30 Chapter 1. + Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors tr BAT asa) ‘The effective densities of states, Np and Ny are around 10%cm-*. The majority cartier concentrations are n=N, ', for N-type semiconductor (1.9.3a) p= N,-Ng forP-type semiconductor (1.9.5a) where Ng and N, are the concentrations of donors and acceptors, which are usually assumed to be completely ionized. The minority carrier concentrations can be found from mat as) 1 is the intrinsic carrier concentration, about 10"%cm-? for Si at 300 K. It is a function of FE, and T: You are now ready to study how electrons and holes move and produce current in the next chapter. © PROBLEMS © © Visualization of the Silicon Crystal @ ‘LA (@) How many silicon atoms are there in each unit cell? (b) How many silicon atoms are there in one cubic centimeter? (©) Knowing that the length of a side of the unit cell (the silicon lattice constant) is 543 A, Si atomic weight is 28.1, and the Avogdaro's number is 602 » 10% atoms/mole, find the silicon density in gfem’. © Fermi Function © 12 (a) Under equilibrium condition, what is the probability of an electron state being ‘occupied ifit is located at the Fermi level? (b) If Epis positioned at E,, determine the probability of finding electrons in states at E,+KT.(A numerical answers required.) (©) The probability of a state being filled at Fe + kT is equal to the probability of a state being empty at E+ 3 kT. Where is the Fermi level located? LS (@) Whatis the probability of an electron state being filled if it is located at the Fermi level? (b) If the probability that a state being filed at the conduction band edge (E,) is precisely equal to the probability that a state is empty at the valence band edge (By), where isthe Fermi level located? (©) The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution is often uted to approximate the Fermi- Dirac distribution function. On the same set of axes, sketch both distributions as a function of (E - Ey)ikT. Consider only positive values of E = Ey. For what range of (E- EpkT is the Maxwell-Boltzmann approximation accurate to within 10%7Problems La. Refer to the oxygen concentration example in Sec. 1.72. (a) Given that nitrogen is ighter in weight than oxygen, is Np concentration at 10 km ‘mote or less that 25% of the sea level Nz concentration? (b)_ What is the ratio of Nz concentration to Oat 10 km? At sea level, the ratio is 410 1 LS. Show that the probability of an energy state being occupied AE above the Ferm level is the same as the probability of a state being empty AE below the Fermi level, SEp+ AE) =1-fEp—AE) 16 (@) Sketch the Fermi-Dirae distribution /() at room temperature (300 K) and at a lower temperature such as 150 K, (Qualitative hand drawing ) (b) The state distribution ina system is given in Fig. 1-27, where each circle represents ‘wo electron states (one is spin-up; one is spin-down). Each electron state can be ‘occupied by one electron. There is no state below Emrn. The Ferm level at 0K is given in Fig 1-27. How many electrons are there in the system? Energy O° FIGURE 1-27 © Energy: Density of States @ |L7 The carrier distributions in the conduction and valence bands were noted to peak at energies close to the band edges. (Refer to carrier distribution in Fig. 1-20.) Using ‘Boltzmann approximation, show that the energy at which the carrier distribution peaks is E,+ kT/2 and Ey~ kTi2 for the conduction and valence bands, respectively, 1L8. Fora certain semiconductor, the densities of states in the conduction and valance bands are ‘constants A and B, respectively. Assume non-degeneracy,ie., Epis not close to Ec or Ey (a) Derive expressions for electron and hole concentrations. (b) If A = 28, determine the location of the intrinsic Fermi energy (Ej) at 300 K with respect to the mid-bandgap of the semiconductor. ‘Hint; These relationships may be useful: [fete tae =r Gamma fonction) 12) =P) =1, 7) =2, (4) =6 ) =f, F(R) = 1/2, F182) = 1/3.32 Chapter 1. + Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors |L9 For acertain semiconductor, the densities of states in the conduction and valence bands are: DE) = A (E-E,) - u(E~ E,) and DE) = B - (E,~ B) - u(Ey- E), respectively. ‘u(x), the unit step function, is defined as u(x) = 0ifx < O and u(x) = 1 if x > 0. Assume nondegeneracy, ic, not too highly doped. You may find ths fact useful: [fxetax = 1 5 {a) Derive expressions for electron and hole concentrations as functions of the Fermi cnet (b) If A= 2B, compute the intrinsic Fermi energy at 300 K. 110 The Maxwell Boltzmann distribution function fi) = e“* #7 i often used as an approximation to the Fermi-Dirac function, Use this approximation and the densities ofthe states in the conduction band D,(E) = A(E~E,)** (@) The energy at which one finds the most electrons (I/em- €V) (@) The conduction (©) The ratio of the peak electron concentration at the energy of (2) to the electron concentration at E = E, + 40 kT (about 1eV above Fg at 300 K). Does this result justify one of the approximations in part(b)? to find snd electron concentration (explain any approximation made). (a) The average kinetic energy, E - cof the electrons Hint: These relationships may be tseful: “Ver = Tn) (Gamma function) d { T@)=10)=1,1(8)=2, 14) =6 12) =, 132) = 124k, 1052) = 3/448 © Electron and Hole Concentrations @ LAL (@) The electron concentration in a piece of Si at 300 K is 10° em”. What is the hole concentration? (b) A semiconductor is doped with impurity concentrations Ng and N, such that Ng—N; >> mand all the impurities are ionized. Determine n and p (©) Ina silicon sample at T'= 300 K, the Fermi level is located at 0.26 eV (10 KT) above the intrinsic Ferma level. What are the hole and electron concentrations? (@)_ What are the hole and electron concentration at T = 800 K for the sample in part (©), and where approximately is £p? Comment on your results. © Nearly intrinsic Semiconductor @ 12 For a germanium sample at room temperature, itis known that nj = 1033 em and N, =0. Determine n and Ng L138 Boron atoms are added to a Si film resulting in an impurity density of 4x 1048 cnr (a) What isthe conductivity type (N-type or P-type) of this film? (b) What are the equilibrium electron and hole densities at 300 K and 600K? (©) Why does the mobile carrier concentration increase at high temperatures? (@)_ Whereis the Fermi level located if T = 600 K?© Incomplet lonization of Dopants and Freeze-Out @ 1.14 Suppose you have samples of Si, Ge, and Ge, and GaAs at T = 300K, all wih the same doping level of Ng — N,- = 3 x 10% fem3, Assuming all dopants are ionized, for which. inaleial isp most sensitive to temperature (the sensvity ofp is define by 8/67)? What i you concision regarding the relation between Ep and tempeatire sensitivity of minority ‘artier concentration? Repeat the problom using Cip/6TV/p asthe definition of ens. 1.15. An Naype sample of silicon has uniform density (Ny = 10cm) of arsenic, and a Paype slicon sample basa usiform density (N= 10! ear) of boron, For each sample, determine the following (@) The temperature at which the intrinsic concentration m, exceeds the impurity density by factor of 10. (&) The equilibrium minority-carrier concentrations at 300 K. Assume full fonization of impurities. (©) The Fermi level relative tothe valence-band edge Ein each material at 300 K. (@) ‘The electron and hole concentrations and the Fermi level if both types of impurities are presenti the same sample. 10"eay of As atoms. 1.16 A.silicon sample is doped with Ny (@) What are the electron and hole concentrations and the Fermi level position (Gelative to Ee or Ey) at 300 K? (Assume full ionization of imputities) (©) Check the fuil ionization assumption using the calculated Fermi level, (ie, find the probability of donor states being occupied by electrons and therefore not A ionized.) Assume that the donor level lies 50 meV below the conduction band, Pe (ie, Ee Ep = 50 meV) (©) Repeat (a) and (b) for Ng= 10!em4. (Discussion: when the doping concentration is high, donor (or acceptor) band is formed and that allows all dopant atoms to contribute to conduction such that “full ionization” isa good approximation aftr ll) (@_ Repeat (a) and (b) for N= 10" em’ but T= 30K, (This situation is called dopant freeze-out,) 1.17 Given N-type silicon sample with uniform donor doping of (a) Nq= 10cm (b) Nq= 10%iem?, and (c) Nq = 10°cm', calculate the Fermi levels at room temperature assuming full ionization for all cases. Check whether the above assumption of full ionization of each case is correct with the calculated Fermi level. When this is not ‘correct, what i the relative position of Hip and Ep? Assume that Ey~ Bp = 005 eV. © REFERENCES © L Shockley, W. Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors. Princeton, NT: Van Nostrand, 190 2. Shur, M, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1990. 3. Neamen, D. Semiconductor Physics and Devices, 3d ed, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003 4. Smith, R.A. Semiconductors, Ind ed. London: Cambridge University Press, 1979, $.Streetman, BG. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Ine., 2006, 6.Dierret, R. F. Modular Series on Solid State Devices, Vol. I. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co, 1983.+ 34 Chapter 1. + Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors 7.S2e, S.M. Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd ed. New York: Jobn Wiley & Sons, 1981 8.Taur, Y., and T. H. Ning. Fundamentals of Modern VLSI Devices. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998, © GENERAL REFERENCES © L Neamen, D. Semiconductor Physics and Devices, xd ed, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003 2 Streetman, BG. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6 ed. Upper Saddle River, NI: Prentice Hall, Ine, 2006,