with in the range determined by 2),Vary 𝑉𝐷𝑆 in steps and
observe the corresponding 𝐼𝐷
4. Step (3) is repeated for different 𝑉𝐺𝑆 Tabulate the readings of 𝑉𝐷𝑆 & 𝐼𝐷
5. Plot a graph of 𝐼𝐷 against 𝑉𝐺𝑆 for different values of 𝑉𝐺𝑆
Transfer Characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram

2. Switch on the module & Keep 𝑉𝐺𝑆 constant say 10V, vary 𝑉𝑔𝑆 in steps, observe the
corresponding 𝐼𝐷 .
3. Tabulate the readings of 𝑉𝑔𝑆 & 𝐼𝐷 .
4. Plot a graph of 𝐼𝐷 against 𝑉𝐺𝑆 .

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POWER IGBT:

Output characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram

2. Switch on the Module and keep say 𝑉𝐶𝐸 10V, vary 𝑉𝐺𝐸 and observe the range of 𝑉𝐺𝐸 for
which collector current is varying for constant 𝑉𝐺𝐸
3. Set 𝑉𝐺𝐸 constant (𝑉𝐺𝐸 must be with in the range determined by 2),Vary 𝑉𝐺𝐸 in steps and
observe the corresponding 𝐼𝐷
4. Step (3) is repeated for different 𝑉𝐺𝐸 Tabulate the readings of VCE & 𝐼𝐷
5. Plot a graph of 𝐼𝐷 against 𝑉𝐶𝐸 for different 𝑉𝐺𝐸
Transfer characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram

2. Switch on the module & Keep 𝑉𝐶𝐸 constant, vary 𝑉𝐺𝐸 in steps and observe 𝐼𝐶 .
3. Tabulate the readings of 𝑉𝐺𝐸 & 𝐼𝐶
4. Plot a graph of 𝐼𝐶 against 𝑉𝐺𝐸 for the constant 𝑉𝐶𝐸
OBSERVATIONS:

V-I characteristics of SCR:

𝐼𝐺1 in = mA 𝐼𝐺2 in = mA

SL.NO. 𝑉𝐴𝐾 (V) 𝐼𝐴 (mA) 𝑉𝐴𝐾 (V) 𝐼𝐴 (mA)

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Transfer characteristics of power MOSFET:

𝑉𝐷𝑆 = V

SL.NO. 𝑉𝐺𝑆 (V) 𝐼𝐷 (mA)

Transfer characteristics of power IGBT:

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = V

SL.NO. 𝑉𝐺𝐸 (V) 𝐼𝐶 (mA)

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MODEL GRAPHS:

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OBSERVATIONS:

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GATE FIRING CIRCUITS

AIM: To study the different triggering circuits for thyristors

Resistor triggering circuits

Resistor-capacitor(R-C) triggering circuits

Uni-junction Transistor (UJT) triggering circuits

APPARATUS:

1. SCR
2. R-Triggering unit
3. R-C Triggering unit
4. UJT triggering circuits
5. CRO
6. Patch cards
7. Multimeter (or) Voltmeter etc.

THEORY:

RESISTANCE (R) TRIGGERING CIRCUIT

The resistance triggering circuit is a simple method for varying the trigger angle and therefore,
the power in the load. Instead of using a gate pulse to trigger the SCR, the gate current is
supplied by an ac source of voltage 𝑽𝒔 through Rmin, Rv and the series diode D. The circuit
diagram is shown in the figure (1)

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The circuit operates as follows:

i) As 𝑽𝒔 goes positive, the SCR becomes forward biased from anode to cathode however; it
will not conduct until its gate current exceeds 𝑰𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏 .
ii) The positive 𝑽𝒔 also forward biases the diode and the SCRs gate cathode junction; this
causes flow of a gate current 𝑰𝒈 .
iii) The gate current will increase as 𝑽𝒔 increase towards its peak value. When 𝑰𝒈 reaches a
value equal to 𝑰𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏 the SCR turns „on‟ and eL will approximately equals 𝑽𝒔 .
iv) The SCR remains on and 𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽𝒔 until decreases to point where the load current is below
the SCR holding current. This usually occurs very close to the point until 𝑽𝒔 =0 and begins
to go negative.
v) The SCR now turns off and remains off while 𝑽𝒔 goes negative. Since its anode cathode is
reverse biased, and since the SCR is now an open switch, the load voltage is zero during
this period.
vi) The purpose of the diode in the gate circuit is to prevent the gate cathode reverse bias from
exceeding peak reverse gate voltage during the negative half – cycle of 𝑽𝒔 . The diode is
chosen to have peak reverse voltage rating greater than the input voltage 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
vii) The same sequence is repeated when 𝑽𝒔 again goes positive.
The load voltage can be controlled by varying 𝑹𝒗 which varies the resistance in the gate circuit.
If 𝑹𝒗 is increased, the gate current will reach its trigger value 𝑰𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏 of a greater value of
making the SCR to trigger at a latter point in the 𝑽𝒔 positive half cycle. Thus trigger angle „∝‟
will increase. The opposite will occur if 𝑹𝒗 is decreased.

Of course, if 𝑹𝒗 is made large enough the SCR gate current will never reach 𝑹𝒗 and the SCR
will remain „OFF‟. The minimum trigger angle is obtained with Rv equal to zero.

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The limiting resistor R (min) is placed between anode and gate so that the peak gate current of
the Thyristor 𝑰𝒈𝒎 is not exceeded.The stabililsing resistor 𝑹𝒉 should have such a value that the
maximum voltage drop across it does not exceed maximum possible gate voltage 𝑽𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒙

When the supply voltage has reached its peak, 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏≥ 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑰𝒈𝒎

From the voltage distribution

𝑹𝒃 ≤ 𝑹𝒗 + 𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 ∙ 𝑽𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒙 /𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 −𝑽𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒙

The Thyristor will trigger when the instantaneous anode voltage, 𝑽𝒔 is

𝑽𝒔 = 𝑰𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑹𝒗 + 𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 + 𝑽𝒅+ 𝒎𝒂𝒙

Where 𝑰𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏 = Minimum gate current to trigger the Thyristor

𝑽𝒅 = Voltage drop across the diode.

𝑽𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏 = gate – voltage to trigger, corresponding to 𝑰𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏

The resistance triggering circuit is the simplest and most economical circuit. It only suffers from
limited range of firing angle control (0-90 deg). Great dependence on temperature and
performance between individual SCRs. In this resistance R should have such a value that max
voltage drop across it doesn‟t exceed max possible gate voltage.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig(1) R TRIGGERING CIRCUIT

2. RESISTANCE – CAPACITANCE TRIGGERING CIRCUIT

By the RC network, a large variation is the value of the firing angle can be obtained by changing
the phase and amplitude of the gate current. In the above circuit, by varying the resistor the
0
firing angle can be controlled from 0 to 180 .In the negative half cycle, capacitor C charges
through diode 𝐷2 with lower plate positive to the peak supply voltage 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 .This capacitor
voltage remains constant until supply voltage attains zero value.

Now as the SCR anode voltage passes through zero and becomes positive, capacitor c begins to
charge through from the initial voltage - 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 . When the capacitor charges to positive voltage
equal to gate trigger voltage 𝒗𝒈𝒕 = (𝒗𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏 + 𝒗𝑫𝟏 ),SCR is triggered and after this the capacitor
holds to a small positive voltage as shown in figure . During negative half cycle, the diode D1
prevents the break down of the gate to cathode junction. In the range of power frequencies, the
RC for zero output voltage is given by

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𝑹𝒗 𝒄 ≥ 1.3 T / 2

Where T = 1 / f = period of ac line frequency in seconds.The Thyristor will turn on when the
capacitor voltage 𝑽𝒄 =(𝒗𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏 + 𝒗𝑫𝟏 ) provided the gate current 𝑰𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏 is available. Therefore
the maximum value of 𝑹𝒗 is given by

𝑽𝑺 ≥ 𝑰𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑹𝒗 +𝑽𝑪

𝑰𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑹𝒗 𝒎𝒊𝒏 +𝑽𝑫𝟏

𝑹𝒗 ≤ 𝑽𝒔−𝑽𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏 −𝒗𝑫𝟏/ 𝑰

𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒏

Where vs. is the instantaneous supply voltage at which the Thyristor will turn – on. In this by
varying the value of R firing angle can be controlled from zero to 180 deg. If R is more, time
taken for capacitor to charge from 0 to 𝑽𝒈𝒕 is more, firing angle is more and

average output voltage is low. If R is low firing angle is low and average output voltage is more.

RESISTOR CAPACITOR – FULL WAVE TRIGGERING CIRCUIT:

Here, the ac line voltage is converted to pulsating dc by the full wave diode bridge. This allows
the SCR to be triggered on for both half cycle of the line voltage, which doubles the available
power to the load.

In this circuit, the initial voltage from which capacitor c charges is almost zero. Capacitor c is set
to low positive voltage (upper plate positive) by the clamping action of SCR gate.

When the capacitor charges to a voltage equal to 𝑽𝒈𝒕 ,SCR triggers and rectified voltage 𝑽𝒅𝒄
appears across load as 𝑽𝑳 .

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Fig(2) RC TRIGGERING CIRCUIT

3. THE UJT TRIGGERING CIRCUIT

UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR:

The unijunction transistor (UJT) is commonly used for generating triggering signals for SCRs.
A UJT has three terminals, called the emitter E, base-one B1, and base-two B2. Between B1 and
B2 the unijunction has the characteristics of an ordinary resistance. This resistance is the
interbase resistance 𝑹𝑩𝑩 and has values in the range 4.7 to 9.1 k Ω.

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When a dc voltage is applied between B1 and B2 potential of point „A‟, with respect B1 is given
as VAB1 = VBB XRB1 / RB1 + RB2 which is

= η VBB where η = RB1 / (RB1 +RB2) Vs the parameter η = RB1/

(RB1 +RB2) is called the intrinsic stand – off ratio. The value of η lies between 0.51 and 0.82.
As long as the emitter

voltage VE < η VBB, the E – B1 junction is reverse biased and the UJT is in off state. When the
emitter voltage VE exceeds η VBB + VD the UJT starts conducting and this voltage is known as
the peak point voltage. The voltage VD is the equivalent emitter diode voltage. The charge
carriers injected into the B1 region, increases the conductivity and reduces the resistance RB1 .
The potential of the point „A‟ therefore decreases, increasing the forward bias of the P-N
junction. The emitter current increases with a decrease in emitter voltage. The UJT therefore
exhibits a negative resistance characteristics. At valley point the carriers in the B1 region gets
saturated, and the resistance RB1 does not decrease any more . The increase in emitter current
results in increase in the emitter voltage, beyond the valley point.

When the dc supply voltage 𝑽𝑺 is applied the capacitor C is charged through resistor R since the
emitter circuit of the UJT is in the open state. The time constant of the charging circuit is 𝑻𝟏 =
RC. When the emitter voltage 𝑽𝑬 , which is the same as the capacitor voltage Vc, reaches the
peak point voltage 𝑽𝒑 , the UJT turns on and capacitor C will discharge through R1 at a rate
determined by the time constant 𝑻𝟐 = R1C. T2 is much smaller than 𝑻𝟏 . When the emitter voltage
𝑽𝑬 decays to the valley point 𝑽𝒗 , the emitter ceases to conduct and the UJT turns off, and the

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charging cycle is repeated. Time period of output pulse duration is T, is independent of the dc
supply voltage 𝑽𝑺 , and is given by

T ≈ 1 / f ≈ RC 1n 1 / 1 – r

Where the value of firing angle ∝= 𝝎𝑻

= 𝝎 𝑹𝑪 𝟏𝒏 𝟏/𝟏 −

Where 𝑹 = 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝑻/𝑹𝑪

The output pulses are current pulses due to the discharge current of the capacitor. The current
pulses, will be of sufficient amplitude to trigger the SCR, since the emitter base resistance is
very small, when the UJT starts conducting. These properties of the UJT, make it useful in gate
trigger circuits of SCR.A simple line synchronized trigger circuit employing unijunction
transistor (UJT) is described in the following.

Synchronized UJT triggering (or Ramp triggering):

A synchronized UJT trigger circuit using an UJT is shown in Fig. 3. Diodes D1 – D4 rectify ac to
dc. Resistor 𝑅1 lowers 𝑉𝐷𝐶 to a suitable value for the zener diode and UJT. Zener diode Z
functions to clip the rectified voltage to a standard level 𝑉𝑍 , which remains constant except near
the 𝑉𝐷𝐶 zero. This voltage 𝑉𝑍 is applied to the charging circuit RC. Current i1 charges capacitor t
a rate determined by R.Voltage across capacitor is marked by 𝑉𝑐 .

When voltage 𝑉𝑐 reaches the unijunction threshold voltage η 𝑉𝑍 , the E – B1 junction of UJT
breaks down and the capacitor C discharges through primary of pulse transformer sending a
current 𝑖2

As the current 𝑖2 is in the form of pulse, windings of the pulse transformer have pulse voltages at
their secondary terminals. Pulses at the two secondary windings feed the same in-phase pulse to
two SCRs of a full-wave circuit. SCR with positive anode voltage would turn on. As soon as the
capacitor discharges, it starts to recharge as shown. Rate of rise of capacitor voltage can be
controlled by varying R. The firing angle can be controlled up to about 1500. This method of
controlling the output power by varying charging resistor R is called ramp control, open-loop
control or manual control.

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As the zener diode voltage 𝑉𝑍 goes to zero at the end of each half cycle, the synchronization of
the trigger circuit with the supply voltage across the SCRs is achieved. Thus the time t, equal to
∝/𝜔, when the pulse is applied to SCR for the first time, will remain constant for the same value
of R. Small variations in the supply voltage and frequency are not going to effect the circuit
operation

The line synchronized UJT trigger circuit, can be used for

i) Single – phase ac controller

ii) Single – phase half – wave controlled converter.
iii) Single – phase controlled rectifier with centre-tapped transformer
(bi-phase half-wave converter)

iv) Single-phase half-controlled bridge rectifier.

Fig(3) UJT TRIGGERING CIRCUIT

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PROCEDURE:

Resistance Triggering:

1. Observe and Trace the graphs of gate pulses given to SCR

2. Gradually vary potentiometer of R-Triggering unit and observe the variation of firing angle
and note down the minimum and maxim um values of firing angle.
HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

1.Circuit connections are made for half-wave controlled rectifier (refer circuit diagram)
2. The gate pulses from the R-triggering circuit is given to the thyristors in half-wave controlled
rectifier and vary the firing angle using potentiometer and note down the load voltage using
multimeter.
3. Observe the load voltage wave form on the CRO.
4. Observe trace a graph of input voltage and voltage of SCR for one firing angle using CRO.
5. Observe and trace a graph for load voltage
6. Tabulate theoretical and practical values of load voltage
Resistor-capacitor(R-C) triggering:

1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram for Resistor-
capacitor(R-C) triggering circuits.
2. Observe and Trace the graphs of gate pulses given to SCR.
3. Gradually vary potentiometer of R-C Triggering unit and observe the variation of firing angle
and note down the minimum and maximum values of firing angle.
4. For a Half wave controlled rectifier repeat the experimental steps of 1to 6 as in R-Triggering.
Uni-junction Transistor (UJT) triggering:

1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram for UJT triggering circuits.
2. observe and Trace the graphs of gate pulses given to SCR
3. Gradually vary potentiometer of UJT triggering circuits and observe the variation of firing
angle and note down the minimum and maximum values of firing angle.
4. For a Half wave controlled rectifier repeat the experimental steps of 1to 6 as in R-
Triggering.

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OBSERVATIONS:

How to determine firing angle:

Firing angle ∝ is determined using CRO.

Connect CRO across load resistor.

Firing angle = 𝒙/𝒄 ∗ 1800

X = No. of horizontal divisions for which load voltage is Zero.

C = No. of horizontal divisions for one half cycle of AC.

FOR HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH R-LOAD:

Firing angle = 𝒙/𝒄 ∗ 1800

𝑽𝒎
Theoretical load voltage 𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
𝟐𝝅

𝒎𝑽
Theoretical load current = 𝑰𝒂𝒗 = 𝟐𝝅𝑹𝒍 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

𝜶 =

𝑽𝒎 =

𝑽𝒎
Output voltage 𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
𝟐𝝅

𝑽𝒂𝒗 =

𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒂𝒗 = 𝟐𝝅𝑹𝒍 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶

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R Triggering :

Firing
angle
Sl.No. Load Voltage Load current
= 𝜶
in degrees Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical

RC Triggering:

Firing
angle
Sl.No. Load Voltage Load current
=𝜶
in degrees Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical

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UJT Triggering:

Firing
angle
Sl.No. Load Voltage Load current
= 𝜶
in degrees Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical

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OBSERVATIONS:

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PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

AIM:

1. To observe gate pulses of firing circuit

2. To study the operation of single phase AC voltage controller and to observe the output
waveforms with R&R –L Load

APPARATUS:

230V/30Vstep down transformer

Triac power module

Firing module

Inductance 100 mH or 250 mH / 3A

Patch chords

CRO

THEORY:

FIRING CIRCUIT:

In the triggering circuit 1φ ac is stepped down to 24v and this is rectified by a full wave
rectifier. This rectified voltage is given to a zener diode which clips it to the required voltage
level. This clipped voltage is applied as 𝑉𝑏𝑏 to the UJT. When the voltage across the capacitor
becomes equal to the η𝑉𝑏𝑏 ∝ it is discharged. Depending on R and C, the time taken for the
capacitor to charge to Vpeak changes, correspondingly the firing angle α also changes. Power
control is obtained by varying the firing angle, and this is known as phase control one chief
advantage of phase control is that the load current passes through a natural zero point during
every half cycle because of the ac supply. So the device turns off by itself at the end of every
conducting period. No other commutating circuit is required.

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POWER CIRCUIT:

INTRODUCTION :

The AC Regulators are used to obtain a variable AC output Voltage from a fixed AC source. A
single phase AC regulator is shown in the circuit of fig E.9.1 (a).It consists of two SCRs
connected in anti parallel (back-to-back). Instead of Two SCRs, a Triac may be used. The single
phase AC regulators are used in electronic fan control, heating control etc,.

R LOAD:

In a single phase AC voltage controller with SCR‟s feeding power to resistive load the
alternating SCR conducts during positive and negative half cycles. the two thyristors are
connected in anti parallel .Thyristors T1&T2 are forward biased during positive and negative
half cycles. During positive half cycle,T1 is triggered at a firing angle ∝, T1 starts conducting
and source voltage is applied to load from α to 180°. At 180° both V 0 and I0 fall to
zero.After180°, T1 is reverse biased therefore T1 is turned OFF. During negative half cycle T2 is
triggered at (180°+∝).T2 conducts from (180°+∝) to 360°.Soon after 360°, T2 is reverse biased
and same process repeats.

In a single phase AC voltage controller with SCR‟s feeding power to resistive load TRIAC
conducts during positive and negative half cycles. During positive half cycle,MT2becomes
forward biased with respect toMT1.Triac starts conducting and source voltage is applied to load
from α to 180°.From 180° on wards MT2 is subjected to reverse biase and is therefore turned off.
During negative half cycle MT1 becomes forward biased triac is triggered at (180°+∝).Triac
conducts from (180°+∝) to 360°. During next half cycle MT1 becomes reverse biased and is
therefore turned off.The load voltage can be found out by

𝟏/𝟐
𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒎 /√𝟐 𝝅 − 𝜶/𝝅 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶/𝟐𝝅

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R-L LOAD:

The operation of the circuit is explained with reference to R-L load. During positive half cycle
SCR1 is triggered into conduction at a firing angle delay of ∝. The current rises slowly due to the
Load inductance. The current continue to flow even after the supply voltage reverses polarity
because of the stored energy in the inductor.

As long as SCR1 conducts, conduction drop across it, will reverse bias SCR2. Hence SCR2 will
not turn on even if gating signal is applied. SCR2 can be triggered into conduction during
negative half cycle after SCR1, turns off.

In this during positive half cycle T1 is forward biased. At wt= ∝ ,T1 is triggered and load current
starts building up through the load .At 180° load and source voltages are zero but the current is
not zero because of presence of inductance in the load circuit. At β>180°load current reduces to
zero. Angle β is called extinction angle. After 180°, T1 is reverse biased but does not turns OFF
because current is not zero. At β only T1 is turns OFF as it is already reverse biased .From β to
(180°+∝), no current exists in the power circuit. This shows load current is discontinuous.

In a single phase AC voltage controller with SCR‟s feeding power to inductive load TRIAC
conducts during positive and negative half cycles. During positive half cycle,MT2becomes
forward biased with respect toMT1.Triac starts conducting and source voltage is applied to load
from ∝, at 180°the load current is not zero. Therefore Triac conducts beyond 180° till β .At β
load current reduces to zero therefore triac turnes off. During negative half cycle MT1 becomes
forward biased and triac is triggered at (180°+ ∝ ).Triac conducts from (180°+∝) to 360°+ β.

During next half cycle MT1 becomes reverse biased and is therefore turned off.The load voltage
can be found out by

𝟏/𝟐
𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒎 /√𝟐 𝟏/𝝅 𝜷 − 𝜶 + 𝟏/𝟐𝝅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜷

The value of β can be obtained from a transcendental equation

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 − ∅ = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∝ −∅ ∙ 𝒆𝑹/𝑳 ∝−𝜷/𝝎

The conduction angle 𝛾 = 𝛽 − 𝛼

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig(1)AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER CIRCUIT WITH SCR‟S IN ANTIPARALLEL

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Fig(2)UJT FIRING CIRCUIT

Fig(3)AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER CIRCUIT WITH TRIAC

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Fig(4)UJT FIRING CIRCUIT

PROCEDURE:

R-LOAD

1. Connect the circuit of single phase AC voltage controller with R-Load as shown in the
circuit diagram
2. Observe and Trace the graphs of gate pulses of two SCRs in the firing circuit
3. The firing pulses are given to the respective thyristors in AC voltage controller.
4. Confirm connections made are correct before switching on the equipment.
5. Switch on power unit as well as firing unit.

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6. Observe and Trace the graphs of input voltage and voltage across SCR‟s (T1&T2) with the
help of CRO.
7. The firing angle is varied with the help of a potentiometer knob in firing module and Observe
AC output voltage and current through the load.
8. For each setting of the knob note down the voltmeter reading and tabulate theoretical and
practical values of AC output voltage and current through the load.

RL-LOAD

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit of single phase AC voltage controller where
the load is replaced with R-L load .(Use 250 mH / 3A or 100 mH /3A inductor).
2. Repeat experimental steps 4 to 8 of full controlled bridge converter with R-Load.
3. Observe extinction angle 𝛽, conduction angle 𝛾 = 𝛽 − 𝛼 , circuit turn off time𝑡𝑐 = 𝜋/𝜔 with
the help of CRO.

OBSERVATIONS:

How to determine firing angle:

Firing angle ∝ is determined using CRO.

Connect CRO across load resistor

Firing angle = 𝑋 𝐶 * 1800

X = No. of horizontal divisions for which load voltage is Zero.

C = No. of horizontal divisions for one half cycle of AC.

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FOR R-LOAD:

Firing angle = 𝑋 𝐶 * 1800

𝟏/𝟐
Theoretical load voltage 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒎 /√𝟐 𝝅 − 𝜶/𝝅 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶/𝟐𝝅

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

Firing angle(∝)=

𝑽𝒎 =

𝟏/𝟐
Theoretical load voltage 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒎 /√𝟐 𝝅 − 𝜶/𝝅 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶/𝟐𝝅

Load voltage Load voltage

Sl.No. Firing angle in degrees
Practical Theritical

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For RL Load:

Firing angle = = 𝑋 𝐶 * 1800

Theoretical load voltage:

𝟏/𝟐
𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒎 /√𝟐 𝟏/𝝅 𝜷 − 𝜶 + 𝟏/𝟐𝝅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜷

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

Firing angle(∝)=

Extinction angle (𝜷) =

𝑽𝒎 =

Theoretical load voltage

𝟏/𝟐
𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒎 /√𝟐 𝟏/𝝅 𝜷 − 𝜶 + 𝟏/𝟐𝝅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜷

extinction
Firing angle Load Voltage Load Voltage
angle in
Sl.No. in degrees (Practical) V (Theritica)V
degrees

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Note: If thyristors are not fired mean synchronization of gate pulses

Are interchanged, and then reverse the polarity of input

Transformer

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MODELGRAPH

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Precautions:

1. Do not attempt to observe load voltage and input voltage simultaneously, if does so input
voltage terminal directly connected to load terminals due to the isolation of both channels of
the CRO. While using dual channels on the CRO ensure that both the ground terminals must
be connected to the same point.
2. Conduct experiment by keeping input AC voltage with in 30V to get proper waveform on
CRO Screen.
3. It is recommended to use low AC voltage while experimenting to eliminate electric shock.
4. Do not apply high voltage to CRO 10:1 probe may be used while doing high voltage
measurements.

OBSERVATIONS:

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SINGLE PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE RECTIFIER

AIM:

1.To observe gate pulses of firing circuit.

2. To study the operation of single phase fully controlled full wave bridge rectifier and to
observe the output waveforms with

R – Load

R-L Load

R-L Load with freewheeling diode

APPARATUS:

230V/30Vstep down transformer

Controlled rectifier module

Firing module

Inductance 100 mH or 250 mH / 3A

Resistance 100Ω

Patch chords

CRO

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THEORY:

CONTROL CIRCUIT:

The input to the zero crossing detector is given through the bridge rectifier. +24 VAC is given as
input to the bridge rectifier. The output of the zero crossing detector is used to trigger the 555
PWM IC in the monostable mode of operation. Control voltage V c is given to the 555 PWM IC
as another input. The charging time of the capacitor of the timer can be varied by changing the
control voltage. The control voltage can be varied by means of control voltage pot. The output of
the 555 PWM triggers the 555 Astable Multivibrator. The output of the Astable multivibrator is
the train of pulses. The time difference between the output of the 555 PWM and 555 Astable
Multivibrator is few seconds. Then the train of pulses are given to the Gate of the thyristor
through the isolation transformer and pulse are given to the Gate of the thyristor through the
Isolation transformer and pulse amplifier. The waveforms at various test points are shown in the
figures.

POWER CIRCUIT:

R-LOAD:

During the positive half cycle of supply voltage thyristor T1 and thyristor T2 are in forward
biased condition. When triggering pulse is given to these thyristors simultaneously the load
current flows through the path source-T1-Load-T2-source.During the negative half cycle of
supply voltage, thyristors T1, T2 gets turned off naturally. At an instant wt=180+∝,when
Type equation here. a triggering pulse is given to thyristors T3 and T4 which are in the forward
biased condition the load current flows through the path source-T3-load-T4-source. The load
voltage can be found out as

𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
𝝅

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RL –LOAD:
During the positive half cycle of supply voltage thyristor T1 and thyristor T2 are in forward biased condition. When
triggering pulse is given to these thyristors simultaneously the load current flows through the path source-T1-RL
Load-T2-source.At the instant wt=180 the supply voltage gets reversed , but due to the presence of larger value of
load inductance the current is maintained in the same direction with a constant magnitude. Hence the thyristors T1and
T2 are in conducting state though the supply voltage reaches zero.
During the negative half cycle of supply voltage, thyristors T1, T2 gets turned off naturally. At an instant wt=180+
α,when a triggering pulse is given to thyristors T3and T4 which are in the forward biased condition the load current
flows through the path source-T3-RL load-T4-source.at an instant wt=3600, the thyristors T3 and T4 are still in the
conducting state. The load voltage can be found out as

𝒗𝒎
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷
𝝅

The value of β can be obtained from a transcendental equation

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 − ∅ = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∝ −∅ ∙ 𝒆𝑹/𝑳 ∝−𝜷/𝝎

The conduction angle 𝜸 = 𝜷 − 𝜶

CIRCUITDIAGRAM:

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Fig(1) BRIDGE CIRCUIT

FIG(2) BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 555 TRIGGERING CIRCUIT

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FIG(3) BRIDGE CIRCUIT WITH FREEWHEELING DIODE

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 555 TRIGGERING CIRCUIT

PROCEDURE:-

FULL CONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTER WITH R-LOAD:

1. Connect the circuit of fully controlled rectifier with R – load as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Observe and Trace the graphs of gate pulses of four SCR‟s in the firing circuit.
3. The firing pulses are given to the respective thyristors in the bridge converter.
4. Confirm connections made are correct before switching on the equipment.
5. Switch on power unit as well as firing unit.
6. Observe and Trace the graphs of input voltage and voltage across SCR‟s (T1&T2) with the
help of CRO.
7. The firing angle is varied with the help of a pot in firing module and DC output voltage and
current through the load is noted.
8. Tabulate theoretical and practical values of DC output voltage and current through the load.

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FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTER FOR R-L LOAD :-

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit of fully controlled rectifier where the load is
replaced with R-L load .(Use 250 mH / 3A or 100 mH /3A inductor).
2. Repeat experimental steps 4 to 8 of full controlled bridge converter with R-Load.
3. Observe extinction angle 𝜷, conduction angle 𝜸 = 𝜷 − 𝜶 , circuit turn off time 𝒕𝒄 =𝝅−𝜶 with
𝝎

the help of CRO.

FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTER FOR R-L LOAD WITH FREE
WHEELING DIODE:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit of fully controlled rectifier for R-L load with
free wheeling diode.
2. Repeat experimental steps 4 to 8 of full controlled bridge converter with R-Load.
3. Observe conduction angle 𝜸 = 𝜷 − 𝜶 ,circuit turn off time 𝒕𝒄 =𝝅−𝜶
𝝎

OBSERVATIONS:

How to determine firing angle:

Firing angle 𝜶 is determined using CRO.

Connect CRO across load resistor

Firing angle = (X/C)* 1800

X = No. of horizontal divisions for which load voltage is Zero.

C: No.of horizontal divisions for one half cycle of AC.

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FOR R-LOAD:

Load resistance, RL = ____________________ Ω

Firing angle = (X/C) 180

𝑽𝒎
Theoretical load voltage 𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
𝝅

𝒎 𝑽
Theoretical load current 𝑰𝒂𝒗 = 𝝅𝑹𝑳 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

Load resistance, RL = 100 Ω

Firing angle (𝜶) =

𝑽𝒎 =

𝑽𝒎
Theoretical load voltage 𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
𝝅

𝒎 𝑽
Theoretical load current 𝑰𝒂𝒗 = 𝝅𝑹𝑳 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶

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Firing
SL. angle α in
degrees COS 𝜶 Load Voltage Load Current
NO

Theoretical in Practical Theoretical in Practical

volts in volts Amp in Amp

10

11

FOR R – L LOAD:

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

Load resistance, RL = 100 Ω

Inductance L = 50 mH

Firing angle (𝜶) =

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Extinction angle (β) =

𝑽𝒎 =

𝑽𝒎
Load Voltage 𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷
𝝅

𝒎𝑽
Load current 𝑰𝒂𝒗 = 𝝅𝑹𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷

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Firing
S. angle 𝜶 in Extinction
degrees angle Load Voltage Load Current
No.
degrees

Theoretical Practical Theoretical in Practical

in volts in volts Amp in Amp

10

11

NOTE: If SCR is not fired, reverse the polarity of input transformer.

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MODEL GRAPHS:

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Precautions:

1. Do not attempt to observe load voltage and input voltage simultaneously, if does so input
voltage terminal directly connected to load terminals due to the isolation of both channels of
the CRO. While using dual channels on the CRO ensure that both the ground terminals must
be connected to the same point.
2. Conduct experiment by keeping input AC voltage with in 30V to get proper waveform an
CRO Screen.
3. It is recommended to use low AC voltage while experimenting to eliminate electric shock.
4. Do not apply high voltage to CRO 10:1 probe may be used while doing high voltage
measurements.
5. In case of fully controlled bridge the triggering angle should not increase beyond ∝𝒎𝒙
(approx. 1500 ) to allow conducting SCR sufficient time to turn off (refer manual) for ∝𝒎𝒙

OBSERVATIONS:

1.

2.

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DC JONES CHOPPER
AIM: To study the Time Ratio Control (TRC) of a chopper circuit

APPARATUS:

1. Chopper power module

2. Chopper firing unit
3. DC power supply 30V/2A dual channel
4. CRO
5. Patch chords
6. Multimeter etc.

THEORY:

Chopper converts fixed DC voltage to variable DC voltage through the use of semiconductor
devices. The DC to DC converters have gained popularity in modern industry. Some practical
applications of DC to DC converter include armature voltage control of DC motors converting
one DC voltage level to another level , and controlling DC power for wide variety of industrial
processes. The time ratio controller (TRC) is a form of control for DC to DC conversion.

Time Ratio Controller (TRC) or chopper is basically a Thyristor switch as shown in fig
(1) connected between the source and the load. The switch is closed and opened periodically
such that the load is connected to, and disconnected form, the supply alternatively. Thus the
average voltage impressed on the load is controlled by controlling the ratio of ON state interval
to one cycle duration. The average output voltage of the chopper is given by

𝑇𝑂𝑁
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑇 𝑉𝐷𝐶

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𝑇𝑂𝑁
Where 𝑉𝐷𝐶 is the input voltage, 𝑇𝑂𝑁 is time duration of the chopper. The ratio a 𝑇 is called

the duty ratio of the chopper. The most important factor that governs the performance of the
chopper is the duty ratio. The duty ratio can be controlled in many ways, such as by changing the
on period duration by keeping frequency constant or by changing frequency keeping on period
constant. The third alternative method is to change both ON period and frequency. Changing the
frequency of the chopper introduces different harmonics at different frequencies. At some
frequency of operation the harmonic contents are larger than the tolerable limits. Therefore fixed
frequency choppers with a variable on period technique are generally used.

CONTROL CIRCUIT:

The chopper firing circuit consists of a 555 astable multivibrators designed to produce a
square wave of fixed frequency .The rising edges of the square waves are detected using a
differentiator and is used to reset the integrator output. The integrator output therefore becomes a
swatooth waveform .The swatooth wave form is compared with a control voltage 𝑉𝐶 in a
comparator. The comparator out put decides the ON and OFF period of the chopper. The output
pulses from the comparator are then differentiated, amplified and passed through a pulse
transformer before applying to gates

POWER CIRCUIT;

Initially the capacitor is charged to a voltage of supply voltage when SCR( 𝑇𝑀 ) is

triggered. Now the current flows through C-TM-L1-D-C.Now the voltage across capacitor gets
reversed and if the auxiliary Thyristor (𝑇𝐴 ) is triggered reverse voltage applies across the main
Thyristor 𝑇1 and it turns OFF. That is current flows through C-TA-TM-C. The cycle repeats when
SCR 𝑇1 is again triggered. The inductor L maintains the load current through diode 𝐷𝑓 when
SCR 𝑇𝑀 is not conducting.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig (1) JONES CHOPPER CIRCUIT

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Fig(2).BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CHOPPER FIRING CIRCUIT

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the chopper firing circuit, check for the gate pulses.
2. Connect the Circuit as shown in the circuit diagram by connecting rheostat as load with input
DC voltage at 24V.
3. The firing pulses are given to the respective thyristors in the firing module.
4. Check all the connections and confirm connections made are correct before switching on the
equipments.
5. Switch on the DC power supply to the chopper and also firing circuit.
6. Keeping frequency constant and vary duty cycle of the chopper firing circuit in steps and
observe corresponding load voltage for each step.
7. Observe and trace the output waveforms using CRO.
8. Plot a graph of duty cycle against load voltage.
9. Tabulate theoretical and practical values of load voltage for different duty cycles.

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Repeat the above steps for R-L LOAD.

OBSERVATIONS:

𝑇𝑂𝑁
Theoretical load voltage 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑇 𝑉𝐷𝐶

𝑇𝑂𝑁
Theoretical load current 𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 𝑇 𝑉𝐷𝐶 /𝑅𝐿

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

Load resistance RL = 105 Ω

𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 24V

δ= TON/ T =

𝑇𝑂𝑁
Theoretical load voltage 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑇 𝑉𝐷𝐶

𝑇𝑂𝑁
Theoretical load current 𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 𝑇 𝑉𝐷𝐶 /𝑅𝐿

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TABULAR COLUMN:

For R-Load

DUTY LOAD VOLTAGE LOAD CURRENT

CYCLE (%)
S.NO Theoretical in Practical Theoretical in Practical
volts in volts mA in mA

For RL-Load

DUTY LOAD VOLTAGE LOAD CURRENT

CYCLE (%)
S.NO Theoretical in Practical Theoretical in Practical
volts in volts mA in mA

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MODEL GRAPHS:

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Precautions:

1. IF commutation failure occurs Switch OFF firing unit as well as power circuit. Again
Switch ON power circuit as well as firing circuit to get proper Commutation.
2. At lower frequencies SCR may not turn on due to insufficient voltage across the
capacitor.
3. If duty cycle is increased to large value SCR may not turn on due to
a. Insufficient turn off time.
b. Capacitor voltage may be insufficient to commutate the SCR.
4. Response of chopper is poor if the input power supply is not regulated & if it doesn‟t
supply required current.

OBSERVATIONS:

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SINGLE PHASE CYCLO CONVERTER

AIM:

1. To observe gate pulses of firing circuit.

2. To study the operation of cyclo converter and to observe the output waveforms
with

R – Load

R-L Load

APPARATUS:

230V/30Vstep down transformer

Cyclo converter power module

Cyclo converter firing unit

Inductance 100 mH or 250 mH / 3A

Patch chords

CRO

THEORY:

A cyclo converter is direct frequency changer that converts ac power at one frequency to ac
power at another frequency by ac-ac conversion, without an intermediate conversion link. The
majority of cyclo converters are naturally commutated and the maximum output frequency is
limited to a value that is only a fraction of the source frequency. As a result the major
applications of cyclo converters are low speed ac motor drives in the range up to 15,000kw with
frequencies from 0 to 20 Hz.

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POWER CIRCUIT:

The principle of operation of single – phase cyclo converter can be explained with the help of the
circuit shown in fig (1) for obtaining a single –phase low frequency output from a single- phase
ac input. One group of SCRs (SCR 1 and SCR 2) produces positive polarity of load voltage and
other group (SCR 3 and SCR 4) produces negative polarity of load voltage. SCRs 1 and 2 of
positive group are gated together.

Depending on the polarity of the input, only one of them will conduct. When P is positive with
respect O, SCR 1 will conduct and when P is negative SCR 2 will conduct. Thus in both half
cycles of the input the load voltage will be positive. The output voltage waveform for resistive
load is shown in fig(3). The SCRs will turn off by natural commutation at the end of every half
cycle of the input with resistive load.

Depending on the desired frequency division, the gating pulse to positive group of SCRs will be
stopped and SCRs 3 and 4 of negative group will be gated. SCR 3 will conduct when P is
negative and SCR 4 will conduct when Q is negative. The waveform of fig(3.1) shows the output
voltage for a frequency division of 2, the output frequency is 25 Hz, when ac input frequency is
of 50Hz. Fig(3.2) & fig(3.3) shows the load voltage waveforms for output frequencies of 1/3 rd
and 1/4th of the input frequency. Phase control can be employed if the control in output voltage
magnitude is required, as shown in fig (4). A closer approximation to sine wave can be
synthesized by suitably controlling the firing angle in each half cycle as shown in fig(5). If the
load is inductive, then the SCRs will not turn off at the end of every half cycle of the input
voltage. Instead, there will be a negative excursion of the load voltage as shown in fig (6).

Inspection of circuit reveals that, if at any instant SCRs are conducting in both the positive and
negative groups, and then a short circuit exists on the supply via the SCRs. To avoid this, a
reactor is inserted between the groups to limit the circulating current as shown in fig (1),
otherwise the firing control circuitry should be arranged so that neither group is fired while
current is flowing in the other group.

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Control Circuit:

The control module consists of zero crossing detector designed produce a square wave. The
output is given to reset able integrator; it gives a saw tooth waveform. The saw tooth waveform
is compared with a control voltage Vc in a comparator. The monoshot receives the output of
comparator. Logic controller circuit is also provided in the module. It decides the ON/OFF
period of SCRs. Then the pulses are amplified and passed through a pulse transformer before
applying to gates of SCRs.

Logic to Select Output Frequency:

In the Cyclo converter control module, the output frequency can be adjusted to 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 of
the supply frequency. In addition, the normal supply frequency ac output can also be obtained.
The frequency selection is obtained by means of two binary control switches SW A SWB. The
logic is as follows

SWA SWB Frequency Division

1
0 0
1/2
1 0
1/3
1 1
1/4
0 1

Provision is made for controlling the firing angle in each half cycle by means of a potentiometer.
The gates trigger signals are isolated by using pulse transformers.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

CYCLOCONVERTER

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Fig(2). BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CYCLOCONVERTER FIRING CIRCUIT

PROCEDURE:

R-LOAD:

1. Connect the circuit of single phase Cyclo converter with R load as shown in the circuit
diagram.
2. Set the frequency division for 2 this can be extended for frequency division of 3,4)
3. Observe and Trace the graphs of gate pulses of four SCR‟s in the firing circuit.
4. The firing pulses are given to the respective thyristors in the Cyclo converter.
5. Confirm connections made are correct before switching on the equipment.
6. Switch on power unit as well as firing unit.
7. Observe and Trace the graphs of input voltage, frequency and voltage across SCR‟s (T1&T3)
with the help of CRO.
8. Using the switches in the firing circuit, trigger the SCRs and observe and trace the step down
frequency

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9. The firing angle is varied with the help of a pot in firing module and Observe AC load
voltage across the load.
10. Tabulate practical values of AC output voltage through the load for different step down
frequencies.
11. Repeat the same steps for R-L load.

OBSERVATIONS

FOR R LOAD:

Output frequency 𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔

Where fs = 50Hz, Vm =

S.NO. Firing Angle in Degrees Measured Load voltage in volts

Output frequency 𝒇𝒐 =

S.NO. Firing Angle in Degrees Measured Load voltage in volts

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Output frequency 𝒇𝒐 =

S.NO. Firing Angle in Degrees Measured Load voltage in volts

Output frequency 𝒇𝒐 =

S.NO. Firing Angle in Degrees Measured Load voltage in volts

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FOR R- L LOAD:

Output frequency 𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔

Where 𝒇𝒔 =

S.NO. Firing Angle in Degrees Measured Load voltage in volts

Output frequency 𝒇𝒐 =

S.NO. Firing Angle in Degrees Measured Load voltage in volts

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Output frequency 𝒇𝒐 =

S.NO. Firing Angle in Degrees Measured Load voltage in volts

Output frequency 𝒇𝒐 =

S.NO. Firing Angle in Degrees Measured Load voltage in volts

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MODEL GRAPHS:

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Precautions:

1. Keep input AC Voltage with in 30V to get proper waveform on the CRO
2. If Thyristor are not fired then reverse the polarity of input transformer

OBSERVATIONS:

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SINGLE PHASE PARALLEL INVERTER

AIM: 1. To observe gate pulses of firing circuit.

2. To study the operation of Parallel inverter and to observe the

Output waveforms with R Load & R-L Load

APPARATUS:

Parallel inverter power module

Firing circuit

DC power supply 30V/2A dual channel

Patch cards

CRO

THEORY: A device that converts DC power in to AC power is called an inverter. Some of the
industrial applications of inverters are induction heating, stand by aircraft supplies, UPS, HVDC
transmission lines ect.

CONTROL CIRCUIT:

The inverter firing circuit consists of a 555 astable multivibrator designed to produce
a square wave of fixed frequency .The rising edges of the square waves are detected using a
differentiator and is used to reset the integrator output. The integrator output therefore becomes a
saw-tooth waveform .The saw-tooth wave form is compared with a control voltage Vc in a
comparator. The comparator out put decides the ON and OFF period of the chopper. The output
pulses from the comparator are then differentiated, amplified and passed through a pulse
transformer before applying to gates

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POWERCIRCUIT:

It mainly consists of two thyristors 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 and an inductor L, out put transformer and a
commutating capacitor C. Transformer turns ratio from each primary half to secondary windings
is assumed to unity. The function of L is to make the source current constant at Io. Diodes

D1&D2 permit the load reactive power to be fed back to the DC supply. These are called
as feed back diodes. During working of the inverter capacitor C comes in parallel with load via
transformer. So it is called parallel inverter. When 𝑇1 is conducting neglecting the small voltage
drop across L, the supply voltage 𝑉𝐷𝐶 will appear across the left half of the transformer primary
winding OA. Terminal O is positive with respect to A. By transformer action, terminal B will be
at a potential of 2𝑉𝐷𝐶 with respect to A. thus capacitor C will be charged to twice the supply
voltage with upper plate negative. Thus load voltage will be negative and of magnitude 𝑉𝐷𝐶 . The
load current will also be negative and will have a magnitudeI 0.

At the end of half period,T2 is fired. Capacitor C will immediately apply a reverse
voltage of 2𝑉𝐷𝐶 across T1 and turns it off. When T1 is turned off the capacitor will discharge
through T2 , inductor L ,diodeD1 and a portion of the transformer winding LA. Thus the energy
stored in the capacitor will be fed back to the load through the transformer coupling of winding
LA&PQ.

During this period, the potential of point L will be fixed by the DC input supply and the
load voltage will still be negative but more than 𝑉𝐷𝐶 . As the potential of point L increases
sufficiently to reverse bias diodeD1 the capacitor no longer discharges through T2 and point L
will not get connected to the negative supply terminal. The current through inductor L will not
flow through didodeD2, MB, T2, and the trapped energy flow from M to O through diodeD2 and
the load reactive energy will be returned to

supply. Since point M is now connected to the negative supply terminal, the load voltage polarity
will be reversed more than 𝑉𝐷𝐶 . Also the capacitor will be charged to the opposite direction to
slightly more than the supply voltage.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig(1) PARALLEL INVERTER

Fig(2) CONTROLCIRCUIT

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PROCEDURE:

R load:

1. Circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram with input DC voltage at
15V.
2. Set the pot in the control circuit to minimum frequency
3. Observe and Trace the graphs of gate pulses of two SCRs in the firing circuit.
4. The firing pulses are given to the respective thyristors of inverter.
5. Check all the connections and confirm connections made are correct before switching on
the equipment.
6. Switch on the DC power supply to the inverter and then firing circuit.
7. Vary the frequency of the inverter circuit with the help of a pot in firing module from
minimum frequency in steps and for each step observe the frequency of output voltages
on CRO.
8. Plot a graph of frequency verses output voltage.
9. Tabulate the readings of frequency and output voltage in the table.
10. Draw the load voltage waveform.

R-L LOAD:

1. Circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram with R-L load.
2. Repeat experimental steps 2 to 9 of parallel inverter with R load.

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OBSERVATIONS:

How to determine frequency:

Connect CRO across load resistor.

Time period, T = X * TB

Where X = No.of horizontal divisions for one complete cycle

TB = Time base (or) TIME/DIV of CRO

Frequency, f = (1/T)

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

VDC = 15V

Time period, T = X * TB

Frequency, f = (1/T)

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FOR R LAOD:

LOAD VOLTAGE
TIME PEROD FREQUECNY
SL.NO IN VOLTS
T IN ms IN HZ

FOR R - L LAOD:

LOAD VOLTAGE
TIME PEROD FREQUECNY
SL.NO IN VOLTS
T IN ms IN HZ

Note:

1. For commutation failure, switch off inverter firing circuit as well as power supply.
Again switch inverter firing circuit as well as power supply to get proper
commutation.

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2. AT lower frequency SCR may not turn on due to insufficient voltage across the
capacitor.

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OBSERVATIONS:

1.

2.

3.

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SINGLE PHASE HALF CONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTER

AIM: 1. To observe gate pulses of firing circuit.

2. To study the operation of single phase half controlled bridge rectifier and to
observe the output waveforms with R – Load

APPARATUS:

230V/24Vstep down transformer

Controlled rectifier module

Firing module

Inductance 100 mH or 250 mH / 3A

Patch chords

CRO

THEORY:

A half controlled converter uses a combination of diodes and thyristors and therefore only a
limited control over the level of dc output voltage is obtained. It is a one quadrant converter and
hence it has one polarity of dc output voltage and current at its output terminals. This circuit is
basically tested for R and RL loads. In RL load the conduction may be continuous or
discontinuous because of the presence of the energy storing element inductor which opposes
sudden changes in current. For large values of inductances, the conduction is continuous and for
small value of inductor, it is discontinuous conduction. Depending on the firing angle the
average output voltage can be varied. Greater the value of firing angle smaller is the average
output voltage.

Two types of configurations are available. They are:

1. Symmetrical configuration.
2. Asymmetrical configuration.

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FIRING CIRCUIT:

In the triggering circuit 1φ ac is stepped down to 24v and this is rectified by a full
wave rectifier. This rectified voltage is given to a zener diode which clips it to the required
voltage level. This clipped voltage is applied as Vbb to the UJT. When the voltage across the
capacitor becomes equal to the ηVbb it is discharged. Depending on R and C, the time taken for
the capacitor to charge to Vpeak changes, correspondingly the firing angle α also changes. Power
control is obtained by varying the firing angle, and this is known as phase control one chief
advantage of phase control is that the load current passes through a natural zero point during
every half cycle because of the ac supply. So the device turns off by itself at the end of every
conducting period. No other commutating circuit is required.

POWER CIRCUIT:

During positive half cycle, SCR T1 and diode D1 conducts. T1 conducts from α to .
Current flows through the load when SCR T1 is triggered into conduction. During negative half
cycle, T1 is off, T2 and D2 conducts from

 + α to 2 , thus there is output across the load for both the half cycles. The average dc
voltage is given by

Vav = Vm/π[1+cosα ]

Load current is given by Iav = Vav/RL

Where RL is load resistance

Individual devices of the power module must be interconnected externally to form single phase
half controlled bridge converter power circuit. Gate pulses must be given to gate and cathode of
respective SCR‟s from firing unit and firing angle must be varied to get variable load voltage.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig(1)HALF CONTROLLED CONVERTER (SYMMETRICAL CONFIGURATION)

UJT FIRING CIRCUIT

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Fig(2)HALF CONTROLLED CONVERTER (ASSYMMETRICAL CONFIGURATION)

UJT FIRING CIRCUIT

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PROCEDURE:

R- LOAD

1. Connect the circuit of half controlled rectifier with R – load as shown in the circuit
diagram.
2. Observe and Trace the graphs of of gate pulses of two SCR‟s in the firing circuit.
3. The firing pulses are given to the respective thyristors in the bridge converter.
4. Confirm connections made are correct before switching on the equipment.
5. Switch on power unit as well as firing unit.
6. Observe and Trace the graphs of input voltage and voltage across SCR‟s (T1&T2)
with the help of CRO.
7. The firing angle is varied with the help of a pot in firing module and observe DC
output voltage and current through the load.
8. Tabulate theoretical and practical values of DC output voltage and current through
the load.

OBSERVATIONS:

How to determine firing angle:

Firing angle α is determined using CRO.

Connect CRO across load resistor.

Firing angle = (X/C)* 1800

X = No. of horizontal divisions for which load voltage is Zero.

C = No. of horizontal divisions for one half cycle of AC.

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FOR R-LOAD:

Load resistance, RL = ____________________ Ω

Firing angle = (X/C) 180

Theoretical load voltage Vav = Vm/ π(1+cosα)

Theoretical load current Iav = Vav/RL

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

Load resistance, RL = 120 Ω

Firing angle =

Vm =

Theoretical load voltage Vav = Vm/ π(1+cosα)

Theoretical load current Iav = Vav/RL

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Load Current
Firing Load Voltage
S.No angle α in
degrees
Theoretical in Practical Theoretical in Practical
volts in volts amp in amp

10

11

NOTE: If SCR is not fired, reverse the polarity of input transformer

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MODELGRAPHS:

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not attempt to observe load voltage and input voltage simultaneously, if does so
input voltage terminal directly connected to load terminals due to the isolation of both
channels of the CRO. While using dual channels on the CRO ensure that both the
ground terminals must be connected to the same potential.
2. Conduct experiment by keeping input AC voltage with in 30V to get proper waveform
on CRO Screen.
3. It is recommended to use low AC voltage while experimenting to eliminate electric
shock.
4. Ensure that the peak to peak voltage in the CRO does not exceed 80V. CRO probe of
10:1 may be used while measuring high voltage.

OBSERVATIONS:

1.

2.

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SINGLE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLED USING R & RL LOADS

AIM: To simulate AC Voltage Controller for R & RL loads

SOFTWARE: Multisim 2001

THEORY:

AC Voltage controller is a device which is useful for controlling the AC voltage. It converts
fixed A.C into variable A.C.

Fig 1

AC voltage controller contains two thyristors D1 and D2 connected in anti parallel as shown in
fig 1. SCR D1 is forward biased during positive half cycle and SCR D2 is for negative half cycle.
Phase shift between two gate pulses is 1800

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The conditions for turning on of a SCR are

1. It must be forward biased.

2. Anode current should be greater than latching current
The gate pulses for the SCR‟s are generated by placing a pulse source. The
description of the pulse source is given below
3.
Initial value 0V
Pulsed Value 10V
Delay time this will be calculated accordance with firing angle

Rise time 1 nsec
Fall time 1 nsec
Pulse width 0.5 msec
Period 20msec with respect to a frequency of 50 Hz
The model parameters of SCR‟s are given as follows.
4.
* 10--A, 30--G, 20--K
.MODEL DGAT D (IS=1.0e-12 N=1 RS=0.001)
.MODEL DMOD D (IS=1.0e-12 N=0.001)
.MODEL DON D (IS=1.000e-012 N=1.000e+000 RS=3.759e-002
BV=7.200e+002)
.MODEL DBREAK D (IS=1.000e-012 N=1.029e+003 BV=7.200e+002)
V1 10 14 DC 0
DON1 14 222 DON
VV 222 22 DC 0
E1 22 20 poly(2) 10 20 3 20 0 0 0 0 1
DBRK1 14 27 DBREAK
DBRK2 20 27 DBREAK
RLEAK 14 20 6.000e+007
CRISE 14 20 1.200e-010
FC1 3 20 poly(2) VGD V1 -5.000e-003 1 8.333e-001

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CON 3 20 5.000e-009 IC=1.5

DS1 3 31 DMOD
DS2 20 3 DMOD
VW 31 20 DC 1
DGATE 30 7 DGAT
VGD 7 20 DC 1.216e-001

R LOAD:

Ina single phase AC voltage controller with SCR‟s feeding power to resistive load the alternating
SCR conducts during positive and negative half cycles. The two thyristors are connected in anti
parallel . During positive half cycle, D1 is triggered at a firing angle α, D1 starts conducting and
source voltage is applied to load from α to 180°. At 180° both V0 and I0 fall to zero. After180°,
D1 is reverse biased therefore D1 is turned OFF. During negative half cycle D2 is triggered at
(180°+ α). D2 conducts from (180°+ α) to 360°.Soon after 360°, D2 is reverse biased and same
process repeats.

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Rms value of output voltage obtained as

1
V 1  sin 2  2
 m      
2 
Vrms
2  

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R-L LOAD:

During positive half cycle SCR D1 is triggered into conduction at a firing angle of α. The current
rises slowly due to the Load inductance. The current continues to flow even after the supply
voltage reverses polarity because of the stored energy in the inductor.As long as SCR D 1
conducts, conduction drop across it, will reverse bias SCR D2. Hence SCR D2 will not turn on
even if gating signal is applied. SCR D2 can be triggered into conduction during negative half
cycle after SCR1, turns off.

In this during positive half cycle D1 is forward biased. At wt= α , D1 is triggered and load
current starts building up through the load .At 180° load and source voltages are zero but the
current is not zero because of presence of inductance in the load circuit. At β>180°load current
reduces to zero. Angle β is called extinction angle. After 180°, D1 is reverse biased but does not
turns OFF because current is not zero. At β only D1 is turns OFF as it is already reverse biased
.From β to (180°+ α), no current exists in the power circuit. This shows load current is
discontinuous.

The load voltage can be found out by

1
V 1  (sin 2  sin 2 )  2
vo  m       
2   2 

The value of β can be obtained from a transcendental equation

 R     
sin(    )  sin(   ). exp   
 L   

The conduction angle     

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PROCEDURE:

1. Open a new circuit file in Multisim.

2. Place the components as required in circuit diagram.

3. Connect the components by wiring.

4. Ground the circuit.

5. Save the circuit file.

6. Go to analysis set up, transient analysis and set the parameters and

options as shown.

Analysis Parameters:

Start time Tstart =0

Stop time Tstop = 25 ms.

e-6
Step interval Tmax =1 sec

Miscllaneous Options

Abstol = 1 e-6

Reltol = 1 e-3

Vntol = 1 e-3

7. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms and tabulate the values

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MODEL CALCULATIONS:

R  2.5, L  7.958mH

Case I :

V     sin 2 
1/ 2

For R-Load Vrms  m  

2  2 

(i) for   0 and i/p Erms  120V

   0 sin 2(0) 
1/ 2

Vrms  120 
  2 

Vrms  120V

(ii) for   900

   90 sin(2 x90) 
Vrms  120  
  2 

Vrms  84.53V

Case II:

V     sin 2  sin 2 
1/ 2

For RL – Load Vrms  m   

2  2

R
 (   )
To calculate  , sin(    )  sin(   )e L

(i) For   450

By trial and error   2250

1/ 2
 225  450 sin 90  sin 450 
Vrms  120    120V
  2 

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OBSERVATIONS:

Calculated Simulated
R(Ω) L (mH) α
 Vrms  Vrms

SIMULATION RESULTS:

The ac voltage controller is simulated and the waveforms are as shown in figures
2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13.

Fig‟s 2,3,4,5,6,7 are obtained for R Load for a firing angle α = 45 0

Fig‟s 8,9,10,11,12,13, are obtained for R-L load for firing angle α = 45 0

MODEL WAVE FORMS:

R Load

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RL LOAD

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SINGLE PHASE INVERTER WITH PWM CONTROL

AIM: To simulate single phase Inverter with PWM Control.

SOFTWARE: Multisim 2001

THEORY::

Inverter is a device which converts given D.C supply to variable A.C. supply. The function of an
inverter is to change a dc input voltage to a symmetrical ac output voltage of desired magnitude
and frequency. The output voltage could be fixed or variable at a fixed or variable frequency. A
variable output voltage can be obtained by varying the DC voltage and maintaining the gain of
the inverter constant .On the other hand if the DC input is fixed and it is not controllable a
variable output voltage can be obtained by varying the gain of the inverter, which is normally
accomplished by Pulse Width Modulation control within the inverter. The inverter gain may be
defined as the ratio of AC output voltage to the DC input voltage. The inverters are of two types

1. VSI if the input is dc voltage

2. CSI if the input is dc current.

The basic circuit for the single phase bridge inverter for producing a.c voltage and employing
switches is as shown in fig (a).Switch conduction patterns are shown in fig(b,c).When Switches
S1 and S2 are switched – on simultaneously, the input voltage (v) appears across the load.
Turning on of switches S3 and S4 ,places the negative input voltage across the load. The
waveforms for output voltage (vo) output current (io) and the source input current are also shown
in fig(b,c).With inductive load ,stored energy at turn-off is fed through the feedback diodes D1 to
D4 .These four diodes clamp the load voltage to d.c bus.

If the load of fig(a) is a pure resistance ,then the alternate switching of S 1 ,S2 and S3 ,S4 will
place the d.c source in alternate sense across the load,giving a square wave.

However, with an inductive load ,the current waveform is delayed ,although the output voltage
wave is still a square wave.

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Fig(a) Circuit

This full bridge inverter consists of two one leg inverters and is preferred over other
arrangements in high power ratings. With the same d.c.input voltage, the maximum output
voltage of the full bridge inverter is twice that of the half bridge inverter. From which it is seen
that for the same power, the output and the switch currents are one half of those for a half bridge
inverter. At high power levels this is, therefore the distinct advantages because it requires less
paralleling of devices.

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SQUARE WAVE OPERATION:

The single phase full bridge inverter can be operated in a square wave mode. Fig(b) shows
waveforms for a square wave output generated with an inductive load.The switches are switched
on as appropriate for 180 0 of the inverter output voltage.Looking at the latter and of the positive
half cycle the load current io is positive and growing exponentially through switches S 1 and S2
according to the equation

dio
V L  io R -------- (1)
dt

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However, when switches S3 and S4 are switched on to switch off pairs S1 and S2 ,the load voltage
(vo) reverses but not the load current. Because of the inductive nature of the load , the load
current can not reverse and load inductive energy flows back into the supply via diodes D3 and
D4.This is the only path for the load current via diodes D 3 and D4,giving a reverse voltage with
the stored inductive-energy of the load being returned to the d.c source until the load current falls
to zero. The load current returning the stored energy(inductive) to the source falls exponentially
given by the relationship

dio
V  L  Ri o --------- (2)
dt

Once the load current ceases(io) switch S3 and S4 become forward biased and can conduct so as
to feed power from the source to the load.Because the devices require reswiching on at the
instant of load current zero , the gate or base drive circuit should be suitably designed to meet the
necessary requirements of device switching at the appropriate instant.The waveform of output
voltage is a square wave as shown in the fig(b) The rms value of the output voltage can be
obtained as

1
 To
2  2
2
V orms  0 v0 dt  V
2

 T0 ----- (3)
 

The instantaneous output voltage v0 in fourier series can be expressed as


 4V 
v0     sin nwt  ------ (4)
n 1, 3, 5,.... n 

and for n=1,the output rms fundamental voltage

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2 2V
V01rms   0.90V ------------(5)


Under steady state conditions ,the initial current is Ii as shown in the fig (b)and load current

V  Rt   R 
io  1  exp     I i . exp   t  -----(6)
R  L   L 

0  t  t1

For v0  V , I i  0 -------(7)

Similarly during the second half cycle t1  t  t 2 , when the supply is effectively reversed across
the load

V   Rt    Rt 
i0  exp     1  I 1 . exp    -- (8)
R  L    L

0  t  t2  t1 

where t=0,is measured from the instant t=t 1.

For v0  V , I | 0

Since I1=-Ii, the initial steady state current I1 can be found from eq (6) by substituting at t=t 1,i0=I1
and solving as,

 Rt 
 1  exp   1  
V  L  
I1   ---------- (9)
R  Rt  
 1  exp   1  
 
  L 

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The zero current cross over point t x as shown in fig (b)can be obtained from the equation by
substituting that at t=t x ,i0=0 which yields,

L  I i .R 
tx  ln 1  ------------ (10)
R  V 

For an R-L load,the instantaneous load current iocanbe obtained as


sin nt   n 
4V
i0  
n 1, 3, 5,..... nZ n
---------(11)

where


Zn= R 2  nL 
2

1
2  nL 
and n  tan 1 
 R 


QUASI-SQUARE WAVE OPERATION :

This type of control (usually referred to as output control by voltage cancellation )is feasible only
in a single phase ,full bridge inverter circuit. It is based on the combination of square wave
switching and PWM with unipolar switching and the control of the voltage is obtained from a
fixed level d.c. source by introducing zero period into the square wave ,giving a shape

known as a quasi-square wave as shown in fig(c).In the circuit ,the switches in the two converter
legs are controlled separately(similar to PWM unipolar voltage switching) .But all switches have
a duty ratio of 0.5 similar to square wave control. This results in the waveform overlap between
positive and negative half cycle of the output voltage during the time period t 0 to t1,where the
corresponding waveform overlap angle α can be controlled .During this overlap interval ,the
output voltage is zero as a consequence of either both top switches or both bottom switches being
ON. With α=0,the output voltage is similar to a square wave inverter with maximum
fundamental output magnitude.

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The quasi-square wave can also be generated by phase advancing the switching on of the
complementary pairs of switches S1,S4 compared to switches S2,S3.

In fig(c) this advance is shown as an angle α.In other words ,the swithching of switch S 1 and S4is
advanced by α degrees before that of switch S2 and S3.

After switch S1 and S2 have been switched ON , at the angle (180- α) one switch is made OFF.
when switch S1 is turn off ,the load current transfers to diode D 4.But switch S2 is still ON and
hence the load current follows a free wheeling path through switch S 2 and D4 and there by
effectively short circuiting the lolad giving rise to zero load (output)voltage according to
equation.

di0
0= L  i0 R --------------- (12)
dt

Now ,when S2 is switched off ,and switches S3 and S4 are turned on ,the only path for the load
current is via D3,connecting the d.c.source to the load in the negative sense and the diode
D4.With switches S3 and S4 taking up conduction immediately after zero load current .The
current waveforms in the switches and diodes are not now identical.

The output voltage shown in fig(b,c) consists of a sequence of finite voltage alternated with zero
output voltage periods .During a zero output periods ,a diode and a switch conducts .as shown
S1and D3 in the first period and S3 and D1 in the second zero output period. The next two zero
output voltage sequence would be S2 and D4 and then S4 and D2.By alternating the zero voltage
loops, losses are distributed between the semiconductor switches and hence the device switching
frequency is half that experienced by the load and a finer output resolution is achievable.

As already stated ,another way of producing a quasi square wave of controllable width is to add
the outputs of two phase shifted square wave inverters is shown in fig(d) .Phase shifting of
inverter 2 by an angle α as compared to inverter 1,the combined output of the resulting single
phase bridge inverter is a quasi square wave output with zero voltage periods of duration α angle.

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The voltage level of the quasi square wave of fixed width can be controlled by a reduction of d.c.
source input voltage.However in general,the output voltage can be varied by varying the delay
angle α and are advantageously used for high power applications.

It is easier to derive ,rms,fundamental and the harmonic frequency components of the outpyt

voltage in terms of β=     as shown in fig

2

The rms output voltage

1
     2
V0 RMS= V V  ----------- (13)
   

The rms value of harmonic voltage components is

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
2

 v  v02  cosn .d

2
VOh rms = where , θ=ωt
2
01

2

V cosn .d  n sin(n )

2 2V
= ---------- (14)
 

The rms fundamental output voltage (n=1) is obtained as


V sin(  ) 
2 2 2 2V
V01RMS  cos ---------- (15)
 2  2

where, β=(π-α)/2 and n=an odd integer

From fig (c) ,the load current i0 for an applied quasi-square wave voltage is defined as follows:

(a) For v0>0,

V  Rt   Rt 
i0  1  exp     I i exp   
R  L   L

0  t  t0 ----------- (16)

For Ii  0

(b) For v0=0

 Rt 
i0  I 1 exp   
 L

0  t  t1  t 0
For ------------- (17)
I1  0

(c) For v0<0

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 Rt  V   Rt  
i0  I 2 exp     exp     1
 L  R  L   ------- (18)

0  t  t0
for
I2  0

  t0 L   t L 
 exp     exp   1  
V   R   R 
I i   .
R  t L 
 1  exp   1  
  R  

----------(19)

  t0 L  
1  exp   
V   R 
I1  . ------- (20)
R   t1 L  
 1  exp   
  R 

I2= -Ii ------------ (21)

RIPPLE IN SINGLE PHASE OUTPUT:

The ripple in a repetitive waveform refers to the difference between the instantaneous values of
the waveform and its fundamental frequency component. Asumming an induction motor load
which is shown by means of a simplified equivalent circuit with a counter electromotive force e o
.Since eo(t) is sinusoidal, only the sinusoidal components of inverter output voltage and current
are rewsponsible for the real power transfer to the load.

We can separate the fundamental frequency and the ripple component in v o and io by applying
superposition principle.

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Let v0=vo1+ vripple and io = io1 + iripple

Where vripple = vo-vo1 ------------- (22)

And ouput current riplle can be calculated as

t
1
L 0
iripple (t )  vripple ( x)dx  k ------------- (23)

Where k is constant and x is variable of integration.

Equations (22 & 23) show that current ripple is independent of the power being transferred to the
load.The PWM inverter results in the substantially smaller peak ripple current compared to the
square wave inverter. This shows the advantage of pushing the harmonics in the inverter output
voltage to as high frequencies as feasible , there by reducing the losses in the load by reducing
the output current harmonics . This is achieved by using higher inverter switching frequencies ,
which would result in more frequent switchings and hence higher switching losses in the inverter
.

Fig(e)

Fig(f)

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig(1)

The model of BJT is as follows

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The model parameters for BJT are

IS p-n saturation current 1e-16

BF Ideal maximum forward β 100

NF Forward current emission coeficient 1

VAF Forward early voltage 1 e30

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IKF Corner for forward beta high current roll-off 1 e30

ISE Base – emitter leakage saturation current 0

NE Base – emitter leakage emission coeficient 1.5

BR Ideal maximum reverse beta 1

NR Reverse current emission coeficient 1

VAR Reverse early voltage 1 e30

IKR Corner for reverse beta high current roll-off 1 e30

ISC Base – collector leakage saturation current 0

NC Base – collector leakage emission coefficient 2

RB Zero – bias (maximum) base resistance 0

RBM Minimum base resistance 0

IRB Current at which RB falls halfway to RBM 1 e30

RE Emitter ohmic resistance 0

RC Collector ohmic resistance 0

CJE Base-emitter zero- bias p-n capacitance 0

VJE Base emitter built-in potential 0.75

MJE Base emitter p-n grading factor 0.33

TF Ideal forward transit time 0

XTF Transit –time bias dependence coeficient 0

VTF Transit -time dependency on VBC 1 e30

ITF Transit -time dependency on IC 0

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PTF Excess phase at 1/(2* TF)Hz 0

CJC Base collector zero- bias p-n capacitane 0

MJC Base-collector p-n grading factor 0.33

VJC Base collector biult – in potential 0.75

XCJC Fraction of CBC connected internal to RB 1

TR Ideal reverse transit time 0

CJS Collector –substrate zero- bias p-n capacitance 0

VJS Collector substrate built in potential 0.75

MJC Collector –substrate p-n grading factor 0

XTB Forward and reverse beta temperaturecoeficient 0

EG Band gap voltage (Barrier height) 1.11

XTI IS temperature-effect exponent 3

KF Flicker noise coefficient 0

AF Flicker noise exponent 0

FC Forward bias depletion capacitor coefficient 0.5

TNOM Temperature 17

The diode model is as follows

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The model parameters for diode are

IS Saturation current 1 e-14

RS Parastic resistance 0

N Emission coeficient 1

TT Transit time 0

CJO Zero – bias p-n capacitance 0

VJ Junction potential 1

M Junction – gradient coefficient 0.5

EG Activation energy 1.11

XT1 IS temperature exponent 3

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KF Flicker noise coefficient 0

AF Flicker noise exponent 1

FC Forward bias depletion capacitance coefficient 0.5

BV Reverse breakdown voltage 1e30

IBV Reverse breakdown current 1 e-3

TNOM Temperatue 27

The description of the pulse source is given below

Initial value 0V

Pulsed Value 40V

Delay time this will be calculated accordance with on time of

transistor

Rise time 1 nsec

Fall time 1 nsec

Pulse width 0.5 msec (Pulse width changes in accordance with duty

Cycle)

Period 1msec

PROCEDURE:

1. Open a new circuit file in Multisim.

2. Place the components as required in circuit diagram.

3. Connect the components by wiring.

4. Ground the circuit.

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5. Save the circuit file.

6. Go to analysis set up, transient analysis and set the parameters and

miscellaneous options as shown below.

Analysis Parameters:

Tstart =0

Tstop = 0.004

Miscellaneous options

Reltol = 0.001

Abstol = 1 e-12

7. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms and tabulate the values.

8. Go to analysis set up, fourier analysis, measure the third harmonic value of

current.

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

R-Load:-

For pulse width T/2

R  10, Vs  50V

T
1 2
T / 2 0
V0  Vs dt

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1 T
 xVs x
T /2 2

Vs  50V

V0 50
I   5A
R 10

 I max  5 A

I min  5 A

T
1 3
T / 3 0
For pulse width T / 3,V0  Vs dt

Vs  50V

V0 50
I   5A
R 10

 I max  5 A

I min  5 A

RL-Load

R  10, L  5mH , T  1m sec

L 5 x10 3
   0.5m sec
R 10

Vs 1  e t /  
I max   t /  
R 1  e 

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For pulse width, t=T/2

V 1  e T / 2 
I max  s 1  eT / 2 
R  

50 1  e 1 
I max     2.31A
5 1  e 1 

 I min  2.31A

  t0 L 
  
Vs 1  e  R  
For pulse width, T/3, I max  .  t1 L  
R 
1  e  R  
 

  t0 L  
1  exp   
V   R 
I1  .
R   t1 L  
 1  exp   
  R 

50 1  e 0.333/ 0.5 
I max     1.7786 A
5  1  e 0.5 / 0.5 

 I min  1.7786 A

OBSERVATIONS:

Theoretical Simulated
R L (mH) 3rd harmonic
Imax Imin Imax Imin

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SIMULATION RESULTS:

The single phase inverter is simulated and the waveforms are as shown in figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
and 7.

Fig‟s 4, 5 are obtained for R, R-L Load for the pulse width of T/2.

Fig‟s 6, 7 are obtained for R, R-L Load for the pulse width of T/3.

R Load (square wave)

Fig.2 Pulses for Q1 and Q4

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Fig.3 Pulses for Q2 and Q3

Fig 4 Load voltage

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Fig 5 Load current

Fourier analysis for vv7#branch:

DC component: 2.49984e-011

No. Harmonics: 3, THD: 33.3601 %, Gridsize: 128, Interpolation Degree: 1

Harmonic Frequency Magnitude Phase Norm. Mag Norm. Phase

-------- --------- --------- ----- --------- -----------

1 1000 6.3482 -1.4062 1 0

2 2000 7.26935e-016 16.6403 1.1451e-016 18.0466

3 3000 2.11777 -4.2187 0.333601 -2.8125

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R Load(quasi wave)

Fig.6 Pulses for Q1 and Q4

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Fig.7 Pulses for Q2 and Q3

Fig 8 Load voltage

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Fig 9 Load current

Fourier analysis for vv6#branch:

DC component: 3.32088e-011

No. Harmonics: 3, THD: 0.940939 %, Gridsize: 128, Interpolation Degree: 1

Harmonic Frequency Magnitude Phase Norm. Mag Norm. Phase

-------- --------- --------- ----- --------- -----------

1 1000 5.52349 -2.2774e-009 1 0

2 2000 1.36576e-011 90.0917 2.47264e-012 90.0917

3 3000 0.0519726 -1.6378e-007 0.00940939 -1.615e-007

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RL Load(square wave)

Fig 10 Load voltage

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Fig 11 Load current

Fourier analysis for vv6#branch:

DC component: 0.00220587

No. Harmonics: 3, THD: 11.8659 %, Gridsize: 128, Interpolation Degree: 1

Harmonic Frequency Magnitude Phase Norm. Mag Norm. Phase

-------- --------- --------- ----- --------- -----------

1 1000 1.93822 -71.646 1 0

2 2000 0.000701391 12.3323 0.000361874 83.9784

3 3000 0.229986 -83.254 0.118659 -11.608

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RL Load (quasi wave)

Fig 12 Load voltage

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Fig 13 Load current

Fourier analysis for vv6#branch:

DC component: 0.00141711

No. Harmonics: 3, THD: 0.205378 %, Gridsize: 128, Interpolation Degree: 1

Harmonic Frequency Magnitude Phase Norm. Mag Norm. Phase

-------- --------- --------- ----- --------- -----------

1 1000 1.67518 -71.423 1 0

2 2000 0.000450643 13.0224 0.000269012 84.4458

3 3000 0.0034108 -28.426 0.00203608 42.997

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POWER MOSFET CHOPPER

Aim: To study about POWER MOSFET CHOPPER.

Apparatus:

1. Control circuit.
2. Power circuit.

Theory:

A chopper is a static device that converts fixed DC input voltage to a variable DC output
voltage directly. A chopper may be thought of as dc equivalent of an ac transformer since they
behave in an identical manner. They are more efficient as they involve only one stage
conversion. A chopper is a high speed ON/OFF semiconductor switch. It connects source to load
and disconnects the load from source at a fast speed. In chopper the principle of switching the
load ON and OFF is used as means of controlling the load power.

A MOSFET, which acts as a self commutated switch, is used for ON and OFF, simply to
applying or removing the voltage across source and gate terminals.

The main advantages of chopper are as follows:

1. Efficiency is high.
2. Flexibility in control.
3. Response is quick.
4. Light weight and small size.
Control Circuit:

This unit generates base for the MOSFET. Frequency of the chopper can be varied from
100Hz to 1 KHz approximately. Duty cycle of the chopper can be varied from 0% to 90%
ON/OFF switch is provided for output with soft start feature.

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Power Circuit:

A chopper with power MOSFET feeding a resistive. The chopper will be made ON and OFF
periodically. when the chopper is ON ,an exponentially rising current will be taken from the
source. when the chopper is OFF, the current will continue to flow through the flywheel diode
decreasing exponentially

The main load voltage is

V0 = Vmean = Vs Ton/T=Vs K where k is the duty ratio T=Ton +Toff

This unit consists of a POWER MOSFET mounted on a proper heat sink protected by snubber
circuit for dv/dt protection. A fuse is provided for short circuit and over current protection.

A MCD is provided in the input side to switch ON/OFF the DC supply to the power circuit. A
freewheeling diode is also provided. All the points are brought out on the pane for
interconnections and observe waveforms.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the driver output to gate and source of MOSFET
3. Switch ON the mains for control circuit & observe the load voltage by varying frequency
and duty cycle using a potentiometer provided in the power circuit.
4. Observe the output waveforms.
5. Repeat the same procedure for R-L load.

TABULAR COLUMN.

For maximum frequency

Where F = 833 Hz

Input voltage VDC 30 V

SL.NO Ton (ms) Toff (ms) Duty cycle% Output Volatge in

Volts

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For minimum frequency

Where F = 125 Hz

Input voltage VDC 30 V

SL.NO Ton (ms) Toff (ms) Duty cycle% Output Volatge in

Volts

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MODEL GRAPH

OBSERVATIONS:

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SIMULATION OF SINGLE PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED

CONVERTER WITH R AND RL LOAD USING MATLAB
AIM:

1.To observe gate pulses of firing circuit.

2. To study the operation of single phase fully controlled full wave bridge rectifier and to
observe the output waveforms with

R – Load

R-L Load by using mat lab software

APPARATUS:

MAT LAB SOFT SOFTWARE

THEORY:

R-LOAD:

During the positive half cycle of supply voltage thyristor T1 and thyristor T2 are in forward
biased condition. When triggering pulse is given to these thyristors simultaneously the load
current flows through the path source-T1-Load-T2-source.During the negative half cycle of
supply voltage, thyristors T1, T2 gets turned off naturally. At an instant wt=180+∝,when
Type equation here. a triggering pulse is given to thyristors T3 and T4 which are in the forward
biased condition the load current flows through the path source-T3-load-T4-source. The load
voltage can be found out as

𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
𝝅

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RL –LOAD:

During the positive half cycle of supply voltage thyristor T1 and thyristor T2 are in forward biased
condition. When triggering pulse is given to these thyristors simultaneously the load current
flows through the path source-T1-RL Load-T2-source.At the instant wt=180 the supply voltage
gets reversed , but due to the presence of larger value of load inductance the current is maintained
in the same direction with a constant magnitude. Hence the thyristors T1and T2 are in conducting
state though the supply voltage reaches zero.

During the negative half cycle of supply voltage, thyristors T1, T2 gets turned off naturally. At an
instant wt=180+ α,when a triggering pulse is given to thyristors T3and T4 which are in the forward
biased condition the load current flows through the path source-T3-RL load-T4-source.at an instant
wt=3600, the thyristors T3 and T4 are still in the conducting state. The load voltage can be found
out as

𝒗𝒎
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷
𝝅

The value of β can be obtained from a transcendental equation

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 − ∅ = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∝ −∅ ∙ 𝒆𝑹/𝑳 ∝−𝜷/𝝎

The conduction angle 𝜸 = 𝜷 − 𝜶

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CIRCUITDIAGRAM:

Fig(1) BRIDGE CIRCUIT

Fig(1) BRIDGE CIRCUIT

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MAT LAB CIRCUIT

PROCEDURE:-

1. Open a new circuit file in SIMULINK M-file

2. Place the components as required in circuit diagram.
3. Connect the components by wiring.
4. Save the circuit file.
6. Go to simulation set up and set the parameters and Options.
7. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms and tabulate the values.

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MODEL GRAPHS:

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Simulation results:

Source voltage:

LOAD VOLTAGE WAVE FORM FOR RL LOAD:

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LOAD VOLTAGE WAVE FORM FOR R LOAD:

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AUXILIARY COMMUTATION OF SCR

AIM: To study Auxiliary commutation of scr

APPARATUS:

1. Power module
2. Firing unit
3. DC power supply 30V/2A dual channel
4. CRO
5. Patch chords
6. Multimeter etc.

THEORY:

A Thyristor is turned on by applying a signal to its gate cathode circuit for the purpose of power
control. A conducting Thyristor must be turned off as desire. As stated before, the turn off a
thyristors means bringing the device from forward conduction state to forward blocking state.
The Thyristor turn off requires that (i) Its anode current falls below the holding current and (ii) A
reverse voltage is applied to Thyristor for a sufficient time to enable it to recover to blocking
state. Commutation is defined as the process of turning off a Thyristor.

Auxiliary commutation or Impulse commutation:-

Class – D commutation is called auxiliary commutation or impulse commutation. The auxiliary

commutation circuit is shown in fig(4). Here an auxiliary Thyristor is used to turn off the main
SCR 𝑇𝑀 . It is assumed that the capacitor C is initially charged to voltage with the polarity as
shown when 𝑇𝑀 is turned on, the capacitor will discharge through it, and through the inductor L.
At the end of discharge cycle the capacitor voltage will reverse and will be held by diode D to
stay with this polarity. When 𝑇𝐴 is fired, the capacitor will discharge through 𝑇𝑀 and turn it off.
Since a reverse voltage is applied across the 𝑇𝑀 immediately after turning on the SCR, this
phenomenon is known as voltage commutation.

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Fig
(4)

Auxiliary commutation

CLASS-D COMMUTATION / AUXILLARY COMMUTATION / IMPULSE

COMMUTATION:

1. The firing circuit is switched on and observe for the gate pulses.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram by connecting rheostat as load with input
DC voltage at 24V.
3. The gate pulses from the firing circuit are connected to the SCR in the power module.
4. Check all the connections and confirm connections made are correct before switching on the
equipment.
5. Switch on the DC power supply and also firing circuit.
6. observe the resonant frequency of the circuit 𝜔0 = 1 circuit turn off time for main SCR
√𝐿𝐶
𝑉𝑆
𝑡0 = 𝐶 𝐼𝑂 ,where 𝐼𝑂 is load current& circuit turnoff time for auxiliary SCR 𝑡0 =

𝜋
2𝜔𝑂 ,.

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7. Keeping frequency constant, duty cycle of the firing circuit is varied in steps and observe the
corresponding load Voltage for each step.
8. Observe and trace load voltage, commutating capacitor voltage wave form using CRO

Auxiliary commutation

Frequency = 50Hz VDC =

OUTPUT
S.NO T on (ms) Duty Cycle (%)
VOLTAGE (V)

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MODEL GRAPHS

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. For commutation failure switches OFF firing circuit as power circuit. Again switch ON
power circuit as well as firing circuit.
2. At power frequencies SCR may not turn on due to in sufficient voltage across the
capacitor.
3. If duty cycle is increased to large value SCR may not turn on due to
a) Insufficient turn off time
b) Capacitor voltage may be insufficient to commutate the SCR

4. Response of commutation is poor if the input power supply is not regulated & if it
doesn‟t supply required current.

OBSERVATIONS:

1.

2.

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DUAL CONVERTER

Aim: To study the performance of a 1-PHASE DUAL CONVERTER.

Apparatus:

Single phase dual converter firing unit.

Single phase dual converter power circuit.

Theory:

Whenever a four quadrant operation is required without any mechanical change over switch, two
full converters can be connected back to back to the load circuit. Such an arrangement using two
full converters in anti-parallel and connected to the same dc load is called a dual converter

With the firing angles controlled in a manner that α1+α2=180° and with both the converters in
operation, their average output voltages are equal and have same polarity.

One converter will be operation as a rectifier with firing angle α 1 and the other as an inverter
with firing angle 180°-α1. Though their average output voltages are equal, yet their instantaneous
voltages are out of phase in a practical dual converter. Dual converters are of two types. They
are:

Dual Converter without Circulating Current.

Dual Converter with Circulation Current.

Power Circuit:

A dual converter can be operated in all the four quardrants.this converter consists of two fully
controlled converters connected in anti parallel as shown in fig .it is very suitable for high power
variable speed drive .the polarities of both voltage and current can be reversed giving four
quadrant operation. One converter operates as rectifier and the other operates as inverter .let α1
and α2 be the firing angles of converter 1and 2 respectively. Using the average output voltages
are

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Vdc1= 2Vm/π cos α1

Vdc2= 2Vm/ π cos α2

Since one converter is rectifying and the other is inverting

Vdc1=-Vdc2

Cos α2=- cos α1=cos (π - α1)

α1+ α2= π.

The instantaneous output voltages of the two converters are out of phase. Therefore, a circulating
current will flow through the converters .this circulating current will not flow through the load.

Dual Converter without Circulating Current:

Suppose converter 1 is in operation and is supplying the load current. For blocking converter 1
and switching ON converter 2, a first firing pulse to converter 1 are immediately removed or is
increased to maximum value and then firing pulses are blocked. With this the load current would
decay to zero and then only converter 2 is made to conduct by applying the firing pulses to it. It
should be ensured that during changeover from one converter to the other, the load current must
decay to zero. After the outgoing converter has stopped conducting, a delay time of 10 to 20
msec is introduced before reliable commutation of SCRs in the outgoing converter. With non-
circulating current mode of dual converter, the load current may be continuous or discontinuous.

Dual Converter with Circulating Current:

In the circulation current mode of dual converter, a reactor is inserted in between converters 1
and 2. This reactor limits the magnitude of circulating current to a reasonable value. The normal
delay period of 10 to 20 msec, as required in circulating-current free operation, is not needed
here. This makes the dual converter with circulating current operation faster.

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FIRING CIRCUIT:

Each SCR of the above power circuit to be triggered using independently isolated outputs using
three phase converter firing unit. Trigger outputs phase sequence and variation to be checked
before connecting to the power circuit. Phase sequence to be compared with the power circuit
phase sequence.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig(1) single phase dual converter

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Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram

2. Observe trigger outputs of both P and N converter by varying firing angle in both
circulatory and non-circulatory current mode.
3. Make sure that all the pulses are proper before connecting to power circuit C
4. Connect firing pulses from the firing circuit to the respective SCR‟s gate/cathode
terminals in the power circuit.
5. Switch ON the firing circuit and Select NCC mode and switch ON the MCB.
6. Vary the firing angle by dec key and press ON/OFF key to ON and observe the voltage
wave forms across load and the devices.
7. Tabulate the reading of firing angle,loadvoltage and load current in the tabular column.
8. plot a graph bof firinf angle verses load voltage
9. Repeat the same for circulatory current mode also.
TABULAR COLUMN

FOR R LOAD:

Non circulating current mode:

P converter – ON, N converter – OFF

Output Volage in Volts

SL.NO Firing angle Theritical Practical

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Non circulating current mode:

P converter – OFF, N converter - ON

Output Volage in Volts

SL.NO Firing angle Theritical Practical

Circulating current mode:

S.NO Firing Angle Output Voltage

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MODEL GRAPHS

TP1&TP2

TN1&TN2

TP2&TP4

TN3&TN4

Fig(2)TRIGGER OUTPUTS

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Fig. (3)

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PRECAUTION:

1.
Initially keep the input voltage low and firing angle at 1800 .Slowly increase voltage to
the rated voltage and angle to 00

OBSERVATIONS:

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SIMULATION OF Three phase fully controlled bridge CONVERTER USING MATLAB

AIM: 1.To observe gate pulses of firing circuit.

2. To study the operation of Three phase fully controlled full wave bridge rectifier and to
observe the output waveforms with

R – Load

R-L Load using MATLAB.

APPARATUS:

MATLAB Software

THEORY:-

The operation of a 3-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier circuit is described in this page. A
three-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier can be constructed using six SCRs as shown below.

The three-phase bridge rectifier circuit has three-legs, each phase connected to one of the three
phase voltages. Alternatively, it can be seen that the bridge circuit has two halves, the positive
half consisting of the SCRs S1, S3 and S5 and the negative half consisting of the SCRs S2, S4 and
S6. At any time, one SCR from each half conducts when there is current flow. If the phase
sequence of the source be RYB, the SCRs are triggered in the sequence S 1, S2 , S3 , S4, S5 , S6 and
S1 and so on.

It can be seen that the R-phase voltage is the highest of the three-phase voltages when α is in the
range from 30o to 150o. It can also be seen that Y-phase voltage is the highest of the three-phase

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voltages when α is in the range from 150o to 270o and that B-phase voltage is the highest of the
three-phase voltages when α is in the range from 270o to 390o or 30o in the next cycle. We also
find that R-phase voltage is the lowest of the three-phase voltages when α is in the range from
210o to 330o. It can also be seen that Y-phase voltage is the lowest of the three-phase voltages
when α is in the range from 330o to 450o or 90o in the next cycle, and that B-phase voltage is the
lowest when α is in the range from 90o to 210o.

Period, range of α SCR Pair in conduction

α + 30o to α + 90o S1 and S6

α + 90o to α + 150o S1 and S2

α + 150o to α + 210o S2 and S3

α + 210o to α + 270o S3 and S4

α + 270o to α + 330o S4 and S5

α + 330o to α + 360o and α + 0o to α + 30o S5 and S6

SIMULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FOR R-LOAD:

Fig(1) SIMULATION CIRCUIT FOR R-LOAD

FOR RL-LOAD:

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Fig(2) SIMULATION CIRCUIT FOR RL-LOAD

SIMULATION RESULTS:

FOR R- LOAD

Fig(3) OUT PUT VOLTAGE WITH R-LOAD

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Fig(4) PULSE GENERATOR OUTPUTS

Fig(5) INPUT VOLTAGE WAVE FORM

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SINGLE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER USING MATLAB

AIM:

1.To observe gate pulses of firing circuit.

2. To study the operation of single phase fully controlled full wave bridge

rectifier and to observe the output waveforms with

R – Load

R-L Load by using mat lab software

APPARATUS:

MAT LAB SOFT SOFTWARE

THEORY:

INTRODUCTION :

The AC Regulators are used to obtain a variable AC output Voltage from a fixed AC source. A
single phase AC regulator is shown in the circuit of fig E.9.1 (a).It consists of two SCRs
connected in anti parallel (back-to-back). Instead of Two SCRs, a Triac may be used. The single
phase AC regulators are used in electronic fan control, heating control etc,.

R LOAD:

In a single phase AC voltage controller with SCR‟s feeding power to resistive load the
alternating SCR conducts during positive and negative half cycles. the two thyristors are
connected in anti parallel .Thyristors T1&T2 are forward biased during positive and negative
half cycles. During positive half cycle,T1 is triggered at a firing angle ∝, T1 starts conducting
and source voltage is applied to load from α to 180°. At 180° both V 0 and I0 fall to
zero.After180°, T1 is reverse biased therefore T1 is turned OFF. During negative half cycle T2 is
triggered at (180°+∝).T2 conducts from (180°+∝) to 360°.Soon after 360°, T2 is reverse biased
and same process repeats.

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In a single phase AC voltage controller with SCR‟s feeding power to resistive load TRIAC
conducts during positive and negative half cycles. During positive half cycle,MT2becomes
forward biased with respect toMT1.Triac starts conducting and source voltage is applied to load
from α to 180°.From 180° on wards MT2 is subjected to reverse biase and is therefore turned off.
During negative half cycle MT1 becomes forward biased triac is triggered at (180°+∝).Triac
conducts from (180°+∝) to 360°. During next half cycle MT1 becomes reverse biased and is
therefore turned off.The load voltage can be found out by

𝟏/𝟐
𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒎 /√𝟐 𝝅 − 𝜶/𝝅 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶/𝟐𝝅

R-L LOAD:

The operation of the circuit is explained with reference to R-L load. During positive half cycle
SCR1 is triggered into conduction at a firing angle delay of ∝. The current rises slowly due to the
Load inductance. The current continue to flow even after the supply voltage reverses polarity
because of the stored energy in the inductor.

As long as SCR1 conducts, conduction drop across it, will reverse bias SCR2. Hence SCR2 will
not turn on even if gating signal is applied. SCR2 can be triggered into conduction during
negative half cycle after SCR1, turns off.

In this during positive half cycle T1 is forward biased. At wt= ∝ ,T1 is triggered and load
current starts building up through the load .At 180° load and source voltages are zero but the
current is not zero because of presence of inductance in the load circuit. At β>180°load current
reduces to zero. Angle β is called extinction angle. After 180°, T1 is reverse biased but does not
turns OFF because current is not zero. At β only T1 is turns OFF as it is already reverse biased
.From β to (180°+ ∝), no current exists in the power circuit. This shows load current is
discontinuous.

In a single phase AC voltage controller with SCR‟s feeding power to inductive load TRIAC
conducts during positive and negative half cycles. During positive half cycle,MT2becomes
forward biased with respect toMT1.Triac starts conducting and source voltage is applied to load
from ∝, at 180°the load current is not zero. Therefore Triac conducts beyond 180° till β .At β

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load current reduces to zero therefore triac turnes off.During negative half cycle MT1 becomes
forward biased and triac is triggered at (180°+ ∝ ).Triac conducts from (180°+∝) to 360°+ β.

During next half cycle MT1 becomes reverse biased and is therefore turned off.The load voltage
can be found out by

𝟏/𝟐
𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒎 /√𝟐 𝟏/𝝅 𝜷 − 𝜶 + 𝟏/𝟐𝝅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜷

The value of β can be obtained from a transcendental equation

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 − ∅ = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∝ −∅ ∙ 𝒆𝑹/𝑳 ∝−𝜷/𝝎

The conduction angle 𝛾 = 𝛽 − 𝛼

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Fig (1) AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER CIRCUIT WITH SCR‟S IN ANTIPARALLEL

PROCEDURE:-

1. Open a new circuit file in SIMULINK M-file

2. Place the components as required in circuit diagram.

3. Connect the components by wiring.

4. Save the circuit file.

6. Go to simulation set up and set the parameters and Options.

7. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms and tabulate the values

R Load Circuit:

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Output Voltage Wave:

Gate Pulses:

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Input Voltage Wave:

RL Load Circuit:

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Gate Pulses:

Input Voltage Wave:

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Output Voltage Wave:

FOR R-LOAD:

Firing angle = 𝑋 𝐶 * 1800

𝟏/𝟐
Theoretical load voltage 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒎 /√𝟐 𝝅 − 𝜶/𝝅 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶/𝟐𝝅

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

Firing angle(∝)=

𝑽𝒎 =

𝟏/𝟐
Theoretical load voltage 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒎 /√𝟐 𝝅 − 𝜶/𝝅 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶/𝟐𝝅

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Load voltage Load voltage

Sl.No. Firing angle in degrees
Practical Theritical

For RL Load:

Firing angle = = 𝑋 𝐶 * 1800

Theoretical load voltage:

𝟏/𝟐
𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒎 /√𝟐 𝟏/𝝅 𝜷 − 𝜶 + 𝟏/𝟐𝝅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜷

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

Firing angle(∝)=

Extinction angle (𝜷) =

𝑽𝒎 =

Theoretical load voltage

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𝟏/𝟐
𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒎 /√𝟐 𝟏/𝝅 𝜷 − 𝜶 + 𝟏/𝟐𝝅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜷

extinction
Firing angle Load Voltage Load Voltage
angle in
Sl.No. in degrees (Practical) V (Theritica)V
degrees

Note: If thyristors are not fired mean synchronization of gate pulses

Are interchanged, and then reverse the polarity of input Transformer

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OBSERVATIONS:

1.

2.

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CHAPTER – IV

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Lab Manual For IV-I B.Tech EEE Students

Name of the Lab:

Electrical Simulation Lab

Prepared By:
E.VARGIL KUMAR, Associate Professor.
B.MAHESH BABU, Assistant Professor.
G.BALAJI, Assistant Professor.

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GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE :: GUDLAVALLERU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL SIMULATION LAB

LIST OF EXPERMENTS LIST

1. SIMULATION OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF R-L-C CIRCUITS

2. ANALYSIS OF THREE-PHASE CIRCUIT REPRESENTING THE GENERATOR,
TRANSMISSION LINE AND LOAD
3. SIMULATION OF SINGLE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH PWM
CONTROL FOR RL LOAD
4. SIMULATION OF SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER USING RL & E LOAD
WITH AND WITHOUT FREEWHEELING DIODE
5. SIMULATION OF RESONANT PULSE COMMUTATION CIRCUIT
6. SIMULATION OF BUCK CHOPPER
7. SIMULATION OF SINGLE PHASE INVERTER WITH PULSE WIDTH
MODULATION (PWM) CONTROL
8. SIMULATION OF OP - AMP BASED INTEGRATOR AND DIFFERENTIATOR
CIRCUITS
9. TRANSFER FUNCTION ANALYSIS OF A GIVEN CIRCUIT
10. ROOT LOCUS, BODE PLOT AND NYQUIST PLOT
11. POWER FLOW SOLUTION OF A POWER SYSTEM
12. SIMULATION OF LOSSY TRANSMISSION LINE
13. MODELLING OF DC MOTOR AND ITS SPEED CONTROL
(CASCADE CONTROL)

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SIMULATION OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF R-L-C CIRCUITS

Aim: To observe transient response of R-L-C Circuit when the input is

(i) Pulse input (ii) Step input (iii) Sinusoidal input.

Apparatus: Multisim 2001 or MATLAB Software, PC.

Circuit diagrams:

FIG.1

Theory:

The sources are Transient sources since they are varying with time. Types of Transient Voltage
Sources:-

1. Exponential
2. Pulse
3. Piece wise Linear
4. Sinusoidal
5. Single frequency modulation.
Out of these five sources, only three sources are simulated. These are given below.

Pulse Source: Pulse source is defined as PULSE and general waveform of

a pulse source is as follows

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(V1 V2 Td Tr Tf PW P)

V1 = Initial Voltage

V2 = Pulsed voltage

Td = Delay time FIG.2

Tr = Rise time

Tf = fall time

PW = Pulse width

PER = Period

The pulse source is described as

Initial value 0

Pulsed value 100 V

Delay time 0

Rise time 1ns

Fall time 1ns

Pulse width 100 µs

Period 600 µs

Piecewise Linear Source: A point in a waveform can be described by (Ti, Vi) or (Ti, Ii) and
every pair of values (Ti, Vi) or (Ti, Ii) specifies the source value at time Ti

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FIG.3

PWL (T1 V1 T2 V2 …….. Tn Vn)

Ti = Time at a point

Vi = Voltage at a point

Time voltage

0 0

1E-12 1

10 1

20 1

Sinusoidal Source:

FIG.4

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Symbol of source is SIN and general form is

SIN (V0 VA Freq Td ALP Theta)

V0 - offset voltage V None

Va – Peak voltage V None

Freq – Frequency Hz 1 / TSTOP

Td - Delay time Sec 0

ALP – Damping factor 1 / sec 0

Theta – Phase delay Degree 0

The sinusoidal source is described as follows

Voltage amplitude 10V

Voltage RMS 7.07V

Voltage offset 0

Frequency 5000Hz

Time delay 0sec

Damping factor 0 sec-1

Phase 0deg

Consider an R-L-C series circuit as shown in figure 4.

FIG.5

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Applying Kirchhoff‟s voltage Law

di 1
dt C 
v(t )  Ri (t )  L  i(t )dt

Applying Laplace transform with initial conditions as Zero.

1
V ( s)  RI ( s)  sLI ( s)  I ( s)
Cs

 1 
  R  sL   I ( s)
 Cs 

V ( s)
I ( s) 
1
R  sL 
Cs
Characteristic equation in Laplace domain is

R 1
s2  s 0
L LC
The roots of quadratic equation is

R
2
 R  1
s1, 2     
2L  2L  LC

Specifications of a second – order system are

R
1. Damping factor   
2L
1
2. Resonant frequency o 
LC

s1, 2     2   o
2

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The solution of the current depends upon the values of  & o . The possible conditions.

Case 1: If   o the roots are complex and conjugate and the circuit is said to be under
damped. The roots are

s1, 2    j r

The solution is I (t )  A1e   jr t  A2 e   jr t

r  o 2   2 is called ringing frequency

Case 2: If   o the roots are equal s1 = s2 and the circuit is said to be Critically damped. The
solution is

I (t )  ( A1t  A2 )e t
Case 3: If   o the roots are real, distinct and negative and the circuit is said to be over
damped.

The solution is I (t )  A1e s1t  A2 e s2t

This is a damped (or) decaying sinusoidal.

For Step Input

2
 R  1
When   
 2L  LC

i(t )  et (c1e t  c2e t )

R
2
 R  1
    
2L  2L  LC

Initial conditions are

di(0 ) V (0 )
+
i(0 )=0, 
dt L

i(0+)=c1 + c2 =0

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c1 =-c2

di
 c1 (   )e (   )t  c2 (   )e (   )t
dt
V
c1 (   )  c2 (   ) 
L

V
c1 (       ) 
L

V V
c1  c2  
2L 2L

V t t
i(t )  e (e  e   t )
2L

To find maximum value of current

di
0
dt

V
2L

(   )e(   )t  (   )e(   )t  0 
(   )e(   )t  (   )e(   )t

 
e(    (   )) t 
 

1    
t ln  
2     

2
 R  1
When   
 2L  LC

R
  0, s1  s2   
2L

i(t )  c1et  c2tet

Initial conditions are

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di(0 ) V (0 )
+
i(0 )=0, 
dt L

c1 = 0

i (t )  c2tet

di(t ) V
 c2tet  c2et 
dt L

V
c2 
L

V t
i(t )  te
L

To find the maximum value

di (t )
 tet  et  0
dt

1
t

2
 R  1
When   
 2L  LC

i(t )  et (c1 cos t  c2 sin t )

R
2
1  R 
 ,   
2L LC  2 L 

Initial conditions are

di(0 ) V (0 )
+
i(0 )=0, 
dt L

c1 = 0

i(t )  c2 et sin t

di V
 c2et sin t  c2 et cos t |0  
dt L

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V
c2 
L

V t
i(t )  e sin t
L
To find maximum value

e  cos t   sin t   0
di(t ) V t

dt L
1  
t tan 1  
   

For Sinusoidal input

di 1
dt C 
Ri  L  idt  Vm sin t

2
 R  1
  
 2L  LC

Vm
i(t )  et (c1 cos t  c2 sin t )  sin(t   )
Z
Where

 1 
  L 
R
2 2
1  R   
 ,  tan  C
1 
 ,     , Z  R 2   L  1

2L LC  2 L   C   R 
 
 

Initial conditions are

di(0) V (0)
i(0)  0,  0
dt L

Vm
i(0)  c1  sin   0
Z

 Vm
c1  sin 
Z

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di(t ) V
 c et cos t  c1et sin t  c2et sin t  c2 et cos t  m  cos(t   )
dt Z

di(0) V
 c1  c2   m  cos   0
dt Z

Vm
c2  ( sin    cos  )
Z

Vm
et [cos t (c1  c2  )  sin t (c2  c1 )]  cos(t   )  0
Z
2
 R  1
When   
 2L  LC

R
  0, s1  s2   
2L

Vm
i(t )  c1et  c2 te t  sin(t   )
Z

Initial conditions are

di(0) V (0)
i(0)  0,  0
dt L

Vm
c1  sin   0
Z

Vm
c1   sin 
Z

di(t ) V
 c1e t  c 2 (e t  te t )  m  cos(t   )  0
dt Z
Vm
c2  ( sin    cos  )
Z

To find the maximum value

di(t ) V
 c1te t  c2 (et  tet )  m  cos(t   )  0
dt Z

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2
 R  1
  
 2L  LC

Vm
i(t )  c1 (   )t  c2 e (   )t  sin(t   )
Z

From initial conditions

2
R  R  1
  , i(0)  0,     
2L  2 L  LC

Vm
c1  c2  sin   0
Z

di (0)
0
dt

Vm
c1 (   )e(   )t  c2 (   )e(   )t  cos(t   )  0
Z

Vm
(   )c1  (   )c2  cos   0
Z

Vm
 (c1  c2 )   (c1  c2 )  cos   0
Z

Vm Vm
sin    (c1  c2 )  cos   0
Z Z

 Vm Vm
c1  c2  sin   cos 
Z Z

Solving the equations

Vm   1    Vm
c1  sin     cos 
2Z    2Z

Vm   1   cos 
c2     sin  
2Z  2 2  2

For impulse input the current expressions are same as for step input

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Procedure:

1. Open a new circuit file.

2. Place the components as required in circuit diagram(R=__, L=__, C=__.

3. Connect the components by wiring.

4. Ground the circuit.

5. Save the circuit file.

6. Go to analysis set up, transient analysis and set the parameters as

TStart = 0

TStop = 0.5 ms

Tman = 1 e-8

7. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms and tabulate the values.

Model Calculations:

Step input

When R=1Ω, L= 50µC= 10 µF (SAY)

R
2
1  R 
  10000,       43588.9
2L LC  2 L 

1  
t max  tan 1    30.86 sec
   

V t
i(t )  e sin t  0.325 A
L

When R=8Ω, L= 50µC= 10 µF

R
2
 R  1
  80000,       66332.49
2L  2L  LC

1    
t max  ln    17.87  sec
2     

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V t t
i(t )  e (e  e  t )  0.106 A
2L

Sinusoidal Input:

R  1, L  50H , C  10F

2
 R  1
   10 ,  2 x10 9
8

 2 L  LC

2
 R  1
  
 2L  LC

1
  10000,   19 x10 8  43588.9, L  1.5707,  3.183, R  1,   58.1930 , Z  1.8973
C

C1=-4.479

C2 = -1.2059

C1  C 2   7773.42

C 2 1   207294

Solving the above transcendental equation

t max  218.82ses

i(t )  5.805 A

R  8, L  50H , C  10F

2
 R  1
   ,   66332.5,   80000
 2L  LC

Vm   V
C1  sin  1    m cos 
2Z    2 Z

Vm  1  sin   cos 
C2     
Z  2 2   2

1
L  1.57,  3.183, Z  8.161
C

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  11.4 0 ,  0.199rad

    80000  66332.5  13667.5

    80000  66332.5  146332.5

C1  0.2595, C2  0.03506,   31416

Solving the transcendental equation

10 x2x5000
 0.2595x(1366.7.5)e 13667.5t  0.0351  146337.5e 146337.5t  cos(t  0.199)
8.161

 354.7.28e 13667.5st  5130.42e 146332.5t  38495.2 cos(31416t  0.199)

t max  443.67 sec

10
1(t )  0.259e 1367.5t  0.03506e 146332.5t  cos(31416t  0.199)
8.161

i(t )  1.2248 A

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Observations:

Calculated Simulated

Input R
(Ω) T (µ
Current
T (µ
Current
sec) sec)
(Say)

1 30.86 0.325 30.877 328.45mA

Step 2 27.67 0.254 27.683 257.09mA

8 17.87 0.106 17.863 107.05mA

1 218.82 5.264 218.56 5.948A

Sinusoidal 2 228.61 3.82 228.142 3.92A

8 443.67 1.2248 443.053 1.226A

1 30.86 32.84 30.705 32.814

Impulse 2 27.67 25.7 27.375 25.712

8 17.87 10.7 17.3752 10.71

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Simulation results:

R-L-C Circuit with pulse input

FIG.6

R-L-C Circuit with Piece Wise Linear input

FIG.7

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R-L-C Circuit with Sinusoidal input

FIG.8

Transient response with pulse source

FIG.9

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Transient response with step source

FIG.10

Transient response with sinusoidal source

FIG.11

Applications:

1. In any sort of performance environment to analyze the initial states.

2. Analysis of ordered systems.

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Conclusion:

From This Experiment It Can Be Concluded That With Increase In Resistance Value The
Peak Time And The Corresponding Magnitude Is Said To Be Reduced.

Further Extension: vary the values of L or C by making other two as constants and observe the
response.

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ANALYSIS OF THREE-PHASE CIRCUIT REPRESENTING THE

GENERATOR, TRANSMISSION LINE AND LOAD

Aim:

To analyze three-phase circuit representing generator, transmission line and load. To plot three
phase currents and neutral currents using PSPICE

Apparatus:

1. Multisim2001
2. Personal Computer

Circuit diagram:

FIG.1

Theory:

Three phase system has many advantages over the single phase system, both from the utility
point of view as well as from the consumer point view. Some of the advantages are as under,

1. The power in a single phase circuit is pulsating where as in 3-Φ circuit, the total three phase
power supplied to a balanced three phase circuit is constant at every instant of time.
2. To transmit a given amount of power over a given length of 3-Φ transmission circuit requires
less conductor material than a single phase circuit.
3. In a given frame size, a 3-Φ generator produces more output than its single phase
counterpart.

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The voltage generated by a 3-Φ alternator the 3-Φ voltages are of the same magnitude and
frequency.

But are displaced from one another by 1200. Assuming the voltages to be sinusoidal. We can
write the equations for the instantaneous values of the Voltages of three phases.

VRR = Vm sin ωt

VYY = Vm sin (ωt -1200)

VBB = Vm sin (ωt -2400)

Procedure:

1. Open a new circuit file in Multisim.

2. Place the components as required in circuit diagram.

3. Connect the components by wiring.

4. Ground the circuit.

5. Save the circuit file.

6. Go to Transient analysis and set the parameters as given

Start time = 0

Stop time = 0.1

Tmax =1e-6

7. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms of phase currents and voltages and tabulate
the values

8. Repeat the same in different phases.

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Model waveform:

Single phase waveforms

Three phase waveforms

FIG.2

Model calculations:

Phase – A

RG  0.1, RT  1.8, RL  1.5

Total resistance of phase A RA  Rg  RT  RL  3.4

LG  4.1484mH , LT  1.1mH , LL  31.83mH

Reactance of phase A X A  j 2f ( LG  LT  LL )

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X A  j11.648

Impedance of phase A Z A  3.4  j11.648  12.1373.72

Van  12000

Van
Phase A Current I a   9.8895  73.7277 A
Za

I a max  2I a  13.985  73.7277 A

Phase – B

Zb  12.1373.72,Vbn  1201200

Vbn
I bn   9.889546.272 A
Zb

Ib max  2Ib  13.98546.272 A

Phase – C

ZC  12.1373.72,Vcn  120240

Vcn
I cn   9.8895166.27 A
Zc

I c max  2IC  13.985166.27 A

Load end voltages:

Phase – A

Load impedance of Phase – A Z ac  1.5  j9.79

Vac  I a xzac  141.57.560V

Phase – B

Z BL  1.5  j9.79

VBL  I .Z BL  141.27127.7V

Phase – C

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ZCL  1.5  j9.79

VBL  I .ZCL  141.27  112.69V

Neutral Current I n  ( I a  Ib  I c )  0 A

Observations:

RG  0.1, RT  1.8, RL  1.5

LG  4.1484mH , LT  1.1mH , LL  31.83mH

Calculated Simulated
Parameter
Magnitude Angle Magnitude Angle

Ia 11.9 -59.69 11.9465 -65.718

Ib 11.9 60.31 11.9465 55.718

Ic 11.9 180.31 11.9465 175.718

In 0 0 0 0

Van 137.21 4.61 136.1687 0

Vbn 137.21 124.61 136.1687 120

Vcn 137.21 -115.7 136.1687 240

Simulation results:

Three phase circuit with generator, transmission line and load is simulated and the waveforms
are as shown in fig

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FIG.3

SIMULATION WAVE FORMS

Single phase voltage and current waveforms

FIG.4

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Three phase voltage waveforms

FIG.5

CONCLUSION:

FURTHER EXTENSION:

Find Neutral current in unbalanced load.

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SIMULATION OF SINGLE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH

PWM CONTROL FOR RL LOAD

Aim: To simulate and validate the single phase AC voltage control with PWM control for RL
load using MATLAB/simulink power system block set.

Apparatus:

1. PC
2. Mat lab Software
Circuit diagram:

FIG-1

Circuit diagram of single phase AC voltage controller

Theory:

AC voltage controllers (ac line voltage controllers) are employed to vary the RMS value
of the alternating voltage applied to a load circuit by introducing Thyristors between the load and
a constant voltage ac source. The RMS value of alternating voltage applied to a load circuit is
controlled by controlling the triggering angle of the Thyristors in the ac voltage controller
circuits.

In brief, an ac voltage controller is a type of thyristor power converter which is used to

convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac input supply to obtain a variable voltage ac output.

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The RMS value of the ac output voltage and the ac power flow to the load is controlled by
varying (adjusting) the trigger angle „‟

The RMS output voltage is given by

𝛽 1/2
1 2 2
𝑉𝑜 = 2 ∗ 𝑉𝑠 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 𝛼

1/2
𝑉𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛽
= 𝛽−𝛼+ −
𝜋 2 2

PWM control:

If the output voltage of single phase converters is controlled by varying the delay angle,
extinction angle, or symmetrical angle, there is only one pulse per half-cycle in the input current
of the converter, and as a result the lowest order harmonic is the third. It is difficult to filter out
the lower order harmonic current. In PWM control, the converter switches are turned on and off
several times during a half-cycle and the output voltage is controlled by varying the width of
pulses. The gate signals are generated by comparing a triangular wave with a dc signal. The
lower order harmonics can be eliminated or reduced by selecting the number of pulses per half-
cycle. However, increasing the number of pulses would also increase the magnitude of higher
order harmonics, which could easily be filtered out.

Procedure:

1. Open MATLAB in PC.

2. Open simulink library browser.
3. Take a new model file.
4. Drag the required components from simulink library to the new model file.
5. Connect the components by wire provided with a ground for the source and load in the
circuit.
6. Insert the Analysis parameters, output variables, miscellaneous options in the Transients
analysis.
7. Save the circuit file.
8. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms.

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Model Waveforms:

FIG-2

Waveforms of single-phase ac voltage controller with an RL load

Model calculations:

The RMS output voltage is given by

𝛽 1/2
1 2 2
𝑉𝑜 = 2 ∗ 𝑉𝑠 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 𝛼

1/2
𝑉𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛽
= 𝛽−𝛼+ −
𝜋 2 2

Take 𝛽 from the known example

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Observations:

R-Load

Vo at different triggering
S. no Theoretical practical
angles

1 30o V rms =226.659V V rms =226V

2 30o I rms =22.66A I rms =22.6A

RL-Load

Vo at different triggering
S. no Theoretical practical
angles

1 30o V rms =128.4977V V rms =128V

2 30o I rms =12.845A I rms =12.8A

Precautions:

1. Careful giving of values to pulse generator.

2. Connect the load as required
Results:

Simulink model:

FIG-3

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Simulink Model of single phase AC voltage control with PWM control for RL load

FIG-4

Sub System (or) Simulink Model of PWM generator

Simulation waveforms:

Load Voltage of single phase AC voltage control with PWM control for RL load

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Load Current of single phase AC voltage control with PWM control for RL load

FIG-5

Applications:
1. Lighting / Illumination control in ac power circuits.
2. Induction heating.
3. Industrial heating & Domestic heating.
4. Transformers tap changing (on load transformer tap changing).
5. Speed control of induction motors (single phase and poly phase ac induction motor control).
6. AC magnet controls.
Conclusion:

Single phase AC voltage control with PWM control for RL load was simulated and the
waveforms were observed by using MATLAB/simulink power system block set.

Further Extension:

Simulate three phase AC voltage controller.

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SIMULATION OF SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER USING RL & E

LOAD WITH AND WITHOUT FREEWHEELING DIODE

Aim: To simulate a single phase full converter using RL & E load with and without freewheeling
diode and to observe the load voltage and current waveforms using MATLAB/simulink power
system block set.

Apparatus:

1. PC
2. Mat lab Software
Circuit Diagrams:

FIG-1

Single phase full converter using RL & E load without freewheeling diode.

FIG-2

Single phase full converter using RL & E load with freewheeling diode

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Theory:

Fig (a) shows the circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled bridge converter. It is
one of the most popular converter circuits and is widely used in the speed control of separately
excited dc machines. The single phase fully controlled bridge converter is obtained by replacing
all the diode of the corresponding uncontrolled converter by thyristors. Thyristors T and T are
1 2

fired together while T and T are fired 180º after T and T . From the circuit diagram of Fig (a) it
3 4 1 2

is clear that for any load current to flow at least one thyristor from the top group (T , T ) and one
1 3

thyristor from the bottom group (T , T ) must conduct. It can also be argued that neither T T nor
2 4 1 3

T T can conduct simultaneously. For example whenever T and T are in the forward blocking
2 4 3 4

state and a gate pulse is applied to them, they turn ON and at the same time a negative voltage is
applied across T and T commutating them immediately. Similar argument holds for T and T .
1 2 1 2

For the same reason T T or T T can not conduct simultaneously. Therefore, the only possible
1 4 2 3

conduction modes when the current i can flow are T T and T T . Of course it is possible that at
0 1 2 3 4

a given moment none of the thyristors conduct. This situation will typically occur when the load
current becomes zero in between the firings of T T and T T . Once the load current becomes
1 2 3 4

zero all thyristors remain off. In this mode the load current remains zero. Consequently the
converter is said to be operating in the discontinuous conduction mode.

Under normal operating condition of the converter the load current may or may not
remain zero over some interval of the input voltage cycle. If i is always greater than zero then
0

the converter is said to be operating in the continuous conduction mode. In this mode of
operation of the converter T T and T T conducts for alternate half cycle of the input supply.
1 2 3 4

However, in the discontinuous conduction mode none of the thyristors conduct over some
portion of the input cycle. The load current remains zero during that period.
Operation in the continuous conduction mode:
As has been explained earlier in the continuous conduction mode of operation i never
0

becomes zero, therefore, either T T or T T conducts. Fig (b) shows the waveforms of different
1 2 3 4

variables in the steady state. The firing angle of the converter is α. The angle θ is given by

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E
sin   ---- (1)
Vm
-
It is assumed that at t = 0 T T was conducting. As T T are fired at ωt = α they turn on
3 4 1 2

commutating T T immediately. T T are again fired at ωt = π + α. Till this point T T conducts.

3 4 3 4 1 2

The period of conduction of different thyristors are pictorially depicted in the second waveform
(also called the conduction diagram) of Fig (b).
It is observed that the emf source E is greater than the dc link voltage till ωt = α.
Therefore, the load current i continues to fall till this point. However, as T T are fired at this
0 1 2

point v becomes greater than E and i starts increasing through R-L and E. At ωt = π – θ v again
0 0 0

equals E. Depending upon the load circuit parameters i reaches its maximum at around this point
o

and starts falling afterwards. Continuous conduction mode will be possible only if i remains
0

greater than zero till T T are fired at ωt = π + α where upon the same process repeats. The
3 4

resulting i waveform is shown below v . The input ac current waveform i is obtained from i by
0 0 i 0

noting that whenever T T conducts i = i and i = - i whenever T T conducts. The last

1 2 i 0 i 0 3 4

waveform shows the typical voltage waveform across the thyristor T . It is to be noted that when
1

the thyristor turns off at ωt = π + α a negative voltage is applied across it for a duration of π – α.
The thyristor must turn off during this interval for successful operation of the converter.

The expression for average load voltage is given by

 
1
Vavg 
 V

m sin t dt

2Vm
Vavg  cos     (2)

The expression for load current is given by
Vavg  E
i0  ------ (3)
R

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Procedure:

1. Open MATLAB in PC.

2. Open simulink library browser.
3. Take a new model file.
4. Drag the required components from simulink library to the new model file.
5. Connect the components by wire provided with a ground for the source and load in the
circuit.
6. Insert the Analysis parameters, output variables, miscellaneous options in the Transients
analysis.
7. Save the circuit file.
8. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms.
Model waveforms:

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FIG-3

FIG-4

Model Calculations:

The expression for average load voltage is given by

 
1
Vavg 
  V m sin t dt

2Vm
Vavg  cos     (2)

Vavg  E
i0  = ------ (3)
R

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Observations:

With freewheeling diode:

Vo at different Theoretical practical

triggering angles

0
30 Vo =201.59V Vo =212V

0
30 Io =70.795A Io =79.45A

Without freewheeling diode:

Vo at different Theoretical Practical

triggering angles

0
30 Vo =192.949V Vo =211.9V

0
30 Io =70.47A Io =79.43A

0
30 Vrms =226.66V Vrms =219.33V

0
30 Irms=83.33A Irms =90.11A

Precautions:

1. Careful giving of values to pulse generator.

2. Connect the load as required

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Results:

Simulink models:

FIG-5

Simulink Model of Single phase full converter using RLE load without Freewheeling diode

FIG-6

Simulink Model of Single phase full converter using RLE load with Freewheeling diode

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Simulation waveforms:

Load Voltage of Single phase full converter using RLE load without Freewheeling diode

Load Current of Single phase full converter using RLE load without Freewheeling diode

Voltage of Single phase full converter using RLE load with Freewheeling diode

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Load Current of Single phase full converter using RLE load with Freewheeling diode

Applications:

1. Used for Small DC Drives

2. HVDC Transmission systems
3. Electro Chemical Processes
4. Traction Equipment
5. Controlled power supplies
Conclusion:

Simulation of a single phase full converter using RL & E load with and without freewheeling
diode was done, and voltage, current waveforms were plotted using MATLAB/simulink power
system block set.

Further extension:

Simulate three phase full converter.

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SIMULATION OF RESONANT PULSE COMMUTATION CIRCUIT

Aim: To observe the performance of resonant pulse commutation circuit

Apparatus:

1. PC
2. Mat lab Software
Circuit diagram:

FIG-1

Theory:

Turning off of a thyristor is called commutation. The conditions for turning off of a SCR are

1. Thyristor current must be zero

2. Voltage across anode and cathode must be negative

If the source voltage is AC the thyristor current goes through a natural zero , and a
reverse voltage appears across the thyristors. The device is then automatically turned off due to
the natural behavior of the source voltage, which is known as Natural commutation or Line
commutation. If the source voltage is DC and the forward current of the thyristors is forced to

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zero by an additional circuitry. Such a technique is called as Forced commutation. Resonant

pulse commutation is one of the forced commutation technique. In this a LC circuit is
used, hence it is named as resonant pulse Commutation. The main circuit is formed by
V1, D1, R1. The remaining part of the circuit is used for commutation.Capacitor is initially
charged with the polarity as shown and thyristor T 1 is in the conduction mode carrying a load
current of Im as shown in fig(a).When commutating T2 is fired a resonant circuit is formed by L,
C,T1 and T2 . The resonant current can be derived as

C
i(t )  Vo sin  m t  I p sin  m t
L

C
where I p  Vo
L

C1
m 
L1

and the capacitor voltage is

1
C
vc (t )  ic dt

 Vo cos  m t

Where I p is the peak permissible value of resonant current

Due to the resonant current the forward current of thyristor T1 is reduced to zero at t= t 1,when the
resonant current equals the load current Im. The time t1 must satisfy the condition i(t=t1)=Im and
is found as

I L 
t1  LC sin 1  m 

 Vo C 

The corresponding value of the capacitor voltage is

vc (t  t1 )  V1  Vo cos m t1

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The current through thyristors T1 will cease to flow and the capacitor will recharge at a rate
determined by the load current Im .The capacitor will discharge from – V1 to zero and its voltage
will then rise to the dc source voltage Vs, in which case diode Dm starts conducting .The energy
stored in the inductor L due to the peak load current Im is transferred to the capacitor, causing it
to be overcharged .The capacitor voltage is reversed from V c (=Vo) to –Vo by firing T3 .T3 is self
commutated. This circuit may not be stable due to energy build up on the commutation capacitor
.

The turn-off time is

CV1
t off 
Im

Procedure:

1. Open MATLAB in PC.

2. Open simulink library browser.
3. Take a new model file.
4. Drag the required components from simulink library to the new model file.
5. Connect the components by wire provided with a ground for the source and load in the
circuit.
6. Insert the Analysis parameters, output variables, miscellaneous options in the Transients
analysis.
7. Save the circuit file.
8. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms.
Precautions:

1. Careful giving of values to pulse generator.

2. Connect the load as required

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Model Waveforms:

FIG-2

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FIG-3

Model calculations:

C=20 µF L= 99.08 µH

c
Resonant Current i(t )  V0 sin t  I p sin t
2

1
  22870.79rad / sec
LC

Time at which capacitor current is maximum is

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t=  LC   20 x99.08x10 12  0.142m sec

c
Peak resonant current I p  V0
L

20 x106
I p  50  22.46 Amps
99.08 x10 6

I max  14.488 Amps

I min  9.77 Amps

Observations:

Parameter Calculated Simulated

Thyristor current 9.77 A 9.77 A

Capacitor current 22.46 A 21.82 A

Load current 14.429 A 14.33 A

Simulation results:

Resonant pulse commutation circuit is simulated and the waveforms are as follows:

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Simulation Circuit Diagram:-

FIG.4

simulink model of resonant converter

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Simulation Wave Forms

capacitor current

Thyristor current

load current

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capacitor voltage

FIG.5

Applicatioins:

1. To turn off the thyristor in the corresponding bridge circuits.

2. As circuit has negligible resistance it is always under-damped i.e., the current in LC circuit
tends to oscillate whenever the SCR is on.

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Conclusion:

From the above experiment it is concluded that the prior switching of thyristor has to be done
before switching of the entire circuitry and this is done flexibly with resonant pulse
commutation.

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SIMULATION OF BUCK CHOPPER

AIM: To simulate and verify the response of resonant pulse commutation & Buck Chopper by
using MATLAB/simulink power system block-set.

APPARATUS:

1. PC
2. Mat lab Software
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FIG.1

THEORY:

A buck converter (dc-dc) is shown in Fig.. Only a switch is shown, for which a device as
described earlier belonging to transistor family is used. Also a diode (termed as freewheeling) is
used to allow the load current to flow through it, when the switch (i.e., a device) is turned off.
The load is inductive (R-L) one. In some cases, a battery (or back emf) is connected in series
with the load (inductive). Due to the load inductance, the load current must be allowed a path,
which is provided by the diode; otherwise, i.e., in the absence of the above diode, the high
induced emf of the inductance, as the load current tends to decrease, may cause damage to the
switching device.

General Buck Converter Configuration:

When the transistor is conducting, current is being drawn through the inductor. At this
time energy is being stored in the inductor. When the transistor stops conducting the inductor

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voltage flies back or reverses because the current through the inductor cannot change
instantaneously. The voltage across the inductor increases to a value that is higher than the
combined voltage across the diode and the output capacitor. As soon as this value is reached, the
diode starts conducting and the voltage that appears across the output capacitor, is higher than
the input voltage.

Component Functions:

The inductor shown in Fig acts as the magnetic field storage element shown in Fig.1. It
stores energy in its core material. The ideal PWM functions as the switch control and the
transistor acts as the switch element. A diode and an output capacitor are used to perform the
function of the output rectifier and filter block.

Component Calculations:

In order for the circuit to function properly, the external components need to be
calculated carefully. When the switch is on, the voltage across the inductor is

di ILPK
VL  L L (1)
dt ton

Vin  Vsat  (2)

ILon   ton
 L 
When the switch is off, the voltage across the inductor is given by

di  IL min  ILPK  (3)

VL  L  L 
dt  toff 

and the current is given by

Vout  VF  Vin 
ILoff  ILpk   toff (4)
 L 

VF is the forward voltage drop of the output rectifier and V sat is the saturation voltage of the
output switch. Since ILon= ILoff, Eqs.(2) and (4) can be set equal to each other.

This operation gives a ratio for the on time over the off time. This ratio is given by

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PROCEDURE:

1. Open MATLAB in PC.

2. Open simulink library browser.
3. Take a new model file.
4. Drag the required components from simulink library to the new model file.
5. Connect the components by wire provided with a ground for the source and load in the
circuit.
6. Insert the Analysis parameters, output variables, miscellaneous options in the Transients
analysis.
7. Save the circuit file.
8. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms.
MODEL GRAPH:

FIG.2

OBSERVATIONS:

S.no Duty cycle(D) Out put voltage(v)

1 0.2 20V

2 0.25 25V

3 0.5 50V

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RESULTS:

DC-DC Buck conventional:

Simulink Model of Buck Conventional converter

Simulink Model of Buck converter

FIG.3

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WAVE FORMS :

Input Voltage

Output Voltage

Input Current

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Output Current

Buck Converter

Input Voltage

Output Current

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Output Voltage

Thyrister Voltage

FIG.4

APPLICATIONS:

1. Hybrid Electric vehicles (HEV)

2. Portable lighting systems
3. LCD backlights and some flash lights
CONCLUSION:

DC-DC Buck was simulated and the waveforms were observed by using
MATLAB/simulink power system block-set

FURTHER EXTENSION:

Simulation of boost converter

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SIMULATION OF SINGLE PHASE INVERTER WITH PULSE WIDTH

MODULATION (PWM) CONTROL

Aim: To simulate and verify the response of Single phase inverter with PWM control by using
MATLAB/simulink power system block set

Apparatus:

1. PC
2. Mat lab Software
Circuit diagram:

FIG-1

Single phase inverter circuit using IGBT‟s

Theory:

A PWM inverter switches states many times during a single cycle of the resulting output
voltage. At the time of this writing, reference voltages with frequencies as high as 12 KHz are
used in PWM inverter must change states up to 24,000 times per second. This rapid switching
means that PWM inverters require faster components than CSIs or VSIs. PWM inverters need
high power and high frequency components such a GTO thyristers, IGBTS, and/or power
transistors for proper operation. (at the time of this writing, IGBTs have the advantage for high
speed, high power switching, so they are preferred component for building ZPWM inverters.)

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The control voltage fed to the comparator circuits is usually implemented digitally by
means of a microcomputer mounted on a circuit board within the PWM motor controller. The
control voltage can be controlled by the microcomputer in the manner much more sophisticated
than that described here. It is possible for the microcomputer to vary the control voltage to
achieve different frequencies and voltage levels in any desired manner. For example, the micro
computer could implement various acceleration and deceleration ramps, current limits, and
voltage vs. frequency curves by simply changing options in software.

Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) Control:

Various types of modifications in PWM techniques have been proposed. One important
method is sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) control, the pulse widths are generated by
comparing a triangular reference voltage v of amplitude A and frequency f , with a carrier half
r r r

sinusoidal voltage v of variable amplitude A and frequency 2f . The sinusoidal voltage v is in

c c s c

phase with the input phase voltage v and has twice the supply frequency f . The widths of the
s s

pulses (and the output voltage) are varied by changing the amplitude A or the modulation index
r

M from 0 to 1. The modulation index, M is A /A . It may be noted that the width of the pulses
c r

obtained are variable. The width is smaller at the centre of the carrier signal (sinusoidal), and
increases as one goes to the start and end of the above signal.

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FIG-2

Procedure:

1. Open MATLAB in PC.

2. Open simulink library browser.
3. Take a new model file.
4. Drag the required components from simulink library to the new model file.
5. Connect the components by wire provided with a ground for the source and load in the
circuit.
6. Insert the Analysis parameters, output variables, miscellaneous options in the Transients
analysis.
7. Save the circuit file with .mdl extention
8. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms.

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Model waveforms:

FIG-3

Single phase inverter outputs using PWM control method.

Observations:

Frequency modulation index Output

S.no Frequency (F)
(Mf) voltage (V)

Precautions:

1. Careful giving of values to pulse generator.

2. Connect the load as required

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Results:

Simulink model:

FIG-4

Simulink Model of Single phase inverter with sinusoidal PWM control for R load

FIG-5

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Sub System (or) Simulink Model of PWM Generator

SIMULATION WAVEFORMS:

FIG-6

Load Voltage of Single phase inverter with sinusoidal PWM control for R load

Load
Current
of Single

FIG-7

phase inverter with sinusoidal PWM control for R load

Applications:

1. It is used in adjustable speed ac motor drive loads where one needs to feed the motor with
variable voltage, variable frequency supply.
2. Solar Applications
3. Uninterruptable power supply (UPS)

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Conclusion:

Single phase inverter with sinusoidal PWM control for R load was simulated and the
waveforms were observed by using MATLAB/simulink power system block set.

Further extension:

Simulate three phase inverter.

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SIMULATION OF OP - AMP BASED INTEGRATOR AND

DIFFERENTIATOR CIRCUITS
Aim: To simulate op-amp based integrator and differentiator circuits using MULTISIM
Software.

Apparatus:

1. Multisim 2001 Software,

2. PC.

Circuit diagram:

Integrator:

Integrator circuit diagram

Differentiator:

Differentiator circuit diagram

FIG.1

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Theory:

For Integrator:

A circuit in which the output voltage wave form is an integral of the input voltage wave
form is an integrator. The out voltage is directly proportional to the input voltage and inversely
proportional to the time constant RC. If the input is a sine wave the output will be cosine wave or
if the input is a square wave the output will be a triangular wave.

Applying Kirchhoff‟s current equation at node V2

𝑖𝐼 = 𝑖𝐵 + 𝑖𝐹

The relation between current and voltage across the capacitor is :

𝑑𝑣
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉2 𝑑(𝑉2 − 𝑉0 )
= 𝐶
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡

𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 0

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑(−𝑉0 )
= 𝐶
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡

By integrating on both sides with respect to time:

𝑡 𝑡
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑(−𝑉0 )
𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑅1 0 𝑑𝑡

= C (-𝑉0 )
𝑡
−1
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡
𝑅1 𝐶 0

For differentiator:

A differentiator circuit performs the mathematical operation differentiation i.e. the output voltage
wave form is the derivative of the input voltage wave form. The differentiator may be
constructed from a basic inverting amplifier of an input resistor R is replaced by a capacitor C.
The out voltage of differentiator Vo is equal to the time constant RC times the negative
instantaneous rate of change of the input voltage Vin with time, since the differentiator performs

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the reverse of the integrator function. If the input is a cosine wave the output will be sine wave or
if the input is a triangular wave the output will be a square wave.

The differentiator is similar and is most commonly used in wave shaping circuit in an input.

The expression for output voltage can be obtained from Kirchhoff‟s current equation at node V2

𝑖𝐶 = 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑖𝑓

𝑖𝐵 = 0 , 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑖𝑓

The relation between current and voltage across the capacitor is :

𝑑𝑣
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉0 ) 𝑉2 − 𝑉0
𝐶1 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑓

𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 0

By the solution of first order differential equation we have:

𝑑𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉0 = −𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
𝑑𝑡
Procedure:

1. Open new circuits file in Multisim.

2. Place the components as required in circuit diagram.

3. Connect the components by wiring.

4. Ground the circuit with neutral point connector.

5. Save the circuit file.

6. Go to Transient analysis and set the parameters as given

Start time = 0

Stop time = 0.1

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Tmax =1e-7

7. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms and tabulate the values

8. Repeat the same for different time constants.

Model waveforms:

Waveforms for integrator circuit

Waveforms for differentiator circuit

FIG-2

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Model calculations:

For integrator:
𝑡
−1
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡
𝑅1 𝐶 0

For differentiator:

𝑑𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉0 = −𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
𝑑𝑡

Observations:

INTEGRATOR DIFFERENTIATOR
S.NO R(Ω) C(F)
Theoritical Simulation Theoritical Simulation

1 1KΩ 0.1µF -12V -12V -0.1V -0.21V

2 2KΩ 0.4µF -2.5V -2.62V -0.8V -0.862V

3 4KΩ 0.3 µF -1.66V -1.52V -1.6V -1.72V

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Simulation results:

Multisim model of Integrator circuit

FIG-3

Multisim model of Differentiator circuit

FIG-4

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Simulation waveforms:

For integrator:

For differentiator:

FIG-5

Conclusion:

Further extension:

Find the same scenario for impulse, step, ramp, parabolic inputs.

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TRANSFER FUNCTION ANALYSIS OF A GIVEN CIRCUIT

Aim: To analyze a transfer function and observe time domain specifications using MATLAB
and SIMULINK.

Apparatus:

1. MATLAB/SIMULINK SOFTWARE,
2. PC.
Theory:

The state variable approach is powerful tool for analysis and design of control system. The state
space analysis is a modern approach and also easier for analysis using digital computers. The
analysis and design can be carried out for the following systems.

1. Linear systems.
2. Non – linear systems.
3. Time varying systems.
4. Time in-variant systems.
5. Multiple input and multiple output systems.
6. Discrete time systems.
The standard form of state model is given by

d ( x(t ))
 Ax (t )  Bu (t ) ………….1
dt

y(t )  Cx(t )  Du(t ) …………….2

Where

x (t) is the state variable

u (t) is the input function

y(t) is the output function

A, B, C, D are the coefficient matrices

taking laplace transform on both sides for equations (1) and (2)

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sX (s)  X (0)  AX (s)  BU (s) ……3

Y (s)  CX (s)  DU (s) ………..4

Equation (3) can be written as

sX (s)  AX (s)  X (0)  BU (s)

sI  AX (s)  X (0)  BU (s)

Multiplying with (SI-A)-1 on both sides

X ( s )  sI  A X (0)  ( sI  A) 1 BU ( s )
1
……..5

From equations (4) and (5)

 
Y (s)  C sI  A X (0)  (sI  A) 1 BU (s)  DU (s)
1

By taking zero initial conditions

Y (s)  C (sI  A) 1 BU (S )  DU (s)

Y (s)  (C (sI  A) 1 B  D)U (s)

Y ( s)
 (C ( sI  A) 1 B  D) ……6
U ( s)

This is the required transfer function

Equation (6) can be written as

  adj ( sI  A) 
G ( s)  C   B  D
  | ( sI  A) | 

 adj ( sI  A) B  D | sI  A | 
G( s)  C   ….7
 | ( sI  A) | 

Equating denominator to zero

| (sI  A) | 0

This is the required characteristic equation

The roots of the characteristic equation are the Eigen values of coefficient matrix A.

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Some of the Transient response characteristics of the transfer function for unit step are

1. Peak Time: It is the time required for the response to reach the first peak over shoot.
2. Maximum over shoot: It is the maximum value of the response from unity.
3. Rise Time: It is time required for the response to rise from 0 to 90% of the final value.
4. Settling Time: It is the time required for the response to reach and stay within the specified
range (2% to 5%) of the final value.
The transfer function Eigen values of matrix A may be verified with the help of Matlab program.

0 1 0 0 

Let A   0 0 1  B  0
 5  4  2 5

C  1 0 0 D  0

Model waveform:

FIG-1

Program:

% Program for Transfer function Analysis

clc

clear

A=input('enter the elements of system matrix')

B=input('enter the elements of the input matrix')

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C=input('enter the elements of output matrix')

D=input('enter the elements of disurbance matrix')

[num,den]=ss2tf(A,B,C,D)

T=tf(num,den)

% Output For step input

figure,step(T)

stepinfo(T)

% Output For impulse input

num1 = [num 0]

T1=tf(num1,den)

stepinfo(T1)

figure,step(T1)

% Output For ramp input

den1 = [den 0]

T2=tf(num,den1)

stepinfo(T2)

figure,step(T2)

Input:

enter the elements of system matrix[0 1 0;0 0 1; -5 -4 -2]

A=

0 1 0

0 0 1

-5 -4 -2

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enter the elements of the input matrix[0; 0; 5]

B=

enter the elements of output matrix[1 0 0]

C=

1 0 0

enter the elements of disurbance matrix[0]

D=

Alternate appraoch:

Procedure:

1. Connect blocks as shown in figure.

2. Save the model
3. Set simulation parameters as follows
Start time 0

Stop time 20

Max.step size 0.1

Min.step size 0.01

Initial step size 0.01

4. Run the model

5. Observe the output and note time domain specification

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Model Calculations :

0 1 0 0 

A 0 0 1  B  0
 5  4  2 5

C  1 0 0 D  0

 s 0 0 0 1 0 
SI  A = 0 s 0  -  0
   0 1 
0 0 s   5  4 s  2

s  1 0 
 SI  A = 0 s
  1 
5  4 s  2

SI  A = s(s  2s  4)  1(5)  0

s 2  2s  4 s  2 1
And adj SI  A = 
 
5 s 2  2s s
  5s 4s  5 s 2 


 s 2  2s  4 s  2 1
adj ( SI  A)  
SI  A1
  3
1
 5 s 2  2s s
| SI  A | s  2s  4s  5
2
  5s 4s  5 s 2 


 s 2  2s  4 s  2 1 0 
  0 
SI  A1 B  3 1
 5 s 2  2s s  
s  2s  4s  5
2
  5s 4s  5 s 2  5 


 5 
SI  A1
B 3
1  5s 
s  2s  4s  5  2 
2
5s 

 5 
Now C SI  A B  1 0 0  5s 
1 1
  s  2s  4s  5
3 2
5s 2 

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5
 C SI  A1 B 
s  2s  4s  5
3 2

 The required transfer function is

5
TF 
s  2s  4s  5
3 2

Now C(s) for unit step input is

TF 5
C ( s)  
S s( s  2s 2  4s  5)
3

5
 C ( s) 
s( s  1.325)s  0.237   j1.7945

Let K = s+0.237

 s  k  0.237

Substituting s

5
 C (k ) 
(k  0.237)(k  1.288)(k 2  j1.7945 2 )

5
 C (k ) 
(k  0.237)(k  1.288)(k 2  1.7945 2 )

To find partial fractions

5 A B ck  d
   2
(k  0.237)(k  1.288)(k  1.7945 ) (k  0.237) (k  1.288) k  1.7945 2
2 2

Case I Pit K = 0.237

 4.966 A  5  A  0.9996  1

Case ii Put K=-1.288

-7.44 B = 5  B = -0.671

Case iii Put K=0

 4.1476 A  0.763B  0.305D  5

 4.147  0.512  0.305D  5

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 D  1.12

Case iv Put K=1

 9.655  2.16  (C  D)1.745  5

 9.655  2.16  1.745c  1.954  5

C  0.310

1 0.671 0.310k  1.12

Now C(k) =   2
k  0.237 k  1.288 k  1.7945 2

Replace K by S=0.237

1 0.671 0.310s
 C ( s)   
s s  1.525 1.19
k 2  1.7945 2 
k  1.7945 2
2

Taking inverse Laplace Transforms on both sides.

1.19 0.237t
c(t )  1  0.671e 1.525t  0.310e 0.237t Dos1.7945t  e sin 1.7945t
1.7945

 c(t )  1  0.671e 1.525t  e 0.237t 0.31cos 1.7945t  0.663 sin 1.7945t 

5
TF 
s  2s  4s  5
3 2

Now C(s) for unit inpulse input is

TF 5
C ( s)   3
1 ( s  2s  4s  5)
2

5
𝐶 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 1.525 (𝑠 + 0.237 + 𝑗1.7945)

To find partial fractions

5
𝐶 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 1.525 (𝑠 + 0.237 + 𝑗1.7945)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑆 + 1.525 𝑆 + 0.237 + 𝐽1.7945 𝑆 + 0.237 − 𝐽1.794

Solving for A,B,C Values

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A=1.7155; B=-0.2666;C=-1.448

1.7155 0.2666 1.448

𝐶 𝑠 = − −
𝑆 + 1.525 𝑆 + 0.237 + 𝐽1.7945 𝑆 + 0.237 − 𝐽1.7945

Taking inverse laplace transforms

𝐶 𝑡 = 1.7155𝑒 −1.525𝑡 − 0.02666𝑒 − 0.237 +𝑗1.7945 𝑡 − 1.448𝑒 −(0.237 −𝑗1.7945 )

Observations:

Simulated
Parameter Calculated Using
Using Matlab
Simulink

Peak Time 2.36sec 2.33sec 2.3sec

Maximum overshoot 38 38.1 38.1

Rise Time 1.45sec 1.45sec 1.45sec

Settling time 12sec 11.1sec 11.1sec

Result:

The Transfer Function Of A Given System Is Analyssed And The Following Is Obtained

Output:

For Step input:

num =

0 0 0 5

den =

1.0000 2.0000 4.0000 5.0000

T=

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---------------------

s^3 + 2 s^2 + 4 s + 5

Continuous-time transfer function.

ans =

RiseTime: 0.8998

SettlingTime: 14.7765

SettlingMin: 0.7329

SettlingMax: 1.3820

Overshoot: 38.2003

Undershoot: 0

Peak: 1.3820

PeakTime: 2.2936

For Impulse input:

num1 =

0 0 0 5 0

T1 = 5 s

---------------------

s^3 + 2 s^2 + 4 s + 5

Continuous-time transfer function.

ans =

RiseTime: 0

SettlingTime: 17.2254

SettlingMin: -0.5930

SettlingMax: 1.0541

Overshoot: Inf

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Undershoot: Inf

Peak: 1.0541

PeakTime: 1.2675

For Ramp input:

den1 =

1.0000 2.0000 4.0000 5.0000 0

T2 =

-------------------------

s^4 + 2 s^3 + 4 s^2 + 5 s

Continuous-time transfer function.

ans =

RiseTime: NaN

SettlingTime: NaN

SettlingMin: NaN

SettlingMax: NaN

Overshoot: NaN

Undershoot: NaN

Peak: Inf

PeakTime: Inf

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Step Response
1.4

1.2

0.8
Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (sec)

FIG-2

Output waveform

Simulation results for alternate method

Simulation circuit

FIG-3

Simulation Waveform

FIG-4

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Applications:

1. For analyzing RLC circuits.

2. Speed response of machines.

Conclusion:

From this experiment it can be concluded that analysis of transfer function can be helpful for
better modeling or prototyping of systems

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ROOT LOCUS, BODE PLOT AND NYQUIST PLOT

Aim: To sketch root locus, Bode plot, Nyquist plot for given transfer function of systems up to
5th order.

Apparatus: Matlab Software,PC.

Theory:

Root locus:

Introduction:

The root locus is a plot of the characteristic equation of the closed loop system as the
function gain. It incorporates both transient response and the frequency response methods. It is a
graphical method and it gives a clear idea of the effect of gain adjustment with relatively small
effort compared with other methods. It gives some idea about the transient response of the
system, indicating whether the system is over damped, under damped, or critically damped. An
important feature of the root locus method is that the roots of the characteristic equation can be
directly obtained which results in a complete and accurate solution of the transient steady-state
response of the controlled variable.

Consider a feedback system whose closed loop transfer function is

C ( s) G( s)
 ……………1
R( s) 1  G( s) H ( S ) 

In equation (1), 1+G(s)H(s) = 0 is called the characteristic equation

G(s)H(s) = -1 …….…….. 2

For the equation (2), following conditions are true.

 G(s)H(s) = - 1 ……….….. 3

G(s) H (S )  2n  1 ……….………4

Where n = 0, 1, 2 …all integers

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k ( s  z1 )
Let G( s) H ( s)  …………..... 5
s( s  p1 )(s  p 2 )

Where - z1 is the zero of the function and 0, - p1 and – p2 are the poles of the function.

The construction of the root loci

The following rules are developed from the relation between the poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) and

the roots of the characteristic equation. These rules are only guidance to the construction of the

root loci. They do not give the exact plot.

Rule 1. The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis.

Rule 2. The starting point of the root loci:

The root loci start at the poles of G(s)H(s) i.e. at K=0

Rule 3. The root loci end at zeros of G(s)H(s). Or terminate at infinity

(K = ).

Rule 4. Number of separate loci:

Let N = Number of separate loci.

z = Number of finite zeros of G(s)H(s).

p = Number of finite poles of G(s)H(s).

Then number of root loci will be equal to number or poles, if number of

poles are more than number of zeros i.e. p>z

N = p if p > z

If Z > P , then number of root loci will be equal to the number of zeros.

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If P = Z , then number of root loci = poles = zeros.

Rule 5. Root loci on the real axis:

Any point on the real axis is a part of root locus if and only if the number of poles and zeros to

its right is odd.

Rule 6. Asymptotes of the root loci.

The branches of the root locus tend to infinity along a set of straight lines called asymptotes. The

asymptotes making an angle with real axis and is given by


2n  1
 p  z

Where n = 0, 1, 2…up to n = p-z.

The total number of asymptotes = p-z.

Rule 7. Centroid of asymptotes:

The point of intersection of asymptotes with real axis is called centroid of asymptotes ( A) and is

given by

A 
sumofpoles  sumofzeros
( p  z)

Rule 8. Angle of departure and angle of arrival of the root loci: Before plotting the actual root

loci the approximate root loci can be drawn from the asymptotes. For this, angles of departure

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from the poles and angles of arrival at the zeros are necessary. The angles of departure and

arrival can be found from the phase angle criterion.

Rule 9. Breakaway point on real axis:

If the root locus lies between two adjacent open loop poles on the real axis then there will be at

least one breakaway point, because the roots move towards each other as K is increased and

meet at a point. At this point K is maximum. If we increase the value of K between two poles the

root locus breaks in two parts.

Similarly if root locus lies between two adjacent zeros on real axis, then there will be at least one

break in point. If the root locus lies between an open loop pole and zero, then there will be no

breakaway or break in point or may be both occur.

The breakaway or break in points can be determined from the roots of

dk
0
ds

Rule 10. Intersection of the root loci with the imaginary axis:

The root loci intersect the imaginary axis. The value of K and  corresponding to this point can

be found out using Routh’s criterion. This is the gain at which the system oscillates.

Bode plot:

Bode plot is a graphical representation of the transfer function for determining the stability of
the control system. Bode plot consists of two separate plots. One is a plot of the logarithm of the
magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer function, the other is a plot of the phase angle, and both plots
are plotted against the frequency. The curves are drawn on semi log graph paper, using the log
scale for frequency and linear scale for magnitude (in decibels) or phase angle (in degrees). The
magnitude is represented in decibels. Thus, bode plot consists of

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1) 20 log10 G(j) versus log 

2) Phase angle versus log 
The main advantage of using bode plot is the magnification of magnitudes can be converted into
addition. Using bode plot we can determined gain margin and phase margin.

Gain margin : The gain margin is defined as the reciprocal of the open loop gain of the
sinusoidal transfer function evaluated at the phase cross over frequency pc at which the phase
angle is -1800 phase cross over frequency pc is the frequency at which polar plot cuts the
negative real axis at an angle of -1800 .

Phase margin : Phase margin is defined as the angle through which G(j ) H(j ) plot is rotated
in order that unity magnitude point on the locus passes through the critical point (-1,0) at gain
cross over frequency gc. Gain cross over frequency is the frequency at which the polar plot cuts
the (-1, 0) circle.

In general, if pc > gc, gain margin and phase margin are positive. Hence the system is stable.

If pc < gc, gain margin and phase margin are negative. Then the system is unstable.

If pc = gc, gain margin and phase margin are equal to zero. Then the system is marginally
stable.

Nyquist plot:

If the Nyquist plot of the open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s) corresponding to the Nyquist
contour in the s-plane encircles the critical point -1+j0 in the counter clockwise direction as
many times as the number of right half s-plane poles of G(s)H(s),the closed –loop system is
stable.

In the commonly occurring case of G(s)H(s) with no poles in right half s-plane, the closed-loop
system is stable if the Nyquist plot of G(s)H(s) does not encircle the -1+j0 point.

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When the Nyquist plot of G(s)H(s) passes through -1+j0 point, the number of encirclements N is
indeterminate. This corresponds to the condition where 1+G(s)H(s) has zeros on the imaginary
axis. A necessary condition for applying the Nyquist criterion is that the Nyquist contour must
not pass through any poles or zeros of 1+G(s)H(s). When this condition is violated, the value for
N becomes indeterminate and the Nyquist stability criterion cannot be applied.

Program:

clc

clear all

num = input('Enter numerator coefficients of G(s)H(s)')

den = input('Enter denominator coefficients of G(s)H(s)')

GH = tf(num,den)

figure, rlocus(GH)

sgrid

figure, margin(GH)

grid

figure, nyquist(GH)

axis equal

[GM,PM,wpc,wgc] = margin(num,den)

GMdB = 20*log10(GM)

if (wpc > wgc)

if ((GMdB > 0) & (PM >0))

disp('system is stable')

else

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disp('system is unstable')

end

else if (wpc == wgc)

disp('system is marginally stable')

else

disp('system is unstable')

end

end

Procedure:

1. Open a new editor file in Matlab

2. Write the program
3. Save the file with extension as .m
4. Run the program
5. Observe the output.
Model calculations:

Root locus:

1
G( s) H ( s) 
s( s  1)(s  7)(s 2  4s  13)

Step 1:

Location of poles and zeros on the s-plane

Number of poles n=5

Number of zeros m=0

Poles are s=0,-1,-7,-2+3i,-2-3i

Step 2:

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Angle of asymptotes

 (2q  1)180
 where q=0,1,2,3…..(n-m-1)
nm

  36,108,180

Step 3:

sumofpoles  sumofzeros
Centroid  A 
nm

0  1  7  2  3i  2  3i
A   2.4
50

Step4:

dk
To find the breakaway points 0
ds

The transfer function is 1+G(s) H(s)=0

Step5:

3
1  180  tan 1    123.69 0
2

 2  180  tan 1 (3)  108.4350

 3  90 0

3
 4  tan 1    30.96 0
6

Step6:

To find the cross points on imaginary axis

s 5  12s 4  52s 3  132s 2  91s  10K  0

Substitute s=jω and equate real and imaginary parts on both sides.

 5  52 3  91  0

  1.3463

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12 4  132 2  10k  0

K  192x83

The limiting value of K is 19.9x83

K<19.983 system is stable.

K=19.983 system is marginally stable.

K> 19.983 system will be unstable

Bode plot:

1
G(s) =
s( s  1)(s  2)(s  3)( s  4)

0.0416
G(jω) =
( j )(1  j )(1  j 0.5 )(1  j 0.33 )(1  j 0.25 )

1
The corner frequencies are  C 
T

1
C1   1rad / sec
1

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1
C 2   2rad / sec
0.5

1
C 3   3rad / sec
0.333

1
C 4   4rad / sec
0.25

Term Corner frequency Slope in db/dec Change in db/dec

0.0416 / jω -- -20 0

1/1+jω 1 -20 -20-20=-40

1/1+j0.5ω 2 -20 -40-20=-60

1/1+j0.33ω 3 -20 -60-20=-80

1/1+j0.25ω 4 -20 -80-20=-100

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Magnitude plot:

Chose a low frequency such it is less than  C1 and choose a high frequency such that it is greater
than  C 4 let l  0.0 / rad / sec n  10rad. sec

 0.0416 
  20 log
0.0416 
At   l , A  20 log   12.38db
 l   0 .01 

 0.0416 
  20 log
0.0416 
At   C l , A  20 log   27.618db
  C1   1 

  
At    C 2 , A   Slopefrom C1toC 2 x log C 2 C 2    Aat C 2 
 
   C1 

2
A=  40 x log   27.618  39.659db
1

3
At   C 3 , A  60 x log   39.659  50.224db
2

4
At   C 4 , A  80 x log   50.224  60.22db
3

 10 
At    n , A  100 x log   60.22  100db
4

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Phase Plot:

  G( j)  90  tan 1   tan 1 0.5  tan 1 0.33  tan 1 0.25

ω rad/sec Φ(degrees)

0.01 - 91019

0.05 - 95.95

0.08 - 99.52

0.1 -101.89

0.5 -147.09

1.0 -193.86

2.0 - 258.42

5.0 - 347.01

10.0 - 394.31

Nyquist plot:

1
Given G(s) H(s) =
s( s  1)(s  2)(s  3)( s  4)

K / 24
G( j ) H ( j ) 
( j )(1  j )(1  j 0.5 )(1  j 0.33 )(1  j 0.25 )

The given system is of type -1 and 5th order.

The nyguist contour has four sections C1, C2, C3

Mapping of section C1

K / 24
G( j ) H ( j ) 
 (10  50 )  j ( 4  35 2  24)
4 2

When the locus of G(jω) H(jω) crosses the real axis the imaginary term will be zero and the
corresponding frequency is the phase cross over frequency.

 4  35 2  24  0

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Put  2  x

x 2  35x  24  0

x  34.3,0.699

  5.85,0.836

 PC  0.836rad / sec

K / 24
G ( j pc ) H ( j pc )   0.00106 K
 (10 x0.836 4  50 x0.836 2 )

Mapping of section – C2

Since R    s  Re j  

Therefore neglecting constants in G(jω) H(jω)

K / 2
G(jω) H(jω) =
( j )( j )(0.5 j )(0.33 j )( j 0.25 )

K
G( s) H ( s) 
s5

K K
G( s) H ( s) / s  lt R0 Re j  | s  Lt R0 Re j   0
s 5


G(s) H (s)  0.e  j 5


When   G( s) H ( s)  0e  j 5 / 2
2


 G( s) H ( s)  0.e  j 5 / 2
2

Mapping of section C3

The mapping of section C3 is the mirror image of section C1 from   to 0

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Mapping of section C4

As s  Re j and R  0  s  0

(1+sT) can be approximated to 1

K / 24
Then G( s) H ( s) 
S

G(s) H (s) / s  lt R0 Re j    R  

G(s) H (s)  e  j


When   G( s) H ( s)  e  j / 2
2


   G( s) H ( s)  e j / 2
2

The complete nyquist plot is

Observations:

Root locus:

Calculated Observed
Sl.No Parameter
value value

1. Break away point - 0.442 - 0.41

2. Limiting value of k 199.83 201

Inter section with imaginary

3. 1.3463 1.37
axis

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Bode plot:

Sl.No Parameter Calculated value Observed value

A.Magnitude plot

1. Gain at   0.1 -21.6 -21.8

2. Gain at   1 - 46.45 - 46-6

3. Gain at   10 -122.2 -122

4. Gain at   100 -240 -239.5

B.Phase angle plot

Phase angle at
1. -103.1 -103
  0.1

Phase angle at
2. -205.3 -205
 1

Phase angle at
3. - 458 - 458
  10

Phase angle at
4. - 531.4 - 531
  100

Phase cross over

C. 0.7 0.744
frequency

Gain cross over

D. 0.001 0.00833
frequency

E. Gain margin 42 42

F. Phase margin 88 88.9

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Nyquist plot:

No.of poles lying on right No.of encirclements

Stability
half of s-plane of (-1,0)

0 0 Stable

Simulation results:

The program is executed and the output graphs are as shown in fig „s 1,2,3

Root Locus
20

15

10

5
Imaginary Axis

-5

-10

-15

-20
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Real Axis

FIG-1

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Bode Diagram
100

0
Magnitude (dB)

-100

-200

-300
-90

-180
Phase (deg)

-270

-360

-450
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

FIG-2

Nyquist Diagram
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Imaginary Axis

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4
Real Axis

FIG-3

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Applications:

1. To Determine the Stability of A System.

2. Assessment of the stability of the closed loop system.

3. used in automatic control and signal processing

Conclusions: Analysis of system stability is done by using bode plot.

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POWER FLOW SOLUTION OF A POWER SYSTEM

AIM: To solve the set of non linear load flow equations using Gauss seidal load flow algorithm
using Matlab/Simulink.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. PC.
2. Matlab/simulink software.
THEORY:

Load flow analysis is the most frequently performed system study by electric utilities.
This analysis is performed on a symmetrical steady-state operating condition of a power system
under „normal‟ mode of operation and aims at obtaining bus voltages and line/transformer flows
for a given load condition. This information is essential both for long term planning and next day
Operational planning. In long term planning, load flow analysis helps in investigating the
effectiveness of alternative plans and choosing the „best‟ plan for system expansion to meet the
Projected operating state. In operational planning, it helps in choosing the „best‟ unit
commitment plan and generation schedules to run the system efficiently for them next day‟s load
Condition without violating the bus voltage and line flow operating limits.

The Gauss seidal method is an iterative algorithm for solving a set of non- linear algebraic
equations. The relationship between network bus voltages and currents may be represented by
either loop equations or node equations. Node equations are normally preferred because the
number of independent node equation is smaller than the number of independent loop equations.

The network equations in terms of the bus admittance matrix can be written as

𝐼𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑠

For an n bus system, the above performance equation can be expanded as,

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where n is the total number of nodes.

Vp is the phasor voltage to ground at node p.

Ip is the phasor current flowing into the network at node.

th
At the p bus, current injection:

𝐼𝑃 = 𝑌𝑃1 𝑉 1 + 𝑌𝑃2 𝑉2 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑌𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑃 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑌𝑃𝑛 𝑉𝑛

𝑛 𝑛
= 𝑞=1 𝑌𝑝𝑞 𝑉𝑞 = 𝑌𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑃 + 𝑞 =1 𝑌 𝑃𝑞 𝑉𝑞
𝑞≠𝑝

At bus p, we can write 𝑃𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄𝑝 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝑃 𝐼𝑃

Hence, the current at any node p is related toP,Q and V as follows

𝑃 𝑃 −𝑗 𝑄𝑃
∴ 𝐼𝑃 = (For any bus p except slack bus S)
𝑉𝑃 ∗

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𝐼𝑃 has been substituted by the real and reactive powers because normally in a power system these
quantities are specified

ALGORITHM:

Step 1: Read the input data.

Step 2: Find out the admittance matrix.

Step 3: Choose the flat voltage profile 1+j0 to all buses except slack bus.

Step 4: Set the iteration count p = 0 and bus count i = 1.

Step 5: Check the slack bus, if it is the generator bus then go to the next step otherwise
go to next step

Step 6: Before the check for the slack bus if it is slack bus then go to step 11 otherwise
go to next step.

Step 7: Check the reactive power of the generator bus within the given limit.

Step 8: If the reactive power violates a limit then treat the bus as load bus.

Step 9: Calculate the phase of the bus voltage on load bus.

Step 10: Calculate the change in bus voltage of the repeat step mentioned above until all
the bus voltages are calculated.

Step 11: Stop the program and print the results.

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FLOWCHART:

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FIG.1

THEORETICAL CALCULATION FOR A PROBLEM:

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Fig shows the one – line diagram of a simple three-bus power system with generators at buses 1
and 3. The magnitude of voltage at bus 1 is adjusted to 1.05 pu. Voltage magnitude at bus 3 is
fixed at 1.04 pu with a real power generation of 200 MW. A load consisting of 400 MW and
250MVar is taken from bus 2.line impedances are marked in per unit on a 100 MVA base, and
the line charging susceptances are neglected. Obtain the power flow solution by the gauss-sidel
method including line flows and line losses.

FIG.2

SOLUTION:

Line impedances converted to admittances are y12=10-j20, y13=10-j30 and y23=16-

j32.The load and generation expressed in per units are

(400 + 𝑗250)
𝑆2𝑠𝑐𝑕 = − = −4.0 − 𝑗2.5 𝑝. 𝑢
100

200
𝑃3𝑠𝑐𝑕 = = 2.0 𝑝. 𝑢
100

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Bus 1 is taken as the reference bus (slack bus). Starting from an initial estimate of V 2(0)=1.0+j0.0
and V3(0)=1.04+j0.0,V2 and V3 are computed as

𝑃 𝑠𝑐 𝑕 𝑠𝑐 𝑕
2 −𝑗 𝑄 2 +𝑦 𝑉 +𝑦 𝑉 0
∗ 0 12 1 23 3
𝑉2
𝑉2 1 = 𝑦12 +𝑦23
−4.0+𝑗 2.5
+ 10−𝑗 20 1.05+𝑗0 + 16−𝑗32 1.04+𝑗0
1.0−𝑗 0
= 26−j52

=0.97462-j0.042307

Bus 3 is a regulated bus where voltage magnitude and real power are specified. For the voltage
controlled bus, first the reactive power is computed

(1) (1)
𝑄3 = −𝐼𝑚{𝑉3∗ 0
[𝑉3 0 𝑦13 + 𝑦23 − 𝑦13 𝑉1 − 𝑦23 𝑉2

= - Im{(0.04-j0)[(1.04+j0)(26-j62)-(10-j30)(1.05+j0)-

(16-j32)(0.97462-j0.042307)]}

=1.16

(1)
The values of 𝑄3 is used as Q3sch for the computation of voltage at bus 3.The complex voltage
at bus 3, denoted by Vc3(1) , is calculated as

𝑃3𝑠𝑐𝑕 − 𝑗𝑄3𝑠𝑐𝑕
∗ 0 + 𝑦13 𝑉1 + 𝑦23 𝑉2 1
𝑉3
𝑉𝑐31 =
𝑦13 + 𝑦23
2.0−𝑗 1.16
+ 10−𝑗30 1.05+𝑗 0 + 16−𝑗32 0.97462 −𝑗0.042307
1.04−𝑗 0
= 26−𝑗62

= 1.03783-j0.005170

Since |V3|is held constant at 1.04 p.u , only the imaginary part of V c3(1) is retained, and its real
part is obtained from

(1)
𝑒3 = (1.04)2 − (0.005170)2 = 1.039987

Thus
(1)
𝑉3 = 1.039987 − 𝑗0.005170

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For the second iteration, we have

𝑃2𝑠𝑐𝑕 − 𝑗𝑄2𝑠𝑐𝑕
∗ 1 + 𝑦12 𝑉1 + 𝑦23 𝑉3 1
𝑉2
𝑉2 2 =
𝑦12 + 𝑦23
−4.0 + 𝑗2.5
. 97462 + 𝑗. 042307 + 10 − 𝑗20 1.05 + 16 − 𝑗32 1.039987 + 𝑗0.005170
=
26 − 𝑗52

=0.971057-j0.043432
(2) (2)
𝑄3 = −𝐼𝑚{𝑉3∗ 1
[𝑉3 1 𝑦13 + 𝑦23 − 𝑦13 𝑉1 − 𝑦23 𝑉2

= - Im {(1.039987+j0.005170)[(1.039987-j0.005170)(26-j62)-

(10- j30)(1.05+j0)-(16-j32)(0.971057-j0.043432)]}

= 1.38796

𝑃3𝑠𝑐𝑕 − 𝑗𝑄3𝑠𝑐𝑕
+ 𝑦13 𝑉1 + 𝑦23 𝑉2 2
𝑉3∗ 1
𝑉𝑐32 =
𝑦13 + 𝑦23
2.0−𝑗 1.38796
+ 10−𝑗 30 1.05 + 16−𝑗32 .971057 −𝑗0043432
1.039987 +𝑗 0.00517
= 26−𝑗62

= 1.03908-j0.00730

Since |V3|is held constant at 1.04 p.u , only the imaginary part of V c3(2) is retained, and its real
part is obtained from

(2)
𝑒3 = (1.04)2 − (0.00730)2 = 1.039987
(2)
𝑉3 = 1.039974 − 𝑗0.00730

The process is continued and a solution is converged with an accuracy of 5 x 10 -5 pu in seven

iterations as given below.

V2(3)=0.97073-j 0.04479 Q3(3)=1.42904 V3(3)=1.03996-j 0.00833

V2(4)=0.97065-j 0.04533 Q3(4)=1.44833 V3(4)=1.03996-j 0.00873

V2(5)=0.97062-j 0.04555 Q3(5)=1.45621 V3(5)=1.03996-j 0.00893

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V2(6)=0.97061-j 0.04565 Q3(6)=1.45947 V3(6)=1.03996-j 0.00900

V2(7)=0.97061-j 0.04569 Q3(7)=1.46082 V3(7)=1.03996-j 0.00903

The final solution is

𝑉2 = 0.97168∠ − 2.6948𝑜 𝑝𝑢

S3=2.0+j1.4617 pu

𝑉3 = 1.04∠ −. 498𝑜 𝑝𝑢

S1=2.1842+j1.4085 pu

To find line flows, first the line currents are computed

I12 = y12(V1-V2) =(10-j20)[(1.05+j0)- ]=1.7076-j1.13

I21 =- I12 =-1.7076+j1.13

I13 = y13(V1-V3) =(10-j30)[(1.05+j0)- ]=0.3716-j0.2108

I31 =- I13 =-0.3716+j0.2108

I23 = y23(V2-V3) =(16-j32)[( )-( )]=-2.2823+j1.6330

I32 =- I23 =2.2823-j1.6330

The line flows are

S12= V1I12*=(1.05)(1.7076+j1.13)=179.3 MW +j118.65 MVAR

S21= V2I21*=( )(-1.7076-j1.13)=-170.90 MW -j101.877 MVAR

S13= V1I13*=(1.05)(0.3716+j0.2108)=39.02 MW +j22.13 MVAR

S31= V3I31*=( )(-0.3716-j0.2108)=-38.84 MW -j21.586 MVAR

S23= V2I23*=( )(-2.2823-j1.6330)=-228.98 MW -j148.07 MVAR

S32= V3I32*=( )(2.2823+j1.6330)=238.83 MW +j167.763 MVAR

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And the line losses are

SL12= S12+ S21=8.4MW+j16.773MVAR

SL13= S13+ S31=0.18 MW +j0.544 MVAR

SL23= S23+ S32=9.85 MW +j19.693 MVAR

The power flow diagram is shown in figure where real power direction is indicated by

and the reactive power direction

FIG.3

SIMULATION PROGRAM:

y12=10-j*20;

y13=10-j*30;

y23=16-j*32;

y33=y13+y23;

V1=1.05+j*0;

iter =0;

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S2=-4.0-j*2.5;

P3 = 2;

V2=1+j*0;

Vm3=1.04;

V3=1.04+j*0;

for I=1:10;

iter=iter+1;

E2 = V2;

E3=V3;

V2 = (conj(S2)/conj(V2)+y12*V1+y23*V3)/(y12+y23);

Q3 = -imag(conj(V3)*(y33*V3-y13*V1-y23*V2));

S3 = P3 +j*Q3;

Vc3 = (conj(S3)/conj(V3)+y13*V1+y23*V2)/(y13+y23);

Vi3 = imag(Vc3);

Vr3= sqrt(Vm3^2 - Vi3^2);

V3 = Vr3 + j*Vi3;

end

format short

V2

V3

Q3

I12=y12*(V1-V2);

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I21=-I12;

I13=y13*(V1-V3);

I31=-I13;

I23=y23*(V2-V3);

I32=-I23;

display('Lineflows')

S12=V1*conj(I12)*100

S21=V2*conj(I21)*100

S13=V1*conj(I13)*100

S31=V3*conj(I31)*100

S23=V2*conj(I23)*100

S32=V3*conj(I32)*100

display('Linelosses')

S1221=[S12+S21]

S1331=[S13+S31]

S2332=[ S23+S32]

OUTPUT:

V2 = 0.9706 - 0.0457i

V3 = 1.0400 - 0.0091i

Q3 = 1.4617

LINE FLOWS

S12 = 1.7936e+002 +1.1874e+002i

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S21 = -1.7096e+002 -1.0195e+002i

S13 = 39.0563 +22.1191i

S31 = -38.8735 -21.5709i

S23 = -2.2903e+002 -1.4805e+002i

S32 = 2.3888e+002 +1.6775e+002i

LINELOSSES

S1221 = 8.3931 +16.7863i

S1331 = 0.1827 + 0.5482i

S2332 = 9.8466 +19.6932i

OBSERVATIONS:

S.NO Parameter Calculated Simulated

RESULT:

The given set of load flow equation for a given power system were solved using gauss-
seidal method.

APPLICATION:
1. short circuit fault analysis,
2. stability studies(transient& steady state ),

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3. unit commitment and economic load dispatch analysis

CONCLUSION:

From this experiment we can conclude that power flow and load floe studies are
important for planning future expansion of power system as well as in determining magnitude
and phase angle of the voltage at each bus, and real and reactive power flowing in each line

MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

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Aim: To model and simulate single phase transformer using MATLAB/simulink power system
block set.
Apparatus:

2. PC
3. Matlab Software
Equivalent Circuit diagram

FIG.1

Theory:

Transformer is a device which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction

between two or more coupled circuits or coils according to this principle, an e.m.f is induced in a
coil if it links a changing flux which transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to
another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field and without change in the
frequency. The circuit which receives energy from supply is called primary winding and the
other circuit which delivers electrical energy to the load is called secondary winding.

Electrical machinery courses at the undergraduate level typically consist of classroom

and laboratory sections. The classroom section generally covers the steady-state operation of
transformers in which the per-phase equivalent circuit is used to compute various quantities such
as losses, efficiency, and voltage regulation. The laboratory section includes open-circuit, short-

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circuit tests conducted to determine no-load losses and equivalent circuit parameters, and load
test to study transformer performance under various loading conditions. Thus first of all one
should know how to model the single phase trtansformer with equivalent transformer.

Procedure:

1. Open MATLAB in PC.

2. Open simulink library browser.
3. Take a new model file.
4. Drag the required components from simulink library to the new model file.
5. Connect the components by wire provided with a ground for the source and load in the
circuit.
6. Insert the Analysis parameters, output variables, miscellaneous options in the Transients
analysis.
7. Save the circuit file.
8. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms.

Precautions:

1. Careful giving of values to pulse generator.

2. Connect the load as required

Calculations:

The calculations should be done priorly to model a trasformer. The prior requirements are:

No load current =I0 amperes

Applied voltage to primary =V1 (v)
Angle of lag, Ф0 = cos-1( )

No load current energy component, Ie = I0cosФ0= ( )

No load current magnetizing component, Im =

Equivalent circuit parameter, RC = =

Equivalent circuit parameters, XM =

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leakage impedance referred to h.v side,

Z 1=

Equivalent résistance referred to H.V side,

R1=Psc/Isc2

Equivalent leakage reactance report to low voltage side

X1=

Hence it gives the equivalent resistance, equivalent reactance and ohmic losses.

Simulation Results:

MATLAB\Simulink implementation of transformer

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FIG.2

Applications:

Transformer is used either step up or step down transformers and also used to control
the voltage and current.

Conclusion:

From this experiment it can be concluded that the modelling of transformer is carried out
in MATLAB/simulink with simpower system block set. Thus the transformer can be used for
power flow op

SIMULATION OF LOSSY TRANSMISSION LINE

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Aim: To simulate and analyse the lossy transmission line of a power system

Apparatus:

1. PC
2. Matlab Software
Circuit diagram :

FIG.1

Theory :

This circuit is a simplified model of a 230 kV three-phase power system. Only one phase
of the transmission system is represented. The equivalent source is modeled by a voltage source
(230 kV rms/sqrt(3) or 187.8 kV peak, 60 Hz) in series with its internal impedance (Rs Ls)
corresponding to a 3-phase 2000 MVA short circuit level and X/R = 10. (X = 230e3^2/2000e6
= 26.45 ohms or L = 0.0702 H, R = X/10 = 2.645 ohms).

The source feeds a RL load through a 150 km transmission line. The line distributed
parameters (R = 0.035ohm/km, L = 0.92 mH/km, C = 12.9 nF/km) are modeled by a single pi
section (RL1 branch 5.2 ohm; 138 mH and two shunt capacitances C1 and C2 of 0.967 uF).

The load (75 MW -20 Mvar per phase) is modeled by a parallel RLC load block. A
circuit breaker is used to switch the load at the receiving end of the transmission line. The

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breaker which is initially closed is opened at t = 2 cycles, then it is reclosed at t = 7 cycles.

Current and Voltage Measurement blocks provide signals for visualization purpose.

Procedure :

1. Open MATLAB in PC.

2. Open simulink library browser.
3. Take a new model file.
4. Drag the required components from simulink library to the new model file.
5. Connect the components by wire provided with a ground for the source and load in the
circuit.
6. Insert the Analysis parameters, output variables, miscellaneous options in the Transients
analysis.
7. Save the circuit file.
8. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms

Simulation Results:

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FIG.2

Applications:

1. For transient analysis of a transmission line in a power system.

2. For power flow studies .

Conclusion:

From this experiment one can see the variation of a system by changing the operating conditions
of the system. In this simulation it is shown the transient response of a system by closing and
opening the breaker so at that conditions the system is disturbing and current is going to zero
then the voltage across the system varies.

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MODELLING OF DC MOTOR AND ITS SPEED CONTROL

(CASCADE CONTROL)
AIM: To simulate and validate the response of a Cascade position control of DC motor drive
using Matlab/Simulink power system block-set

APPARATUS:

1. PC
2. Mat lab Software
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

Electrical equivalent of the DC motor armature, field and free body rotor.

Armature control of dc shunt motor

FIG.1

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THEORY:

In general, the torque generated by a DC motor is proportional to the armature current

and the strength of the magnetic field. In this example we will assume that the magnetic field is
constant and, therefore, that the motor torque is proportional to only the armature current i by a
constant factor Kt as shown in the equation below. This is referred to as an armature-controlled
motor.

The back emf, e, is proportional to the angular velocity of the shaft by a constant factor Ke.

In SI units, the motor torque and back emf constants are equal, that is, Kt = Ke; therefore,
we will use K to represent both the motor torque constant and the back emf constant.

From the figure above, we can derive the following governing equations based on
Newton's 2nd law and Kirchhoff's voltage law.

1. Transfer Functionl:

Applying the Laplace transform, the above modeling equations can be expressed in terms
of the Laplace variable s.

From the above equations we can express I(s) as

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This equation for the DC motor is shown in the block diagram in Figure given below.

FIG.2

We arrive at the following open-loop transfer function by eliminating I(s) between the
two above equations, where the rotational speed is considered the output and the armature
voltage is considered the input.

2. State-Space:

In state-space form, the governing equations above can be expressed by choosing the
rotational speed and electric current as the state variables. Again the armature voltage is treated
as the input and the rotational speed is chosen as the output.

DC SHUNT MOTOR:

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Although a far greater percentage of electric motors in service are AC motors, the DC
motor is of considerable industrial importance. The principal advantage of a DC motor is that its
speed can be changed over a wide range by a variety of simple methods. Such a fine speed
control is generally not possible with AC motors. In fact, fine speed control is one of the reasons
for the strong competitive position of DC motors in the modern industrial applications.

The speed of a DC motor is given by:

Or

From exp it is clear that there are three main methods of controlling the speed of a DC motor,
namely:

(i) By varying the flux per pole (f). This is known as flux control method.

(ii) By varying the resistance in the armature circuit. This is known as armature control method.

(iii) By varying the applied voltage V. This is known as voltage control method.

Here we are doing the armature control method to control the speed of DC shunt motor.

Armature control method:

This method is based on the fact that by varying the voltage available across the
armature, the back e.m.f and hence the speed of the motor can be changed. This is done by
inserting a variable resistance R c (known as controller resistance) in series with the armature as
shown in Fig.

Where Rc= Controller resistance

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Due to voltage drop in the controller resistance, the back e.m.f (E b) is decreased. Since N
α Eb, the speed of the motor is reduced. The highest speed obtainable is that corresponding to R c
= 0 i.e., normal speed. Hence, this method can only provide speeds below the normal speed

PI controller:

PI controller is consists of Kia ns Kp gains. These controllers are placed at both speed
and torque loop but with the differ values. Gain Kp determains proportional gain of controller,
while gain Ki determines the integral control. It is also implemented in this transfer function to
obtain zero steady state error, obtain a good dynamic response (i.e fast transient response with
minimum overshoot), and make the system less sensitive to disturbances and changes in the
system parameters.

PI controllers is always been compared to PID and PD controllers. PI controller is suited

for dominant dead time (time constant > dead time) and to decrease the noise as in this task‟s
objective and PID controller is suited for dominant time constant and no noise from the
transmitter. D is used when the loop has low noise and to increase the stability. If the loop is very
noisy, D will increase the noise in high frequency and the make the output jittery. D is not used
on a pure dead time process. It will make the loop unstable. As long as there is some amount of
lag or first order time constant in the process, D can help. D term is most often used on
temperature loops. Most temperature loops can make used of derivative because they are low
noise, are not pure dead time, and usually have two or more lags. Of course, there are exceptions,
but that is a good rule of thumb.

Cascade control structure:

The cascade control structure is commonly used for DC motor. It is because its
flexibility. The cascade control structure is consisting of inner torque loop and outer speed loop.
This cascade structure requires that the bandwidth (speed of response) increase towards the inner
loop, with the torque loop being the fastest and the speed loop being slower. This will be
designed with the Matlab simulink the proportional integral (PI) which is the controller is design
to meet the objectives.

PROCEDURE:

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1. Open MATLAB in PC.

2. Open simulink library browser.
3. Take a new model file.
4. Drag the required components from simulink library to the new model file.
5. Connect the components by wire provided with a ground for the source and load in the
circuit.
6. Insert the Analysis parameters, output variables, miscellaneous options in the Transients
analysis.
7. Save the circuit file.
8. Simulate the circuit and observe the waveforms.
MODEL GRAPH:

N Vs Ia graph of DC shunt motor with and without armature speed control

FIG.3

OBSERVATIONS:

S.no Input voltage (V) Kp KI Kb Speed (N)

1 100 17.73 43.45 -0.77 3000

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RESULTS:

Simulink model:

Simulink model of DC motorl

Speed controller of DC motor

FIG.4

Simulation waveforms:

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3000

2000

speed 1000

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
current

DC motor speed waveform without speed control

4000

3000
speed

2000

1000

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
current

DC motor speed waveform with speed control

FIG.5

APPLICATIONS:

1. For speed control applications.

2. For temperature control.

CONCLUSION:

Cascade position control of DC motor drive was simulated and the waveforms were
observed by using MATLAB/simulink power system block-set.

FURTHER EXTENSION:

Modeling of field controlled dc motor.

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Lab Manual For IV-I B.Tech EEE Students

Name of the Lab:

Power Systems Lab

Prepared By:
Dr.L.RAVI SRINIVAS, Professor.
J.HEMA SUNDAR, Assistant Professor.
M.SURESH, Assistant Professor.

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GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE :: GUDLAVALLERU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

POWER SYSTEMS LAB

LIST OF EXPERMENTS LIST

1. CHARACTERISTICS OF IDMT OVER CURRENT RELAY

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF PERCENTAGE BIASED DIFFERENTIAL RELAY

I) static II) elector magnetic

3. DETERMINATION OF SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF A CYLINDRICAL ROTOR

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

4. CHARACTERISTICS OF OVER CURRENT RELAY (ELECTRO MAGNETIC TYPE)

5. Fault Analysis

6. FREQUENCY RELAY TEST KIT

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPROSSESOR TYPE OVER VOLTAGE RELAY

8. Power Angle Characteristics of a Salient Pole Synchronous Machine

9. Simulation of 220KV Transmission line model i) Ferranti Effect ii) Transmission line
parameter iii) Surge Impedance loadings IV) Voltage control methods
10. Determination of Sub-Transient Reactance of a Salient Pole Machine

11. CHARACTERISTICS OF STATIC NEGATIVE SEQUENCE RELAY

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CHARACTERISTICS OF IDMT OVER CURRENT RELAY

Aim: Conduct a test on over current relay and Study the operating current Vs time current
characteristics at various multiples of plug setting current.

Apparatus Required:

1) Over current relay MC 12A

2) Current injection kit PSCI-S(𝜇𝑝)
3) Patch cards

Theory: The protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the
pickup level is known as the over‐current protection. Primary requirements of over‐current
protection are: The protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible over current,
current surges. To achieve this, the time delay is provided in case of inverse relays. The
protection should be coordinated with neighboring over current protection. Over current relay is
a basic element of over current protection

As the requirement of system is that the faulted line should be open instantaneously. If the
faulted line breaker fails to open the faulted line, the next supply breaker has to be open to for
making dead the faulty line. The next breaker may be at higher voltage line or the same voltage.
The next breaker should open only after the first breaker failure. So we will allow approx 0.6 sec
time to operate first breaker. If first breaker does not become open within 0.6 sec than it will be
assume failure and the next breaker will become functional. These time and current distinguish is
made by IDMT relay.

SELECTION OF TIME SETTING: For selective operation when there are a no of relays connected
in series, the relay farthest from the source should be set to operate in the minimum possible
time. For succeeding relays towards source a time delay step is given. For over current relays
(inverse time) the time setting should be done at the max fault current. If the relay has proper
selectivity at max fault current it will automatically have a higher selectivity at the min fault
current as the curve is more inverse on lower current region.

SELECTION OF CURRENT SETTING: The relay should allow normal load as well as a certain degree of
overload to be supplied. Thus the pickup value of the relay should be more than the allowable maximum load. At
the same time the relay should be sensitive enough to respond to the smallest fault.

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Procedure:
1) Connect as per interconnection diagram-Fig.1
2) Set the relay current.
3) Set TMS
4) Ensure time interval meter selection switch in TIM position.
5) Ensure protection time switch is ON position.
6) Connect the power card.
7) Bring dimmer to zero position.
8) Put on the mains using Mains on switch. Results (Mains on indicator, ammeter display,
relay power and timer display will glow.)
9) Select the current using current selector switch (left side of the panel) -total 6
positions. (Pos1-1A, pos2-2A, pos3-5A, pos4-10A,pos5-20A,pos6-50A). For current
multiply with the ammeter reading and weight of the switch).For eg. Meter reading 0.5,
switch position 3(5A) then current=5*0.5=2.5A.
10) Bring ROTARY switch “SHORT” position(left side of the panel)
11) Push TEST START BUTTON, CB ON indicator will glow.
12) Adjust the dimmer set the approximate injection current (within 30 seconds otherwise
protection timer will activate and circuit breaker will be off).
13) Push TEST STOP/RESET BUTTON.
14) Don‟t disturb the dimmer.
15) Bring rotary „start‟ or „open‟ mode.
16) Push TEST START BUTTON, Note down the current(circuit breaker on, CB on indicator
will glow, time interval meter stats up counting ,protection timer starts down the counting,
over current relay trip occurs TRIP indicator will glow at relay and injector unit also. If
buzzer switch is on it gives beep sound.
17) Note down the Time Interval meter readings.(Pick up time)
18) Press the RESET button.
19) Repeat the operation (9-18) by adjusting different current and TMS settings.
20) aw the graph Trip time Vs PSM (plug setting multiplier).

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Figure 1: Connection Diagram Of Microprocessor Based Over Current Relay

Fig 2.CONNECTION DIAGRAM OF OVER CURRENT RELAY:

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Fig 2.1.CONNECTION DIAGRAM OF PSCI-S(𝜇𝑝)

Observations:

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Time Multiplier Setting=

Sl No Plug Setting Fault Current PSM Operating Time in Sec

𝑭𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
Plug Setting multiplier = 𝑷𝒍𝒖𝒈 𝑺𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈

Model Graph:

Similarly draw the graphs for different Time Multiplexer Setting(TMS) values, and follow
the same procedure for different type of relays such as Inverse Definite Minimum Time
(IDMT) Over current rely, Inverse Over Current relay, Very Inverse Over Current relay.

Result:

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CHARACTERISTICS OF PERCENTAGE BIASED DIFFERENTIAL

RELAY I) static II) elector magnetic

Aim: To protect a transformer (or any other electrical equipment) from internal faults by using
biased differential protection scheme.

Apparatus:
Transformer - 220 /110 V, 3 KVA

Over current relay - static type, electromagnetic type

Ammeters - (0-10A), 3 NO

Auto transformer

Connecting wires

Theory:

Differential Protection: A two-winding relay that operates when the difference between the currents
in the two windings reaches a predetermined value is called differential relays. in case of electrical
quantities exceed predetermine value, current differential relay is one that compares the current
entering section of the system with current leaving the section, under normal operating conditions ,the
two currents are equal but as soon as fault occurs this condition no longer applies. The difference
between the incoming and outgoing currents is arranged to flow through operating coil. If this
difference is equal to or greater than pick up value the relay will operate and open the circuit breaker

and isolate the faulty section. Differential protection is a unit scheme that compares the current on

the primary side of a transformer with that on the secondary side. Where a difference exists (other
than that due to the voltage ratio) it is assumed that the transformer has developed a fault and the
plant is automatically disconnected by tripping the relevant circuit breakers. Differential protection
detects faults on all of the plant and equipment within the protected zone, including inter-turn short
circuits.

Principle of Operation:
The operating principle employed by transformer differential protection is the Merz-Price circulating
current system as shown below. Under normal conditions I1and I2 are equal and opposite such that
the resultant current through the relay is zero. An internal fault produces an unbalance or 'spill'
current that is detected by the relay, leading to operation.

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Disadvantage of Differential protection:

The impedance of the pilot cables generally causes a slight difference between the currents at
the two ends of the section to be protected, and then the small differential current flowing
through the relay may cause it to operate even under no fault conditions.

Biased differential protection:

The main drawback of differential protection is the reduction in sensitivity of the relay due to the
incorporation of the stabilizing resistance. Hence to minimize this effect and also to increase the
sensitivity of the differential relay, biased differential protection scheme is used .

Circuit Diagram:

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Procedure:
1. Choose a particular biasing (say 20%)
2. Close S . See that there is no relay operation (no current through A ). If there is
2 2

connect through A , reverse the connection of one of the CT secondary.

2

3. Switch OFF S .
2

4. Switch ON S . For a given value of A (through current) adjust A (relay operating

1 3 2

current) to cause the relay to just operate.

5. Repeat for another bias setting.
6. Repeat the procedure for electromagnetic relay also
Report:

Result:

DETERMINATION OF SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF A CYLINDRICAL

ROTOR SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
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Aim: To conduct a test on synchronous machine to determine the negative sequence and zero
sequence reactance of a synchronous generator.

Apparatus:
1. Alternator ( 3 phase, 415 V, 4.2A,1500 rpm)

2. DC motor (8A, 215 V, 1500 rpm, shunt)

3. Voltmeter (0-300V, 0-75 V) AC.

4. Ammeter (0-5A) A.C., (0-2 A)DC

5. Dimmer stat (1 phase, 230 V, 50Hz)

6. Wattmeter (150 V, 5A)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Zero Sequence Reactance:

Negative Sequence Reactance:

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THEORY:
When a synchronous generator is carrying an unbalanced load its operation may be analyzed by symmetrical
components. In a synchronous machine the sequence current produces an armature reaction which is stationary
with respect to reactance and is stationary with respect to field poles. The component currents therefore encounter
exactly same as that by a balanced load as discussed. The negative sequence is produced and armature reaction
which rotates around armature at synchronous speed in direction to that of field poles and therefore rotates part the
field poles asynchronous speed. Inducing current in the field damper winding and rotor iron. The impendence
encountered by the negative sequence is called the – ve sequence impedance of the generator. The zero sequence
current produce flux in each phase but their combined armature reaction at the air gap is zero. The impedance
encountered by their currents is therefore different from that encountered by + ve and –ve sequence components
and is called zero sequence impedance of generator.

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Negative Sequence Impendence:

The –ve sequence impedance may be found by applying balanced –ve sequence voltage to the armature terminals.
While the machine is drive by the prime mover at its rated synchronous speed with the field winding short
𝐼𝑎
circuited. The ratio of 𝑣/𝑝𝑕 and gives –ve sequence 𝑍 /𝑝𝑕.The reading of the wattmeter gives 𝐼 2 R losses.
𝑝𝑕

This loss /ph divided by Iph required gives the –ve sequence R/ph from the impedance and reactance/ph. –ve
sequence can be calculated. Another method of measuring –ve sequence reactance is found to be connect the arm
terminals. The machine is driven at synchronous speed and field current adjusted until rated current flows in the
phases shorted through armature and current coil of wattmeter respectively.

𝑉𝑅𝑌
𝑍2 =
√3 𝐼𝑠𝑐

𝑊
𝑋2 = 𝑍2 ∗
𝑉𝑅𝑌 ∗ 𝐼𝑠𝑐

𝑊
𝑋2 =
√3∗𝐼𝑠𝑐 2

𝑅2 = (𝑍2 2 − 𝑋2 2 )1/2

Zero sequence impedance:

The sequence impedance may be determined by the connecting the armature windings of the three phases in series
and then connecting them to the single phase source of power. If the machine is driven at synchronous speed with
field winding shorted, then 𝑍𝑂 =V/3I practically the same results will be obtained with rotor stationary. If
windings are connected in parallel, then
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉
𝑍𝑂 = =
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑕 𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼/3

PROCEDURE:

(A) For Negative Sequence Reactance:

(1) Make connection as shown in circuit diagram.

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(2) Run DC motor with synchronous speed.

(3) Keeping the speed constant, vary the excitation and measure the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter reading.
(4) Take 3-4 readings for different excitation.
(5) The excitation should not be increased beyond the rated capacity of synchronous machine i.e. 4.2 A
(B)For Zero Sequence Reactance:
(1)Make connection as shown in circuit diagram.
(2)Set the dimmer stat output to zero volts and switch on the supply.
3) Gradually increase dimmer stat output and note the ammeter reading forsuitable voltage applied
.4) Repeat reading for suitable voltage applied.
5) It should be kept in mind that the ammeter reading should not exceed the rated currentcapacity of the machine
i.e. 4.2 A.
OBSERVATIONS:
A) For Negative Sequence Reactance:

Result:

CHARACTERISTICS OF OVER CURRENT RELAY (ELECTRO

MAGNETIC TYPE)

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Aim: To conduct a test on electromagnetic type over current relay and steady the operating
time characteristics of electromechanical over current relay.

Apparatus:

1) Electromechanical over current relay EMOC-A

2) Current injection kit PSCI-S(𝜇𝑝)
3) Patch Cards

Theory: Over current / earth faulty relay model EMOC is an conventional electromechanical
non-directional single phase over current relay. It is suitable for over current protection scheme
in LV, MV and HV power distribution systems. It is also suitable for application such as
providing selective protection for overhead and underground feeders, AC machines, and backup
protection for transformer etc.

Relays are electro magnetically operated switches, an actuating current on a coil operates one or
more galvanically separated contacts or load circuits. The electro mechanical relay is a remote
controlled is capable of switching multiple circuits, either individually or simultaneously or in
sequence.

Procedure:

1) Connect as per interconnection diagram-Fig.1

2) Set the relay current-(setting procedure-refer LT MANUAL).
3) Set TMS
4) Ensure time interval meter selection switch in TIM position.
5) Ensure protection time switch is ON position.
6) Connect the power card.
7) Bring dimmer to zero position.
8) Put on the mains using Mains on switch. (ROCKERS).results ( Mains on
indicator, ammeter display, relay power and timer display will glow.)

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9) Select the current using current selector switch (left side of the panel) -total
6 positions. (Pos1-1A, pos2-2A, pos3-5A, pos4-10A, pos5-20A, pos6-50A). For
current multiply with the ammeter reading and weight of the switch).For eg.
Meter reading 0.5,switch position 3(5A) then current=5*0.5=2.5A
10) Bring ROTARY switch “SHORT” position(left side of the panel)
11) Push TEST START BUTTON, CB ON indicator will glow.
12) Adjust the dimmer set the approximate injection current (within 30 seconds
otherwise protection timer will activate and circuit breaker will be off).
13) Push TEST STOP/RESET BUTTON.
14) Don‟t disturb the dimmer.
15) Bring rotary „start‟ mode.
16) Push TEST START BUTTON, Note down the current(circuit breaker on
indicator will glow, time interval meter stats up counting ,protection timer starts
down the counting, over current relay trip occurs TRIP indicator will glow at
relay and injector unit also. If buzzer switch is on it gives beep sound.
17) Note down the Time Interval meter readings.(Pick up time)
18) Press the RESET button.
19) Repeat the operation (9-18) by adjusting different current and TMS settings.
20) Draw the graph Trip time Vs PSM (plug setting multiplier).

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Fig 1: Relay Connection Diagram

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Observations:

Time Multiplier Setting=

Sl No Plug Setting Fault Current PSM Operating Time in Sec

𝑭𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
Plug Setting multiplier = 𝑷𝒍𝒖𝒈 𝑺𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈

Model Graph:

Result:

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Fault Analysis

Aim: To analyze the shunt faults (LG, LL, LLG, LLLG) by using transmission line simulator
panel.

Apparatus: Transmission line simulator

Patch cards

Theory:

The transmission line simulator with protection is designed to demonstrate the fault clearing
process on transmission line using distance relay. The protection of transmission line is usually
done by distance protection schemes. The principle of operation of these relays depends on the
ratio of voltage to current changes & is depend on fault current and its power factor under the
fault condition. As s matter of fact such a relays are designed to operate according to the
impedance of the line up to the fault point or the ratio of voltage to current under fault condition.
As the fault impedance is proportional to distance of the line, relay indicates the distance over
which the fault has been occurred. The impedance relays known as distance relay. A
transmission line demo panel comprises a line model per phase basis having the length 400KM
& Voltage of 220 KV is designed for demonstration purposes. The lumped parameter line model
with five cascaded networks each of them is designed for 80 KM parameters. Fault simulating
switches are provided to create the fault condition .The switches are used to short live part of the
line to ground through some fault impedance different locations. The impedance relay senses
fault current, voltage and gives trip signal to the circuit breaker if fault impedance less than set
value. The circuit breaker isolates the transmission lines from supply.

The solid state impedance relay with single element is designed to measure the fault impedance
with magnitude, compare it with set point value and give the trip signal to circuit breaker.

The solid state over current relay with single element is designed to measure the current in
transmission line. If current is more than set current value, relay gives trip signal to circuit
breaker. Transmission line model: Transmission line model is designed for 400 Km, 220 KV
transmission line with five 𝜋 models cascaded each for 80 km line length having the lumped
parameters.R=2 ohm,c=1 𝜇𝐹 ,L=25 mh.Current capacity of model is 1 Amp.The transmission

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lime model diagram is printed on front panel & terminals are provided for every 𝜋 model so that
the connections & checking is easily provided.

Protective relay:

A solid state impedance relay is used to sense the fault impedance .the inputs from protection CT
connected to relay Depending on fault current & voltage at sending end, the relay calculates the
impedance. The digital display on relay gives percentage value of ratio of voltage & CT current
(Percentage value of fault impedance) .Under normal working conditions the value of impedance
is too high. But under the fault condition line current increases considerably high value &
sending end voltage drops down slightly, so that the impedance value decreases suddenly. The
value of percentage impedance will be 100% when CT secondary current is 1A and voltage is
220 V.

When the PRESS TO SET button is pressed, the digital display will show the set point value of
percentage. The set point value of percentage impedance can be adjusted to any point (within
range 0-180%) with set point by pressing the button. The solid state relay will be active, when
percentage impedance sense by relay reduces less than set point value and relay will gives trip
signal if fault condition remains for certain time delay. The time delay between activation of
relay and tripping of relay will be inversely proportional to the difference between actual
percentage impedance sense by relay and set value of percentage impedance. As the difference is
very high relay will trip fast after activation. The impedance relay works single phase,230 V AC
auxiliary supply .the relay can be designed to operate on 110 V AC supply.

Procedure:

1) Connect mains cable to 230V single phase, AC supply with proper earth connection.
2) Keep SW1, Sw2, SW3, MCB and all switches OFF position.
3) Switch on input MCB. Check MAINS ON indication and voltage at sending end is
displayed on input side digital voltmeter.
4) Check impedance relay supply & its DPM should be ON indicating maximum value of
impedance.
5) Check the over current relay, & its DPM should indicate minimum value of current.

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6) Press push button PB1, sending end contactor (C1) gets energized & gives on indication
and the supply is connected to line model.
7) Press Push Button PB5, contactor C2 gets energized & gives LOAD ON indication and
load gets connected to transmission line model. Voltage and current at load end and
current at sending end is displayed. Adjust sending end current about 1 Ampere.
8) Adjust set value of impedance on solid state relay. Note down set point of percentage
impedance.
9) Adjust the set value of current relay, Note down the set point value of set current.
10) Create the phase to earth fault with the help of SW1, Sw2, and SW3 one by one starting
from switch SW3.
11) When the fault is created, impedance relay will calculate percentage fault impedance & it
will be displayed on relay DPM.Note down percentage fault impedance. If fault
impedance is more than set value of over current relay. Relay will active & give Active
indication ON.
12) The timer will start time counting, if fault condition remains for specific time delay the
FAULT indication ON & relay gives trip signal to circuit breaker control circuit.
13) The trip circuit energizes contactor A1 and also to hooter coil.Hooter gives an audio
alarm. The contactor de energized and line is opened from supply.
14) Repeat the procedure with different fault locations with different set point values and find
the impedance relay response.
15) Repeat the procedure for the LG,LLG,LL,LLLG faults.
Model calculations: (During normal conditions)

Line voltage assumed=220v=220 kva

Sending end transformer=1 kva

Sending end current = 4.54A

So full load current=4.54A

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Total impedance of transmission line=220v/4.5a=48.9ohm

Total no. of sections=5

Now for each section=48.9/5=9.78ohm

Result:

FREQUENCY RELAY TEST KIT

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Aim: To conduct A Test On Frequency Relay Test Kit Under Over Frequency And Under
Frequency Modes.

Apparatus: 1) Frequency Relay

2)Variable Frequency And Voltage Generator Circuit

3)Patch Cards

Theory:

The frequency relay which we have adopted will work in a different mode

1. Under frequency
2. Over frequency

Reset can be done by either manual or auto the relay will indicate over or under voltage also. The
trip time is indicated by the timer. The kit consists of the frequency relay, timer, voltmeter, and
frequency meter the variable frequency and voltage are developed with the help of an electronic
circuit. The connection terminals are brought out of external connection. The trip indicator lights
up when the relay operates.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in fig 1

2. Switch on the mains
3. Set the relay function
4. Adjust the voltage and frequency using the adjustment knobs
5. Voltage should be slightly greater than set voltage
6. Switch it off
7. Switch the kit on and push the start button
8. Observe the trip time and applied frequency
9. Suppose relay trips in lower frequency mode before resetting, increase the
frequency otherwise it won‟t reset
10. Suppose relay trips in upper frequency mode before resetting, decrease the
frequency otherwise it won‟t reset

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Fig 1 : Circuit Diagram

Result:

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPROSSESOR TYPE OVER VOLTAGE

RELAY

Aim: To conduct a test on micro processor based over voltage relay and Study the
characteristics between voltage and time.

Apparatus Required:

1) Over Voltage Relay MV12

2) Voltage injection kit PSCI-S(𝜇𝑝)
3) Patch Cards

Theory:

There are several instruments in power system which may burn at over voltage like motor,
transformer, capacitors etc. To protect these instruments from over voltage, the overvoltage
relay is necessary. The several type of over voltage relays is available. One of the types from
these relays is studying here. It is microprocessor based over voltage relay. The over voltage
relay continuously monitor the system and give trip signal to circuit breaker or alarm signal
whenever the operating voltage is exceeds the presetting value.

Procedure:

1. Connect as per interconnection daigram shown in fig 1.

2. Set the relay over voltage .
3. Set TMS.
4. Ensure time interval meter selection switch in TIM position.
5. Ensure protection time switch is in ON position.
6. Ensure S2 switch is in ON position.
7. Bring both dimmers to zero position.
8. Connect the power cord.
9. Put on the mains using mains ON switch (ROCKER). Results (mains on
indicator,ammeter display,relay power and time display will glow.)
10. Bring toggle switch to SET mode.

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11. Push TEST START button, CB ON indicator will glow.

12. Adjust the dimmer2 to set the exact injection voltage.(with in 30 seconds otherwise
protection timer will activate and circuit breaker will be off.)
13. Push TEST STOP/RESET button.
14. Don‟t disturb the dimmer‟s 1 & 2.
15. Bring toggle switch to SET mode.
16. Pust TEST START button. Note down the voltage (CB On indicator will glow, time
interval meter starts up counting, protection timer starts down counting,over voltage relay
trip occurs TRIP indicator will glow at relay and injector unit also. If buzzer switch is on
it gives the beep sound.)
17. Note down the time interval meter reading.(pick up time)
18. Press the RESET button.
19. Repeat operation (10-18) by adjusting different voltage and TMS values.
20. Draw the graph trip time vs PSM (plug setting multiplier).

Observations: (Normal inverse relay)

Time Multiplier Setting=

Sl No Plug Setting Fault Voltage PSM Operating Time in Sec

(VERY INVERSE RELAY)

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Time Multiplier Setting=

Sl No Plug Setting Fault Voltage PSM Operating Time in Sec

𝑭𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
Plug Setting multiplier = 𝑷𝒍𝒖𝒈 𝑺𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈

Model Graph:

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Fig 1: Inter Connection diagram

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Fig2 :Connection Diagram Of Relay MV12

Similarly draw the graphs for different Time Multiplexer Setting(TMS) values, and follow the
same procedure for different type of relays such as Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT),
Inverse, Very Inverse type relays.

Result:

Power Angle Characteristics of a Salient Pole Synchronous Machine

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Aim: To conduct a test on salient pole synchronous machine and to determine the power angle
characteristics and draw the power angle characteristics.

Apparatus:

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI 1

2. Voltmeter MC 1

3. Ammeter MC 1

4. Ammeter MI 1

5. Rheostat Wire wound 1

6. Tachometer - 1

Circuit diagram:

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Fig 1: circuit diagram

Fuse Rating:

125% of rated current (Full load current)

For DC shunt motor:

For Alternator:
Theory:

Synchronous generator connected to a power system needs to remain synchronized in operating

conditions even in the case of extreme situations. The exceeding of allowed loading would cause
the activation of the generator protection and disconnection of the synchronous generator from
the power system.
The load angle is the angular displacement of the generator's rotor from the no-load position
referred to as terminal voltage. Load angle provides information about the generator operating
point position in relation to the stability limit. The load angle increases with increasing load and
under-excitation. Power system is characterized by significant changes in synchronous generator
performance, so that the transition from one to another steady operating condition is often

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accompanied by significant changes in the dynamic load angle. This results in changes of the
load angle, in a relatively short period of time, from the maximum to the minimum value. The
load angle value is important information especially in the case when generator operates in
under-excitation state, because the load angle then assumes the maximum allowed value in
relation to the stability limit of synchronous generator operation. The load angle can be used as a
measure of how close the generator is to pole slipping and can be also used to limit the excitation
current during its operation in capacitive mode.

Fig 2. Salient pole synchronous machine a) single line diagram b) Phasor diagram

The figure above shows the simple power system consisting of salient pole synchronous machine
SM connected to an infinite bus of voltage 𝑉𝐸𝑄 through series impedance 𝑋𝐸𝑄 . Resistance will
be neglected because it is small. Consider that the synchronous machine is acting as a generator.
𝑋𝑑𝑡 = 𝑋𝑑 + 𝑋𝐸𝑄
𝑋𝑞𝑡 = 𝑋𝑞 + 𝑋𝐸𝑄
The power delivered to the bus P
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑑 𝑉𝑑 + 𝐼𝑞 𝑉𝑞 = 𝐼𝑑 𝑉𝐸𝑄 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝐼𝑞 𝑉𝐸𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
𝐸𝑎𝑓 − 𝑉𝐸𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
𝐼𝑑 =
𝑋𝑑𝑇
𝑉𝐸𝑄 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝐼𝑑 =
𝑋𝑞𝑇
2
𝐸𝑎𝑓 𝑉 𝐸𝑄 𝑉𝐸𝑄 (𝑋 𝑑𝑇 −𝑋𝑞𝑇 )
𝑃= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛿 eqn(1)
𝑋 𝑑𝑇 2𝑋 𝑑𝑇 𝑋 𝑞𝑇

Model Graph:

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Procedure:
1) Find 𝑋𝑑 (direct axis synchronous reactance), 𝑋𝑞 (quadratic axis synchronous reactance).
2) Connect the synchronous generator to an infinite bus.
3) Note down the values of P, 𝐸𝑎𝑓 , 𝑉𝐸𝑄 .
4) Calculate the value of 𝛿 by using equation 1.
5) Draw the graph between P and 𝛿.

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Procedure to find 𝑿𝒅(direct axis synchronous reactance), 𝑿𝒒 (quadratic axis synchronous

reactance)

1. Note down the nameplate details of motor and alternator.

2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. Give the supply by closing the DPST Switch.
4.Using the Three point starter, start the motor to run at the synchronous speed by varying the
motor field rheostat at the same time check whether the alternator field has been opened or
not.
5. Apply 20% to 30% of the rated voltage to the armature of the alternator by adjusting the
autotransformer.
6. To obtain the slip and the maximum oscillation of pointers, the speed is reduced slightly
lesser than the synchronous speed.
7. Maximum current, minimum current, maximum voltage and minimum voltage are noted.
Find out the direct and quadrature axis Impedances.

Formula Used:

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1. Armature resistance Ra = 1.6 RDC

Where, RDC is the resistance in DC supply.
2. Direct axis Impedance per phase (Zd) = Vmax / Imin in Ω
3. Quadrature axis Impedance per phase (Zq) = Vmin / Imax in Ω
4. Direct axis Reactance per phase (Xd) = √ (Zd2 – Ra2) in Ω
5. Direct axis Reactance per phase (Xq) = √ (Zd2 – Ra2) in Ω
6. Percentage Regulation = (E0 –Vrated) / Vrated × 100

Tabulation to find out the direct axis impedance (Zd):

Speed of the alternator:

Minimum voltage applied to the stator:

Direct axis
Minimum Current Maximum voltage Direct axis
S. No. impedance Per phase
per Phase (Imin) Per phase (Vmax) reactance Per
(Zd)
phase (Xd)

Tabulation to find out the quadrature axis impedance (Zq):

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Maximum Minimum Quadrature axis

S. No. Current per voltage Per phase impedance Per Quadrature axis

Phase (Imax) (Vmin) phase (Zq) reactance Per

phase (Xq)

Precautions:

1. The motor field rheostat should be kept in the minimum resistance position.
2. The Alternator field should be kept open throughout the experiment.
3. The direction of rotation due to prime mover and due to the alternator run as the motor
should be same.
4. Initially all the switches are kept open.
Result:

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Simulation of 220KV Transmission line model i) Ferranti Effect ii)

Transmission line parameter iii) Surge Impedance loadings IV) Voltage
control methods
Aim: To Simulate 220KV Transmission line model and
1) To determine the ABCD constants, characteristic impedance of long transmission line

2) To determine Ferranti effect on no load.

Apparatus: 1) Transmission line simulator

2) Patch cards

Theory:

Long lines cause special problems in power systems. The voltage at the receiving end may raise,
on no load or light load, beyond permissible limits, Ferranti effect is an increase in voltage occurring
at the receiving end of a long transmission line, relative to the voltage at the sending end. This occurs
when the line is energized but there is a very light load or the load is disconnected, but on load the
voltage may drop below normal. A transmission line demo panel comprises a line model per
phase basis having the length 400KM & Voltage of 220 KV is designed for demonstration
purposes. The lumped parameter line model with five cascaded networks each of them is
designed for 80 KM parameters.

Since a transmission line is symmetrical, the measurement of the open circuit impedance is
enough to determine the ABCD constants.

Open-circuiting the load end of the line, the open circuit impedance is measured at sending end
as

𝑍𝑂𝐶 = 𝐴/𝐶 (1)

Short circuiting the load end of the line, the short circuit impedance is measured at the sending
end as

𝑍𝑆𝐶 = 𝐵/𝐴 (2)

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For a symmetrical network,

A=D (3)

For a passive network,

AD-BC=1

Substituting equation (3) in equation (4)

𝐴2 − 𝐵𝐶 = 1

Using equation (1) and (5) we get

𝑍 𝑂𝐶
A=(𝑍 )1/2 (6)
𝑂𝐶 −𝑍 𝑠𝐶

B=A. 𝑍𝑆𝐶 (7)

C=A/𝑍𝑂𝐶 (8)

Fig 1: Circuit diagram to determine ABCD constants

Procedure to determine ABCD constants:

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1) Connect the transmission line input terminal to transformer output terminals open
receiving end.
2) Apply 220 V or less to measure 𝑍𝑂𝐶 .

𝑉𝑆
𝑍𝑂𝐶 = (10)
𝐼𝑆

𝑊𝑆
𝐶𝑂𝑆 𝜃 = 𝑉 (11)
𝑆 ∗𝐼𝑆

Calculate 𝑍𝑂𝐶 as a phasor.

3) For measuring 𝑍𝑆𝐶 ,short circuit receiving end with the help of switch pass a current of
3.44 A or less calculate 𝑍𝑆𝐶 as a phasor from equations.
4) Calculate ABCD constants as phasors from equations (6)-(8).
5) Determine the surge impedance and propagation constant 𝜆𝑙 as phasors from the
following equations.
𝐵
𝑍0 = ( )1/2
𝐶
𝜆𝑙 = 𝐶𝑂𝑆𝑕−1 (𝐴) (13)

Procedure for Ferranti effect:

1) Open the receiving end.

2) Adjust the sending end voltage to 220V.Note the receiving end voltage.
3) The receiving end voltage is greater than sending end due to Ferranti effect.

Procedure for Voltage control (shunt compensation to counteract the voltage

rise on no load)

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1) Open circuit the receiving end.

2) Adjust the sending-end voltage to 220V.Note the receiving end.
3) Introduce the compensation equipment and adjust its L and C till the receiving end
voltage also reaches to 220 V.(𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 )
4) Note the current taken by the compensator (which include L and C in parallel) and
determine its Var rating and its ohmic value.

Result:

Determination of Sub-Transient Reactance of a Salient Pole Machine

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AIM: To conduct a test on salient pole synchronous machine to determine sub transient direct
axis (𝑋𝑑′′ ) and quadratic axis (𝑋𝑞′′ ) synchronous reactance of alternator.

APPARATUS::
Alternator: - 3 phase, 1KW, 4.2 A, 1500 RPM
Dimmer stat: 230 V/ 270 V, 10 Amp
Ammeter: - 0-10 AC, 0-1 A AC
Voltmeter:-0-300 V AC,
Connecting wires etc..

S. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Voltmeter MI 1

2. Ammeter MI 2

3. Single phase variac - 1

4. Rheostat Wire Wound 1

5 Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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THEORY:
This theory is related to behavior of an alternator under transient conditions. In purely inductive closed
circuit the total flux linkages cannot change suddenly at the time of any disturbance. Now if all the three phases of an
unloaded alternator with normal excitation are suddenly short circuited there will be short circuit current flowing
in the armature. As the resistance is assumed to be zero this current lag behind the excitation voltage by 90 degree
and the mmf produced by this current will be in d- axis and the first conclusion is that , this current will be affected
by d axis parameters xd , x′d and x′′q only. Further there will be demagnetizing effect of this current but as the flux
linkages with field cannot change the effect of demagnetizing armature mmf must be counter balanced by a
proportional increase in the field current, This additional induced component of field current gives rise to greater
excitation , under transient state and results in more short circuit current at this time than the steady state short circuit. if
field poles are provided with damper bars. Than at the instant three phase short-circuit the demagnetizing armature
mmf induces current in damper bars which in turn produces field in the same direction as main field and hence and at
this instant the excitation. Further increases in short circuit armature current. This is for a very short duration.
Normally 5 to 4 cycles and this period is knows as sub-transient period. Since the field voltages are constant, there
is no additional voltage to sustain these increased excitation during sub transient period or transient period.

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Consequently the effect of increased field current decrease with a time constant determined by the field and
armature circuit parameter and accordingly the short circuit armature current also decays with the same time constant

Fig. shows a symmetrical waveform for a armature short circuit for one phase of three phase alternator. The DC
component is taken to be zero for this phase. The reactance‟s offered by the machine during sub transient periods are known as
sub transient reactances. In direct axis it is 𝑋𝑑′′ and in quadrature axis it is 𝑥𝑞 .

PROCEDURE:

1) Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram

2) Set the dimmer stat output to zero and put on the supply

3) Gradually rotate the armature and see the field current and the armature current. Note the values of applied
voltage and armature currents. When field current is maximum, and when minimum.

4) Repeat the step three for other applied voltage Take care that armature current does not go beyond its rated
value during the experiment.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl no Armature Armature Armature current

voltage voltage 𝑋𝑑′′ 𝑋𝑞′′ Avg Avg(𝑋𝑞′′ )
(phase) (𝑋𝑑′′ )

If Max If Min

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 /𝑝 𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑋𝑑′′ = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 /𝑝 𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒 (If Max)

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 /𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑋𝑞′′ = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 /𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒 (If Min)

𝑋𝑑′′
𝑋𝑑′′ 𝑝𝑢 =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑋𝑞′′
𝑋𝑞′′ 𝑝𝑢 =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

(𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 )2
Base Impedance = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝐴

Result:

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CHARACTERISTICS OF STATIC NEGATIVE SEQUENCE RELAY

Aim: To conduct a test on solid state negative phase sequence current relay and study the
operating characteristics.

Apparatus:

1) Solid state negative phase sequence relay kit

2) Induction motor
3) Patch cards

Theory: Whenever there is an unbalance in circuit, the unbalanced currents will have a negative phase sequence

component. A negative phase sequence (or phase unbalance) relay is essentially provided for the protection of
generators and motors against unbalanced loading that may arise due to phase-to-phase faults. Such relay has a filter
circuit, which is responsive only to the negative sequence components. Since small magnitude over-current can
cause dangerous conditions, it becomes necessary to have low setting of such relays. An earth relay can also provide
the desired protection but only in case when there is a fault between any phase and earth. For phase-to-phase faults
an earth relay cannot provide necessary protection and hence negative phase sequence relay is required.

Procedure:

1. Connect as per diagram.

2. Connect Auxilary power cord.
3. Connect three phase input. (415v, 3ph)
4. Mains switch ON(Rocker)
5. Push CB ON button. – CB on indicator will glow.
i) CB on indicator will glow.
ii) If motor connected, it starts running. Note down the ammeter readings.(Rheostat
should be in zero(cut) position.)
6. Adjust the rheostat to create the negative sequence(unbalance)
7. Negative relay sequence relay gets TRIP.
8. Push CB OFF/RESET.
9. Without disturbing the rheostat switch on the CB ON and note down the ammeter reading
and trip timing.
10. Interchange the three phase R,Y,B sequence and observe.

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 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering 2014-15

GUDLALERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE::GUDLAVALLERU Page 978

 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering 2014-15

Observations: Balanced Condition: Table 1

GUDLALERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE::GUDLAVALLERU Page 979
 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering 2014-15

SL NO Current Phase R Current Phase Y Current Phase B Time In Seconds

Un Balanced Condition: Table 2

SL NO Current Phase R Current Phase Y Current Phase B Time In Seconds

Result:

GUDLALERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE::GUDLAVALLERU Page 980