EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Prepared by: Carina Christine Q. Gonzales, MSPsy

ALTERNATIVES TO EXPERIMENTATION: NON EXPERIMENTAL

DESIGNS

In traditional psychology experiment, we create specific sets of antecedent

conditions or treatments to test a hypothesis about behaviour.
To use experimental approach the researcher must be able to set up these
conditions for any individual who ends up as a subject in the experiment. For
example, we might want to study exisiting characteristics of participants (age, gender,
intelligence or occupation).
Non experimental approaches are used in situations in which an experiment is
not practical or desirable. They also used whenever testing a hypothesis in an existing
real-life situation is necessary or important.
Non experimental methods are used to study behaviour in natural setting
(children playing and parenting) to explore unique or rare occurrences (election,
multiple personality disorder).

Non experimental approaches can provide useful data, either from single
individuals or from large groups of people, it is important to understand how
they are applied in psychological research.

INTERNAL VALIDITY
- Relates how WELL a study is conducted.

EXTERNAL VALIDITY
-Relates how APPLICABLE THE FINDINGS are in real world.

FIVE COMMON NON EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES USED BY

PSYCHOLOGIST:
1. PHENOMENOLOGY- is the description of an individual's immediate
experience. Rather than looking at behaviors and events that are external to us,we
begin with personal experience as a source of data.
2. CASE STUDIES -is a descriptive record of a single individual’s experiences,
or behaviors, or both kept by an outside observer.
a) Deviant case analysis- is an extension of the evaluative case study. (for
example people with Post Traumatic Stress-Disorder PTSD)
b) Retrospective data- are data collected in the present that are based on
recollection of past events. The mood of the data provider, for example, will
affect recollections; we tend to recall more positive events when we are in a
good mood and more negative events when we are in a bad mood
3. FIELD STUDIES-are non experimental approaches used in the field or in a
real-life settings. Researchers doing field studies often combine various types of data
gathering to capitalize on the richness and range of behavior found outside the
laboratory.
a) Naturalistic Observation-is the technique of observing behaviors as they
occur spontaneously in natural setting. No manipulation of antecendent
conditions.
 b) Systematic Observation -the researcher uses a pre-arranged strategy for
recording observation in which each observation is recorded using specific
rules or guidelines so that observations are more objective.
c) Participant Observer- one of a special kind of field study.Here the
researcher actually becomes part of the group being studied. Sometimes this
is the only method that can be used to study a group-particularly if the group
would not be reasonably be expected to cooperate voluntarily with a research
investigation.
4. ARCHIVAL STUDY-is a descriptive research method in which already
existing records are reexamined for a new purpose. Vast amounts of data are collected
(government and private agencies, hospitals, businesses, schools, institutes, crimes,
death rates, disease, etc)
5. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH-relies on words rather that numbers for the
data being collected; it focuses on self-reports, personal narratives, and expression of
ideas, memories, feelings and thoughts. Paradigm is the set of attitudes, values,
beliefs, methods, and procedures that are generally accepted within a particular
discipline at a certain point in time.

ALTERNATIVES TO EXPERIMENTATION: SURVEYS AND INTERVIEWS

SURVEY RESEARCH-is a useful way of obtaining information about people’s

opinions, attitudes, preferences, and behaviors simply by asking. Survey allows us to
gather data about experiences, feelings, thoughts, and motives that are hard to observe
directly.
Surveys allow us to:
-gather large amount of data efficiently
-they can range from low to high in the imposition of units
-we allow subjects to answer in a way they wish
Four levels of measurements: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio scales.

CONSTRUCTING SURVEYS- experts in survey construction agree that the first

step of any survey is to map out your research objectives, making them as specific as
possible.
For example: Let’s say your objective is to measure the attitudes to other
psychology students toward animal research in psychology. You need to specify each
aspect of animal research that you want to evaluate.
Closed questions or structured questions: Do you smoke? On a scale from 0
to 10 how much do you like classical music?
Open minded questions: Why do you prefer taking the train to flying?What
are your feelings toward animal rights?

IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS FOR SURVEY ITEMS

1. Relevant to the central topic
2. Easy to answer
3. Interesting
4. Answerable by most respondents
5. Closed format
COLLECTING SURVEY DATA
-Collecting survey data can take many forms; written questionnaires, mail surveys,
telephone surveys, internet surveys, interviews, and focus group.

EVALUATING SURVEYS AND SURVEY DATA

1. Reliability-is the extent to which the survey is consistent and repeatable.
2. Validity-refers to the extent to which surveys actually measures the intended
topic.

SAMPLING-deciding who the subjects will be and then selecting them.

A. PROBABILITY SAMPLING-involves selecting subjects in such a way that

the odds of their being in the study are known or can be calculated. Random
Sampling meaning that any member of the population has an equal opportunity to be
selected.
a.1. Simple Random Sampling in which a portion of the whole population is
selected in an unbiased way.
a.2. Systematic Random Sampling- in cases where all members of a
population are known and can be listed in an unbiased way.
a.3. Stratified Random Sampling- when population is know to contain
distinct subgroups, researchers often prefer another variation of probability sampling.
a.4. Cluster Sampling- when population of interest is very large, it is often too
costly or impractical to randomly select subjects one by one.

B. NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING- the subjects are not chosen at random.

B.1 Quota Sampling- researchers select samples through predetermined
quotas that are intended to reflect the makeup of the population.
B.2 Convenience Sampling- is obtained by using any groups who happen to
be available-for example, a church choir, a psychology class, a bowling league, or a
supermarket checkout line.
B.3 Purposive Sampling- when a nonrandom samples are selected because the
individuals reflect a specific purpose of the study.
B.4 Snowball Sampling- a researcher locates one or a few people who fit the
sample criterion and asks these people to locate or lead them to additional individuals.
B.5 Reporting Samples- chosen influences what can be concluded from the
results. A research report must explain the type of sample used and how subjects
were recruited so that the results can be interpreted properly.

ALTERNATIVES TO EXPERIMENTATION: CORRELATIONAL AND

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

CORRELATION
-a correlational study is one that is designed to determine the correlation, or degree of
relationships, between two traits, behavior, or events. When two things are correlated,
changes in one are associated with changes in another.
 The researchers often use correlational studies to explore behavior that are not
yet well understood. By measuring many behaviors and seeing which go together, we
begin to see possible explanations for behaviors.

For example:
Is there a significant relationships between size of vocabulary and length of
daily TV viewing?
COMPUTE:
Exercise:
1. AN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH ORGANIZATION TESTED A
PARTICULAR CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS TO FIND OUT WHETHER AN
INCREASE IN THE AMOUNT OF FERTILIZERS USED WOULD LEAD TO A
CORRESPONDING INCREASE IN THE FOOD SUPPLY :

n=5

FIND: ∑ 𝑋, ∑ 𝑋2 ∑ 𝑌, ∑ 𝑌2, ∑ 𝑋𝑌

DEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

(X) (Y)
15 32
30 20
25 25
40 18
35 21

2. RANKING OF 8 TRAINEES AT THE BEGINNING (X) AND AT THE END (Y) OF A

CERTAIN COURSE ARE GIVEN BELOW

n=8

FIND: ∑ 𝑋, ∑ 𝑋2 ∑ 𝑌, ∑ 𝑌2, ∑ 𝑋𝑌

TRAINEES DEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

(X) (Y)
A 1 2
B 2 4
C 4 3
D 5 7
E 6 8
F 8 1
G 3 5
H 7 6

Scatterplots also known

as“scattergraphs” or “scattergrams”
The closer the data points come to
forming a straight line when plotted, the
higher the correlation between the two
variables, or the stronger the relationship.
The line drawn on the scatterpolts are
called regression lines or lines of best fit.
They illustrate the mathematical equation
the best describes the linear relationship
between the two measured score.

Figure 5.2. A curvilinear

relationship between test anxiety
and test performance.

What does it mean?

The relationship between
anxiety and performance rises
for a while, peaks, and then
begins to fall.

Figure 5.3 We would expect a

strong positive correlation
between age and shoe sizes in
children between the ages 4 and
16. As children get older, their
shoe size increases.
CASUAL MODELING
As computer statistics programs become widely available, more sophisticated
research design based on advanced correlational techniques have become increasingly
frequent in the literature
For example, we know that time spent watching violence on television is
positively correlated with aggressiveness levels, but simple correlational designs do
not provide information about the direction of the cause-effect sequence, if it exist.
1. PATH ANALYSIS
-is an important correlation-based research method that can be used
when subjects are measured on several related behaviors.
2. CROSS-LAGGED PANEL DESIGN
-this design uses relationships measured over time to suggest casual
path.

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
-used to explore the effects of different treatments on preexisting groups of
subject or to investigate the same kinds of naturally occurring events, characteristics,
and behaviors that we measure in correlational studies.
Quasi-experimental and correlational studies have somewhat different goal:
In correlational studies, we are looking for the relationships or associations between
variables, whereas in quasi-experiments, we are comparing different groups of
subjects looking for differences between them, we are looking for changes overtime in
the same group of subject.

1. EX POST FACTO
-explores characteristics, behaviors or effects of naturally occurring
events in preexisting groups of subjects.

2. NONEQUIVALENT GROUPS DESIGN

-the researcher compares the effects of different treatment conditions
on preexisting groups of participants.
3. LONGITUDINAL DESIGN
-are used in all areas of psychology, but they are particularly important
for psychologist studying human (and animal) growth and development.
Longitudinal design studies are time-consuming and hard to conduct.
Retaining subjects over a long period of time can be very difficult.
4. CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY
-compared at a single point in time. A cross sectional study will require
more subjects; the more groups to be compared, the more subjects needed. The
statistical tests needed to analyze effects across the different groups typically
less powerful than used to verify the same kind of effects within one group of
subjects.
5. PRETEST/POSTTEST DESIGN
-we can measure people’s level of behavior before and after the event
increases or decreases the existing level of a person’s behavior.