1

A Strong Partner for Sustainable Development

Module
in
GE 5

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

College of Business and Management

BSHM 1A, BSBA 1A & 1B
 Module No. 4

Mathematics as a Tool

First Semester 2020-2021

SHEILA GRACE PAMA-SORIANO

Assistant Professor II

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Table of Contents

Contents Page
Cover Page i
Title Page ii
Table of Contents iii
Introduction to the User iv
Introduction v
Chapter 4 Mathematics as a Tool 1
Overview 1
Learning Outcomes 1
Pre-test 1
Lesson 1 Sampling Techniques
A. Learning Outcomes 2
B. Time Allotment 1
C. Discussion 1
D. Activities/Exercises 4
E. Evaluation/Post-test 5
Lesson 2 Organization and Presentation of Data
A. Learning Outcomes 5
B. Time Allotment 5
C. Discussion 5
D. Activities/Exercises 9
E. Evaluation/Post-test 11
Lesson 3 Measures of Central Tendency
A. Learning Outcomes 12
B. Time Allotment 12
C. Discussion 12
D. Activities/Exercises 13
E. Evaluation/Post-test 16
Lesson 4 Measures of Dispersion
A. Learning Outcomes 17
B. Time Allotment 18
C. Discussion 18
D. Activities/ Exercises 19
E. Evaluation/Post-test 19
Lesson 5 Hypothesis Testing
A. Learning Outcomes 19
B. Time Allotment 20
C. Discussion 20
D. Activities/Exercises 22
References 22
Privacy Notice 22
Student’s Information 22

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 iv

INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

This module would provide you an educational experience while independently

accomplishing the task at your own pace or time. It aims as well to ensure that
learning is unhampered by health and other challenges. It covers the topic about
sampling techniques, frequency distributions, graphs and charts, measures of
central tendency and measures of dispersion.

Reminders in using this module:

1. Keep this material neat and intact.

2. Answer the pretest first to measure what you know and what to be
learned about the topic discussed in this module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises as aids and reinforcement for
better understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it to social
media platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and honestly
answering and doing the exercises and activities. Time and effort were
spent in the preparation in order that learning will still continue
amidst this Covid-19 pandemic.
7. Observe health protocols: wear mask, sanitize and maintain physical
distancing.

Hi! I’m Blue Bee, your WPU Mascot.

Welcome to Western Philippines University!

Shape your dreams with quality learning experience.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY!
INTRODUCTION v

In the organization and collection of data, it is very important to determine

first the sample size especially if the population is very large. Sampling is allowed to

save time and money, there are several sampling techniques that can be applied in

selecting sample without being accused as biased which will be discussed in this

chapter.

Data presented in the form of graphs and tables looked more interesting and

organized and readers may appreciate reading statistical information on this. This

second module focuses on the Mathematics as a Tool.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 CHAPTER 1

Mathematics as a Tool

Overview
Module 4 covers topics on sampling techniques, frequency distribution and
graphs. In this chapter, you will learn more on how to organize and present data
using terms and concepts for us to understand statistics comprehensively. It aims to
develop your skills in organizing, interpret/analysing and presenting data in the form
of graphs and table.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you can:
1. differentiate a representative sample from a biased sample;
2. solve problems using slovin’s formula;
3. identify the appropriate way of collecting data;
4. organize data in a table and graphs;
5. construct the most appropriate graph for sets of data;
6. identify and use measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion
appropriate for a given data;
7. make hypothesis and use hypothesis testing in the given statistical problems; and
8. use appropriate test hypothesis in a given statement of a problem;

PRE-TEST
Instructions: To test your prior knowledge patterns, symmetry, sequence and series. Please
provide a yellow paper as your answer sheet.
Column A Column B
1. The process of obtaining sample a. pictograph
2. method by which every element of a population has an equal b. sampling
chance of being included in a sample. c. line graph
3. sampling technique where elements of a population are d. frequency
drawn based on the judgement of the researcher e. random
4. method of data collection from the entire population sampling
5. it is the number of times the datum occurs f. cumulative
6. listing of data that pairs each entry in the list with the number frequency
of times it occurs g. pie graph
7. the number of scores contained in each class h. histogram
8. texts are used in presenting statistical information i. bar graph
9. it refers to diagram or drawings which show the successive j. graph
values of a changing quantity k. table
10. it is the graph used when characteristics are opposite in nature l. textual
and are to be compared. presentation
11. a graph constructed as a sequence of touching vertical rectangles m. class interval
12. it is the graph used when we wish to show how one value changes n. complete
to another value over successive periods of time enumeration

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13. it is a graph obtained by smoothing a frequency polygon o. non-probability
14. it is a graph that is used in illustrating how a whole quantity sampling
2
is divided into its component parts p. purposive
15. it is a graph where the frequency of each item is represented sampling
by pictures or graphics.
Lesson 1: Sampling Techniques

In this lesson, you are given learning outcomes to achieve at the end of the
lesson with time allotment for you to learn time management in learning the topics
on sampling techniques. There is an activity that will assess your learning including
the post test on performance task that is guided with rubrics for scoring.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, you can:

1. differentiate a representative sample from a biased sample;
2. identify the appropriate way of collecting data;
3. solve problems using slovin’s formula;

Time Allotment: The minimum allotted hours for you to work on this module is 3
hrs. Make sure that you have learned the process, completed the assigned task
and achieved expected learning outcomes in this module.

DISCUSSION

1.1 Sampling Techniques

There are several sampling techniques you can apply in selecting samples without
being accused as biased. Generally, we have five (5) methods to choose these are
random sampling, systematic sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling and
convenience sampling. Let us study each and learn more how to use it.

1.1.1 Random sampling

All members of the population have equal chances of being included in the
study. This is applicable if the target population is not classified into different
clusters, sections, levels or classes. The method is easy to use but not when the
population is very large, say a thousand or more.
a. Lottery Method
It is most common and easiest method of random sampling. The name of
the respondents will be written on small pieces of paper which will be
rolled and placed in jar. The respondents who will be included in the study
will be those whose names are written on the pieces of paper that are
picked at random from the jar.
1.1.2 Systematic sampling
a. Stratified random sampling
This method is applied when the population is divided into different strata
or classes wherein each class must be represented in the study.

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 To compute for the sample size, the Slovin’s Formula will be used
𝒏= where n=sample size, N=number of cases, e=margin of error

3
Example: Suppose a researcher wants to determine the average income of the
families in a barangay 5, 000 families, distributed in five purok’s.
Computing for the sample size n at a 5% margin of error

Solution: 𝑛 = = 370

The required sample size from each Barangay in Aborlan

Barangay Population Percentage nk
1 800 16% 0.16 x 370 =59
2 600 12% 0.12 x 370 =44
3 900 18% 0.18 x 370 =67
4 1200 24% 0.24 x 370 =89
5 1500 30% 0.30 x 370 =111
N 5000 100% 370

b. Cluster sampling
When the geographical area where the study will be done is too big and the
target population is too large, the cluster sampling technique may be
appropriate. In this technique, the selection of sample units is not by
individual but by groups called cluster. The area will be divided into
clusters, then a desired number of clusters will be selected at random.

Example: A doctor wants to make a nationwide study on the correlation of

smoking and drinking liquor. He decided to focus on 8 cities in Mega
Manila which can be considered as clusters. If 5 of the clusters or cities
are the desired sample units, the names of the 8 clusters will be written
on small pieces of paper, then five will be picked at random using
lottery method. All the residents of the selected five clusters will be
included in the study.
1.1.3 Purposive sampling
The respondents of the study will be chosen based on their knowledge of the
information required by the researcher.
Example: Suppose the researcher wants to make a historical study about
Cuyo. The possible respondents will be the senior citizens of the town since
they are the most reliable persons who know the history of the town. Compute
for the sample siza using slovin’s formula, there are 3000 senior citizens and
a 3% margin of error is allowed.
Solution: 𝑛 = = 810

The sample size will be 810 senior citizens in the town.

1.1.4 Quota sampling
This is commonly used in opinion polls. The researcher needs to do the study
within a short timetable and once he/she gathered the required number of
sample size, the researcher is through with his/her collection of data. He/she

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 can station himself at a public place, such as a park or a mall then ask the
possible respondents.

4
1.1.5 Convenience sampling
This technique is resorted to by researchers who need the information the
fastest was possible. This method may be fast but it is also biased because
there is a possibility that some respondents may not be included in the study.
Census or complete enumeration is a method of data collection from
the entire population.
Observation is appropriate when data can be collected without any response
from people.
Experiment is used to find out cause and effect relationship
Survey is used when we can obtain data through questionnaires which may be
distributed by hand, face-to-face or telephone interviews.

ACTIVITY 1
Directions: Complete the table using the stratified sampling technique.
Compute first for the sample size using Slovin’s formula at a 5% margin
of error for the hotel listed in the table below: (15 points)

Distribution of tourists in Five Hotels in Palawan

Hotel Tourists Percentage Sample size (n)
1 500
2 300
3 800
4 1000
5 400
N 3000 n=

ACTIVITY 2
Directions: Solve the following problems and write your complete solutions in
yellow paper as your answer sheet. (10 points)

1. Compute for the sample size required for each of the following
population:
a. N = 5, 263, e = 3%
b. N = 8, 000, e = 5%
2. Compute for the margin of error to be used if 800 sample units are
required from a population of 2, 400.
3. A researcher plans to get 588 sample units from a population N using a
4% margin of error. What is the value of the population?
4. A biology researcher wants to assign male and female students to an
experimental group and a control group. If he is to choose from 600
students and plans to assume a 5% margin of error, what sample size
would be appropriate?

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POST TEST
This test will measure your mastery in Lesson 1 covered in this module.

Directions: Identify the appropriate sampling technique for the following and state how the
data will be gathered. (10 points)

1. Prof. Gonzalez selects 10 students who would represent the class in a seminar.

2. Mrs. Biason obtained the total number of students through the school registrar and was
requested by the administration to conduct a survey about the agreement or disagreement of
students regarding the reduced days of classes.

3. A researcher wants to make a study on coping mechanism of solo parents in the business
industry.

4. You consider your six year old sister as respondent which you will be observing and
interviewing in an ample time during the conduct of your research.

5. If a researcher wants 2000 respondents and he needs to do the conduct of the study within
a short timetable.

Lesson 2: Organization and Presentation of Data

This lesson will help you how to arrange data to be more interesting and organized.
You will also learn how to present data in textual, tabular and graphical form which will develop your
skills in presenting data gathered comprehensively and accurately.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, you can:

1. collect statistical data;
2. organize data in a table and graphs;
3. present data in textual, tabular and graphical forms; and
4. construct the most appropriate graph for sets of data

Time Allotment: The minimum allotted hours for you to work on this module is 6
hrs. Make sure that you have learned the process, completed the assigned task
and achieved expected learning outcomes in this module.

DISCUSSION

2.1 Methods of Organizing and Presenting Data

2.1.1 Textual Presentation

When texts are used in presenting statistical information data are presented in
phrase, sentence or paragraph form. However, textual presentation would not be of much
use as basis for analysis and interpretation.

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Example:
There are 353 respondents were interviewed in five (5) purok in the barangay. 95 families were chosen
in purok 1, 46 from purok 2, 60 from purok 3, 71 from purok 4 and 81 from purok 5 for a total of 353
families. As to how they are selected, lottery method was applied.

2.1.2 Tabular Presentation

The data types are frequency distribution, correlated data and time series data. Data that are
presented in a frequency distribution are called grouped data which has more than 30
numbers of observations.

A frequency distribution table is a device for organising and presenting data and frequency
is the number of times datum occurs. The arrangement by rows and column helps you to
make comparisons of the data more easily. It is a listing of data that pairs each entry in the
list with the number of times it occurs.

The following are steps in constructing frequency distribution table

1. Find the range R using the formula: R = Higher score – Lowest Score
2. Compute for the number of intervals n by using the formula n = 1 + 3.3log N
where n = number of class intervals,
N = population or total number of observations
3. Compute for the class size i using the formula i = R/n
4. Using the lowest score as lower limit, add (i – 1) to it to obtain the
highest limit of the desired class interval
5. The lower limit of the second interval may be obtained by adding the
class size to the first interval. Add (i – 1) to the result to obtain the
higher limit of the second interval.
6. Repeat step 5 to obtain the third class interval and so on ad so forth.
7. When n class intervals are completed, determine the frequency for each
class interval by counting the elements.

Example: Construct the frequency distribution table of the data below

Age of Guests in Hotel A, October 2020

25 28 27 30 32 25 31 26 29 6 31 20 21 32 18 50 53 60

50 54 45 40 37 25 20 27 32 24 29 30 25 24 10 12 15 28

Solution: 1. R = 60 – 6 = 54
2. n = 1+3.3 log 36 = 1+3.3(1.556) = 6.1 = 6 lowest score/lower limit
3. i = =9
4. 6 + (9-1) = 6 + 8 = 14 higher limit, so 6-14 is the first interval

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 5. 6+9 = 15, 15+ 8 = 23, so 15 – 23 is the 2nd interval
6. 9+15 = 24+8 =32, so 24-32 is the 3rd interval

7. Frequency Distribution Table 7

Age of Guests in Hotel A, October 2020
Age (in years) Tally Marks Frequency
60-68 / 1
51-59 // 2
42-50 /// 3
33-41 // 2
24-32 ////-////-////-//// 20
15-23 //// 5
6-14 /// 3
N = 36

Class Mark is the midpoint of a class interval. To obtain this point, add the lower limit and
the upper limit, then divide the sum by two.

Class Boundaries it is also known as exact limits¸ this can be obtained by subtracting 0.5
from the lower limit of an interval and adding 0.5 to the upper limit of the interval.

Cumulative frequency Ogive

<cf (read as less than cumulative frequency) where each entry in the <cf column will be
obtained by accumulating the frequencies starting from the frequency of the interval with
lowest score up to the interval containing the highest score. >cf (read as greater than
cumulative frequency) where each entry in the >cf column will be obtained by accumulating
the frequencies starting from the frequency of the interval with highest score down to the
interval containing the lowest score

Relative frequency is also known as the percentage frequency. To compute, divide the
frequency of each class interval by the total number of observations N, then multiply the
results by 100.

Example: Frequency Distribution Table

Age of Guests in Hotel A, October 2020
Age f Class Boundaries Class cf Relative
lower upper Marks <cf >cf frequency
(in years)
(%)
60-68 1 59.5 68.5 64 36 1 2.78
51-59 2 50.5 59.5 55 35 3 5.56
42-50 3 41.5 50.5 46 33 6 8.33
33-41 2 32.5 41.5 37 30 8 5.56
24-32 20 23.5 32.5 28 28 28 55.56
15-23 5 14.5 23.5 19 8 33 13.89
6-14 3 5.5 14.5 10 3 36 8.33
i=9 N = 36 100.00

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 8

Correlated Data is a table where two or more frequency are shown for easy comparison.

Example:

Cases of Dengue in Narra and Aborlan according to Sex, October 2020

Sex Narra Aborlan Total

Male 308 132 440
Female 361 240 601
Total 669 372 1041

Time Series Data is a table where the data shows the change of a variable over a period of time .

Example:
Population of Region A, 2010-2020
Year Population
1 100 000
2 150 000
3 180 100
4 200 500
5 250 505
6 260 000
7 261 000
8 300 000
9 340 000

2.1.3 Graphical Presentation

Graphical presentation of data provides picture of the significant relationships of the

facts or data presented in simplicity for easy comprehension.

Graphs refer to diagram or drawings which show the successive values of a changing quantity.

Kinds of Graphs

1. Bar Graph
Rectangular figures or bars are used to show variations in the frequencies of
observations and it is usually presented to compare data or to determine
which class or interval is common or appear frequently in the text.

2. Line Graph
This graph is presented using a continuous line to show how one value
changes with respect with another one over successive period of time.

3. Pie Graph

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 Also known as circle graph, commonly used for illustrating how a whole
quantity is divided into parts. Pie graph is used when per cent distribution
of a whole into its component parts is to be presented.
4. Frequency Histogram 9

One of the kinds of graphs that can be applied for grouped data is the
frequency histogram, it is represented by points in the vertical axis and the
class interval in the horizontal axis. The histogram is constructed as a
sequence of touching vertical rectangles which is drawn with a height
corresponding to the frequency.

5. Picto graph
In this graph the frequency of each item is represented by pictures or
graphics. It looks more interesting and attractive than frequency
distribution.

6. Cumulative frequency Ogive

The graph of the frequency distribution versus the <cf and >cf, which is
another graph commonly used in statistical reports and texts.

7. Frequency Polygon
Unlike in the frequency histogram where rectangles drawn side by side are
used, points connected by line segments are utilized in the frequency
polygon. It looks like line graph except for the labels in the horizontal axis
which are class intervals.

NOTE: 1. Use Microsoft Excel to graph ACTIVITY 1-7.

2. Discuss the content of each graph in ACTIVITY 1-7 in Textual Presentation
2. Scoring Rubrics for ACTIVITY 1-7

Criteria Points
Heading or title of the graph 2
Legends/label/ name of the content of each graph 3
Correctness of form or the graph 10
Textual Presentation 10
TOTAL 25

ACTIVITY 1 Sketch the bar graph of the data below.

Number of Guests in 2019 at Different Hotels in Palawan
Hotels Number of Guests
A & A PLaza 500
Legend 400
Skylight 500
Asturias 600
Go 450
Centro 550

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ACTIVITY 2 Sketch the line graph of the data below
Frequency Distribution of Accredited and Unaccredited Hotels in Region 4B
Region 4B Accredited Unaccredited
Mindoro 40 20
Marinduque 44 35
Romblon 50 30
Palawan 45 42
Puerto Princesa 66 25
Calapan 57 20

ACTIVITY 3 Sketch the pie graph of the data below

Monthly Salaries of Six Employees of Company A
Employee Salary (Php)
A 15, 000
B 21, 500
C 16, 900
D 34, 000
E 19, 200
F 15, 300

ACTIVITY 4 Sketch the frequency histogram of the data below

Age of Guests in Hotel A, October 2020
Age f Class Boundaries
(in years) lower upper
60-68 1 59.5 68.5
51-59 2 50.5 59.5
42-50 3 41.5 50.5
33-41 2 32.5 41.5
24-32 20 23.5 32.5
15-23 5 14.5 23.5
6-14 3 5.5 14.5

ACTIVITY 5 Sketch the picto graph of the data below

Number of Computers per College for the SY 2020-2021
Colleges Number of Computers
CAS 60
CEd 85
CBM 35
CAFES 65
CET 55
CCJE 75
CFAS 40

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 11
ACTIVITY 6 Sketch the cumulative frequency ogive of the data below
Age of Guests in Hotel A, October 2020
Age f cf
(in years) <cf >cf
60-68 1 36 1
51-59 2 35 3
42-50 3 33 6
33-41 2 30 8
24-32 20 28 28
15-23 5 8 33
6-14 3 3 36

ACTIVITY 7 Sketch the frequency polygon of the data below

Age of Guests in Hotel A, October 2020
Age f
(in years)
60-68 1
51-59 2
42-50 3
33-41 2
24-32 20
15-23 5
6-14 3

POST TEST
This test will measure your mastery in Lesson 2 covered in this module.

Directions: Copy the given below, complete the frequency distribution table
by writing the values for each column (15 points)

Scores in Statistics Exam of BSHM 3

Scores f Class Boundaries Class cf Relative
lower upper Marks <cf >cf frequency
(%)
45-49 2
40-44 7
35-39 11
30-34 13
25-29 12
20-24 8
15-19 2
i= N= 100.00

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 12
Lesson 3: Measures of Central Tendencies
This lesson will help you how to interpret descriptive statistical data using measures
of central tendency such as mean, median and mode either with grouped or ungrouped data.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, you can:

1. determine the mean, median, mode and midrange of the given data; and
2. identify the best measure of central tendency for the given data.

Time Allotment: The minimum allotted hours for you to work on this module is 3
hrs. Make sure that you have learned the process, completed the assigned task
and achieved expected learning outcomes in this module.

DISCUSSION

3.1 Methods of Central Tendency

Measures of central tendency describes a set of by locating the middle region of

a set.

3.1.1 Mean, Median and Mode of Ungrouped Data

Data MEAN MEDIAN MODE

Ungrouped The arithemetic mean It is the midpoint of an array of It is the

x < 30 or simply mean for a numbers or observations, if the observation
set of data or scores, is data contains an odd number of that appears
found by determining observations, the median is the the most
the sum of the data and only middle observation that number of
dividing this sum by divides the set of data into equal times in a
the total number of parts. If it has an even number of distribution.
observations observations, the median can be
obtained by finding the mean of
the 2 points at the middle.

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Example: The mean is The median is (7, 9, 1, 6, 7,
Number of 7+9+1+6+7+12+15 (1, 6, 7, 7, 9, 12, 15) 12 and 15)
guest in 7 arranging the data in sequential
Hotel A for = 57/7 order The mode is
a week =8.14 or 8 = 7 is the 4th number where the 7, the value
(7, 9, 1, 6, 7, middle datum is located that occurs
12 and 15) most
frequently

ACTIVITY 1: Vying For Scholarship 13

Four students are vying for scholarship. The College has agreed to give the
scholarship to the top student last semester. The table below gives the grades of the
four applicants in the five core courses.

Students English Science Math Filipino Social Studies

Avel 84 89 95 90 92
Boner 82 88 94 89 98
Claire 83 97 94 81 95
Dheil 83 80 85 89 80

A. Determine the top student by taking the arithmetic mean grade for each
student. (10 points)

Students Avel Boner Claire Dheil

Arithmetic Mean
Who is the top? __________

B. Avel says that ranking must be used. As he top in three subjects, then he must
be the top student. For each subject, rank the student 1,2,3 and 4 and then add
up the ranks. Determine if Avel is the student with the lowest (best) ranking.
Use the table below. (20 points)

Students English Science Math Filipino Social Studies Rank Total

Avel
Boner
Claire
Dheil
Who is the top? __________

3.1.2 Mean, Median and Mode of Grouped Data

a. Weighted Mean

Example:

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The frequency distribution of the results of the short quiz in GE 5 Class is shown
below:
Score 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 21
Frequency 2 8 6 5 1 2 7 2 1 1

Weighted Mean = 10(2)+11(8)+12(6)+13(5)+14(1)+15(2)+16(7)+17(2)+19(1)+21(1)

2+8+6+5+1+2+7+2+1+1
= 475 = 13.57 Therefore, the weighted mean is 13.57.
35

b. Mean for Grouped data 14

Example:
The grouped frequency distribution of scores of students in a math examination is
shown below.
Scores in Math Exam frequency Class mark (xm) Product of frequency and class mark
(x) (f) (fxm)
45-49 2 (45+49)/2 = 47 (2)(47) = 94
40-44 7 (40+44)/2 = 42 (7)(42) = 24
35-39 11 (35+39)/2 = 37 (11)(37) = 407
30-34 13 (30+34)/2 = 32 (13)(32) = 416
25-29 12 (25+29)/2 = 27 (12)(27) = 324
20-24 8 (20+24)/2 = 22 (8)(22) = 176
15-19 2 (15+19)/2 = 17 (2)(17) = 34
i=5 n = 55 1745
∑
Mean = x =

where f is the frequency of each data and xm is the class mark for ech
interval i. n is the number of the class intervals.

x = 1745 = 31.73 Therefore, the mean is 31.73.

55

c. Midrange is the value midway between the endpoints of the set of data. It
is found by adding the least value in the set of data to the greatest value
and dividing the sum by 2.
Example:
The frequency distribution of the results of the short quiz in GE 5 Class is shown
below:
Score 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 21
Frequency 2 8 6 5 1 2 7 2 1 1
Midrange = L + G = 10+21 = 31 = 15.5
2 2 2

Therefore, the midrange is 15.5.

d. Median

Example:

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The grouped frequency distribution of scores of students in a math examination is
shown below.
x f xm fxm Lower class Upper < cumulative frequency
class
45-49 2 47 94 44.5 49.5 53+2=55
40-44 7 42 24 39.5 44.5 46+7=53
35-39 11 37 407 34.5 39.5 35+11=46
30-34 13= fmd 32 416 29.5 = xmd 34.5 22+13=35
25-29 12 27 324 24.5 29.5 10+12=22 =<cfb
20-24 8 22 176 19.5 24.5 2+8=10
15-19 2 17 34 14.5 19.5 2
i=5 n = 55 1745
15

Median = xmd + ( )

Where xmd is the lower class boundary of the median class, <cfb less than
cumulative frequency below the median class, i is the class interval and n
is the total number of observations.

x = 29.5 + ( ) = 29.5 + ( ) = 29.5 + ( =

= 29.5 + (0.42)(5) = 29.5 + 2.12 = 31.62

Therefore, the median of the grouped data is 31.62.

e. Mode

Example:
The grouped frequency distribution of scores of students in a math examination is
shown below. x f Lower class

45-49 2 44.5
40-44 7 39.5
35-39 11 34.5
30-34 13 = fmo 29.5 = xmo
25-29 12 24.5
20-24 8 19.5
15-19 2 14.5
i=5 n = 55

Mode = xmo + ( )

Where xmo is the lower boundary of the modal class, is the difference
between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency above it, is
the difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency
just below it, i is the class interval and n is the total number of
observations.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 = 13 – 11 = 2 = 13 – 12 = 1
x = 29.5 + ( (5) = 29.5 + ( = 29.5 + (0.67) (5) = 29.5 + 3.35 = 32.85

Therefore, mode of the grouped data is 32.85.

16
The table below shows the measures of central tendency that are used
using a specific level of measurement and their advantage and
disadvantages.

Measures of Level of Advantage Disadvantage

Central Tendency Measurement
Mean Interval It considers all It is not a true
Ratio the values of the indication of the
data. average if the
given set of data
contains extreme
values at one end
or the other.
Median Interval It is not affected It may not be a
Ratio by extreme true
values in the set representation of
of data the average if the
data occur in
distinct, separate
groups.
Mode Nominal If any, it is easily It does not take
Ordinal to obtained. into account the
Interval other values in
Ratio the set of data.

ACTIVITY 2:
Find the mean, median and mode of the height of the Covid 19 patients in
Hospital Z. (30 points)

Height (cm) frequency (f)

170-179 3
160-169 12

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 150-159 20
140-149 18
130-139 15
120-129 2

POST TEST:
This test will measure your mastery in Lesson 3 covered in this module.
Directions: Read the following carefully. Do what is indicated.

A. The average number of text messages sent in day by a random sample of 12

students was recorded as follows: 9, 10, 6, 10, 9, 9, 8, 8, 6, 10, 6, and 11.
Determine the mean, median, mode and midrange. (10 points)

17

B. Consider the bar graph below and answer the following. (5 points)

Graph showing the population of University A

CAF… Population
CFAS
CCJE
CET
Ced
CBM
CAS
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

1. How many students are enrolled in the university? ___

2. What is the mean? ____
3. What is the median? ____
4. What is the mode? ____
5. What is the midrange? ____

Lesson 4: Measures of Dispersion

The measures of central tendency cannot summarize data completely because they
are designed only to locate the typical or central score. Hence, we have to study other
measures that provide information about the nature of a distribution. The terms variability,
spread and dispersion refer to how spread out a distribution is in which it will be discussed
in this lesson.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, you can:

1. determine the range, variance and standard deviation of a given set of data;
and
2. solve problems involving variability.

Time Allotment: The minimum allotted hours for you to work on this module is 3

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 hrs. Make sure that you have learned the process, completed the assigned task
and achieved expected learning outcomes in this module.

DISCUSSION

4.1 Methods of Dispersion

The terms variability, spread and dispersion are synonyms. Measures of dispersion tell
us how much the data tend to disperse or scatter.

4.1.1 Range
The range for a set of data is found by subtracting the smallest value from the largest
value in the given set of data. R = HS - LS

Example: 18
The grades of the ten students are show below. The respective range for male and for female
students is also shown in the table. Note that the man is 85.
Female 82 83 85 87 88 Range= HS-LS = 88-82 = 6
Male 70 82 86 90 97 Range= HS-LS = 97-70 = 27

Answer this!
a. If the range is zero, what can you say about a set of data?
b. What can you say about the data with respect to the mean, if the measure of
variability is small?
c. If the measure of variability is large, what can you say about the data with respect to
the mean?

4.1.2 Variance
The two commonly uses measures of variation that consider all scores in a given set
of data are variance and standard deviation.
The measures of dispersion that eliminates negative signs by squaring all deviations
of each number from the mean and getting the average squared deviation is the variance.
∑
= variance in a populationI, where m is the population mean and n is the
number of cases

∑
= variance in a sample, where x is the sample mean and n-1 is the
number of cases which gives an unbiased estimate of variance

To Compute the Variance of a given data, we must perform these steps

1. Determine the mean for the given data

2. Determine the deviation from the mean for each value in the data.
3. Square each deviation.
4. Compute the mean of the squared deviation.

Example:
The grades of the ten students are show below. The respective range for male and for female
students is also shown in the table. Note that the man is 85.
Male 70 82 86 90 97

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Variance =(70-85)2+(82-85)2+(86-85)2+(90-85)2+(97-85)2 = 225+9+1+25+144=404=80.8
5 5 5
Therefore, variance is 80.8

Note: Calculating variance is an important part of many statistical applications and analyses.
It is the first step in calculating standard deviation.

4.1.3 Standard Deviation

The standard deviation formula is obtained by simply getting the square root of the
variance. The formula for the standard deviation in a population is given by the parameter

∑
= √ where m is the population mean and n is the number of cases

The formula for the standard deviation in a sample is given by the parameter 19
∑
= √ variance in a sample, where x is the sample mean and n-1 is the

number of cases which gives an unbiased estimate of variance

Example:
The grades of the ten students are show below. The respective range for male and for female
students is also shown in the table. Note that the man is 85.
Female 82 83 85 87 88

Variance =(82-85)2+(83-85)2+(85-85)2+(87-85)2+(88-85)2 = 9+4+0+4+9=26=5.2

5 5 5
Therefore, variance is 5.2. Thus the standard deviation for the five female students’ score
√ 2 = 2.28 hence, the standard deviation is approximately 2.28.

ACTIVITY 1

Give the mean, range, variance and standard deviation of scores of Raynold in eight
basketball games; 16, 18, 14, 19, 17, 20, 22, 18. (10 points)

POST TEST

Give the mean, range, variance and standard deviation of the following.(15 pts.)
1) 12, 13, 15, 15, 16, 18, 21
2) 200 mg, 200 mg, 210 mg, 210 mg, 220 mg, 220 mg
3) Machine A and B produce balls. The standard deviations of the weights of the
identical balls produced by machine A and B are 1 mg and 2 mg, respectively.
Which machine produces balls with consistent weight? Explain your answer.

Lesson 5: Hypothesis Testing

The Hypothesis testing is the operation of deciding whether or not a data set
obtained for a random sample supports or fail to support a particular hypothesis.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Hypothesis is an assertion or conjecture about a parameter(s) of a population; it may also
concern with type, nature of the population, or distributional form of characteristics of interest.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you can:
1. show how inferential statistics is used to reach conclusions from the analysis
of the obtained data;
2. determine the most appropriate statistical tool and procedure in testing data;
3. testing hypothesis concerning one population mean; and
4. testing hypothesis concerning two population means .

20
Time Allotment:
The minimum allotted hours for you to work on this module is 3 hrs. Make sure that you
have learned the process, completed the assigned task and achieved expected learning
outcomes in this module.

DISCUSSION

5.1 STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Steps in hypothesis testing by the critical method approach

1. Formulate the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.
2. Set the level of significance, ὰ.
3. Select the appropriate test statistics.
4. Establish the critical region.
5. Compute the value of the test statistics
6. Decision:
 Reject ho if the value of the test statistics belong to the critical region.
 Do not reject ho if the value of the test statistics does not belong to the critical
region
7. Conclusion.

 Test statistics – a sample statistics computed from the data. The value of the test
statistics is used in determining whether or not the null hypothesis is rejected
 Critical or rejection region – a range of test statistics values for which the null
hypothesis should be rejected. This range of values will indicate that there is a
significant or large enough difference between the hypothesized parameter value and
the corresponding point estimate for the parameter.
 Critical value – first value in the critical region. The set of values that are not in the
critical region is called the region of acceptance (noncritical or non-rejection).

Steps in hypothesis testing by the 𝝆- value approach

A 𝝆- value is the smallest significant level of which a null hypothesis may be rejected

1. Formulate the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.

2. WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A
Set the level of significance of size ὰ. Rev. 00 (09.15.20)
3. Select the appropriate test statistics.
4. Compute the value of the test statistics.
 Types of Hypothesis
A. Null hypothesis, ho – represents a theory that has been put forward, either
because it is believe to be the true or because it is used as a basis for argument.
21
B. This assertion is held as true until there is sufficient statistical evidence to
conclude otherwise. It states that there is no difference between a parameter
(s) and a specific value.

C. Alternative hypothesis, Ha or H1 – an assertion of all situations not

covered by the null hypothesis. It states that there is a precise difference
between a parameter(s) and a specific value.

Illustrative examples

State the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis to use.

Note: The equal sign must be in the null hypothesis, regardless of the statement.

1. New software is being integrated into the teaching of a course with the hope that it will
help to improve the overall average score for this course. The historical average score
for this course is 70.
Ho : the overall average score for this course is 70. (μ = 70)
Ha : The overall average score for this course is higher than 70. (μ > 70)

2. A real estate agent claims that the average price for socialized houses in a certain
subdivision is P 1.8 M. you believe that the average price is lower. You plan to test his
claim by taking a random sample of the prices of the homes in the subdivision;
formulate the set of hypotheses.
Ho: The average price for socialized houses in the subdivision is P 1.8 M.
(μ = P 1.8 M )
Ha : the average price for socialized houses in the subdivision is lower than P 1.8 M .
(μ < P 1.8 M )

3. An advertisement on the TV claims that a certain brand of tire has an average lifetime
of 50,000 miles. Suppose you plan to test this claim by taking a sample of tires and
putting them on test. What is the correct set of hypotheses to set up?
Ho : the average lifetime of this brand of tire is 50,000 miles.
(μ = 50,000 miles )
Ha : The average life time of this brandWPU-QSF-ACAD-82A
of tire is not 50,000 miles.
Rev. 00 (09.15.20)
(μ ≠ 50,000 miles )
Type 1 and Type 11 Errors

Statistical True state of the null

Division Hypothesis
Ho is true Ho is false
Reject Ho ERROR type 1 Correct decision

Do not reject Ho Correct decision ERROR Type 11

α - probability of committing a type 1 error 22

- area of the critical region
- also called the level of significance
β - probability of committing a type 11 error

Notes:

 A type 1 error will be committed when the true null hypothesis is rejected.
 A type 11 error is committed when a false null hypothesis is not rejected.

One –tailed and Two- tailed Tests

A. One –tailed Test: a test of any statistical hypothesis where the alternative
hypothesis is one- sided. This is also known as Directional Alternative
Hypothesis. It could be left-tailed or right-tailed. ( Ha : > or < ).

B. Two –tailed Test: A test of any statistical hypothesis where the alternative
hypothesis is two-sided. Non-directional Alternative Hypothesis is concerned
with the two sides of the distribution. ( Ha : ≠ )

ACTIVITY 1
Directions: State the appropriate null hypothesis (Ho ) and alternative hypothesis (Ha ) for
each of the following. ( use another paper for your answers )

1. A sociologist would like to know whether there is a significant difference in the

academic achievement of freshmen students living with their parents and in the
academic achievement of freshmen living on their own town.
Ho :____________________________________________________
Ha : :____________________________________________________
2. A psychological test was conducted to determine if there is a significant
relationship between the age of college students and their stress level.
Ho :____________________________________________________

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Ha : :____________________________________________________
3. An educator is interested in knowing whether computer-aided instruction is
more effective than lecture method in teaching statistics.
Ho :____________________________________________________
Ha : :____________________________________________________
4. A survey was conducted to see if gender affects the attitude of young adults
towards reproductive health
Ho :____________________________________________________
Ha : :____________________________________________________
5. An experiment is conducted to determine if Filipino consumers in the test of
Coke and Pepsi
Ho :____________________________________________________
Ha : :____________________________________________________

5.2 t-TEST 23

t-test on the comparison between the population mean

( and the sample mean (x)
t-test formula

= √𝒏

where
t= t –value
x= sample mean
µ= population mean
s= sample standard deviation
n= number of cases less than 30

Degree of freedom for t value (tabular)

df= n-1

ACTIVITY 1:

Use steps in hypothesis testing and solve using t-test statistic.

1. According to the department of education, high school teachers work an

average of 40 hours per week during the school year. A district supervisor of a
certain school surveyed 28 randomly selected teachers and found that they
work an average of 42.6 hours a week and the standard deviation was 3.75
hours. Test if the mean number of hours worked by the teachers in the
supervisor’s school differs from the narrative average.

PROBLEM #1
1. H0:_____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 H1______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. = _____
3. _______________________________________

4. Computation:

5. df =
6. t- value (table for t- value) tv = __________
24
7. Decision: ____________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
8. Conclusion: __________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
___________________________________________________

2. The average length of time for people to vote using the old procedure during a
presidential election period in precinct A is 55 minutes. Using
computerization as a new election method, a random sample of 20 registrants
was used and found to have a mean length of voting time of 30 minutes with a
standard deviation of 1.5 minutes. Test the significance of the difference
between the population mean and the sample mean.

PROBLEM #2
1. H0:_____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
H1:_____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. = _____
3. _________________________________________
4. Computation:

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 5. df =
6. t- value (table for t- value) tv = __________
7. Decision: ____________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
8. Conclusion: __________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________

Reference
Marcelino, D.B. & Ocampo, S.R.,2011, “Contemporary Mathematics”
Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Parreño, E.B. & Jimenez, R.O.,2006, “Basic Statistics: A Worktext” C
& E Publishing, Inc.
Freund, J.E., 2003,“Modern Elementary Statistics” (10th edition),
Pearson Education, Inc.
Walpole, R.E., reprinted 2002,“Introduction to Statistics” (3rd
edition), Pearson Education, Inc.
Ferguson, G.A. & Takane,Y., 1989, “Statistical Analysis in Psychology
and Education” (6th edition), McGraw Hill Book Co.

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