Physio compiled notes (session 1-8)

- systemic physiology: the study on how

Physiology - the study of the general/normal different organs work together in groups called
functions of the body. an organ system
- one of the most important concepts in
medicine. - endocrinology: study og chemical mediators
called hormones.
- basic physiology on the cellular level
- muscle and tissue function - comparative physiology: an integrative
- special senses discipline that draws from varying biological
- understanding the cardiovascular system fields (evolution, ecology, molecular biology,
functions and biochemistry) to study function. the
exploration of physiological principles through
examination of the functional diversity among
***** animal species.
**LAB SAS 1-3 due on TUESDAY, JULY 4, 2023
point accumulation: - reproductive physiology: study on the
class standing - 20% different processes in different animals.
quizzes - 30%
long quiz - 50%
*****

Homeostasis:
disease: any alteration on tissue process - refers to the ability of an organism to maintain
metabolism: refers to the total chemical the interal environment of the body within
reaction of the body limits that allow it to survive.
cytes: other term for cells - barrier of the body from the environment
hormones: most potent type of control - self-regulating processes that return critical
system/chemical messenger systems of the body to a set point within a
chromosomes: bearers of the hereditary narrow range of operation, consistent with the
material DNA, which carries the information for survival of the organism.
protein synthesis - requires expendature of energy

ENDOTHERM: warm blooded

EXOTHERM: cold blooded
LESSON 1: Branches of Physiology
Cells:
- animal physiology: study of the life-suporting - the basic unit of organization of an animal's
properties, functions and processes of animals body
or their parts. - exteremely complex and are both the
structural and functional unit of tissues they
- cellular physiology: the study of how different form.
cells of the animal's body work. [cellular physio - have the ability to maintain boundaries,
and biochem is hand-on-hand] metabolize and digest nutrients, dispose of
wastes, grow and reproduce, move and respond
- histology: the study of how a group of cells to stimuli
work together in a single unit called tissue and - performs certain functions to sustain its life.
their role in the body.
 - dense staining, spherical bodies composed of
3 major parts of the cell: ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein.
- primary/actual sites of protein synthesis
Cytoplasm -
-composed of 2 components (cytosol and
organelles) Two subunits of ribosomes:
- cytosol: - membrane-bound ribosomes: synthesize
- the fluid portion of the cytoplasm and proteins destined for insertion into the plasma
makes up 55% of the total cell volume. membrane or for export from the cell
- it varies in consistency amd - free ribosomes: synthesize proteins used
composition from one part of a cell to another inside the cell
and is composed of 75% to 90% water.
Polyribosomes:
Nucleus - 10 to 20 ribosomes join together in string-like
- a spherical or oval structure and is the most arrangements
prominent, visible feature inside the cell when
viewed with a light microscope because of its
contrasting, dark appearance. Endoplasmic reticulum:
- the control center of the cell - one of the biggest organelles in the cell.
- necessary for cell reproduction - a network of membranes that form flattened
- technically an organelle sacs or tubules called
- exterior of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope. cisterns that extend from the nuclear envelope
- information center of the cell, and contains - cisterns: the flaps of the ER with a large area
chromosomes. - rough ER: has membrane-bound ribosomes,
- bearers of hereditary material, DNA produce proteins for the rest of the cell to
- coordinates the cell's activities, which include function
growth, intermediary metabolism, - smooth ER: synthesizes lipids, phospholipids as
protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell in plasma membranes, and steroids
division)
Endosomes and Endocytosis:
- Endosomes are membrane-bound vesicles,
Cell membrane formed via a complex family of processes
- the plasma membrane composed of bilayer collectively known as endocytosis
phospholipids and globular protein molecules. - found in the cytoplasm of virtually every
- a flexible, elastic, protective barrier that animal cell
separates the cell's internal components from - involves the invagination (folding inward) of a
the external environment. cell's plasma membrane to surround
- has selective permeability and thus plays an macromolecules or other matter diffusing
active role in determining what enters and through the extracellular fluid
leaves the cell.

Organelles: Physio session 2

- the machinery of the cell that are highly
specialized to carry out certain functions Golgi complex/Golgi Apparatus:
- 3-20 flattened membranous sacs stacked on
Ribosomes each other (each ends dilated)
- has cisterns/cisternae also [areas within these - energy originates
sacs] - has ability to produce ATP [Adenosine
- cup-like structure [because of the curvature of Triphospate]
the cisterns] - 100 to a thousand found within a cytoplasm
- most cells have only 1 GC depends on the activities of the cells
- to modify, sort, package, and transport - a mitochondrion is oval
products received from the rough ER - bounded by two membranes:
- forms secretory vesicles that do exocytosis - outer part is smooth
[discharge processed proteins] - inner part is arranged in a series of
- replaces or modifies the plasma membrane folds called cristae
- forms lysosomes and peroxisomes - cristae: folds of the inner part of the
- modifies protein molecules by adding mitochondria
carbohydrates - center is bounded by the inner membrane and
cristae and is called the matrix
- matrix is mostly fluid
Lysosomes: - can self replicate
- 40 different digestive/hydrolytic enzymes - has multiple identical copies of circular DNA
[tends to work best in acidic pH] - can synthesize without ribosomes because
- actively transports hydrogen ions there are ribsomes in the matrix
- pH content is 5.0 (cytosol pH lvl is 7.0 which is - protein synthesis can also occur in the
normal) mitochondrion
- allows sugars and amino acids transportation - mitochondrial genes are inherited only from
into cytosol the female parent.
- functions:
- endocytosis: digest substances that
enter the cell *electron transport chain - most efficient ATP
- autophagy: digest worn-out organelles synthesis, uses oxygen
- autolysis: digest the entire cell if it dies
- extracellular digestion
Centrioles:
- paired bodies are cylindrical
- located close to the nucleus in all animal cells
*enzymes = catalysts for reactions - capable of reproducing themselves
- each cynlinder is composed of nine triplets of
microtubles called a 90 array
- direct the formation of the mitotic spindles
Peroxisomes: during cell division
- to oxidize various organic substances - form the basis for cell projections called cilia
- contain oxidative enzymes, such as catalase and flagella
and urate oxidase - centrosome is the pericentriolar area plus the
- smaller than lysosomes centrioles
- detoxify harmful substances
- abundant in kidney and liver cells Centrosome:
- contains peroxide - serves as the initiation site for the assembly of
the microtubules
- found at both polars of the cell during cell
Mitochondria: division
- powerhouse of the cell
Centromere: *uracil instead of thymine in RNA
- a constricted region of a chromosome
- it is the region where the cell's spindle fibers DNA nucleotides:
attach. A - adenine
T - thymine
C - cytosine
Cytoskeleton: G - guanine
- serves as the internal scaffold of the cell
- supports and moves substances within the cell complimentary base-pairing (DNA):
- composed of proteins called tubulins which A-T
also composes the microtubules C-G
- microtubules: slender tubules formed of
proteins called tubulins; straight, hollow
cylinders found throughout the cytoplasm of all RNA nucleotides:
eukaryotic cells A - adenine
U - uracil
Intermediate Filaments: C - cytosine
- very broad class of fibrous proteins that play G - guanine
an important role as both structural and
functional elements of the cytoskeleton
- function as tension-bearing elements to help 3 classes of RNAs
maintain cell shape and rigidity mRNA - Messenger RNA [carry coding
sequences called transcripts]
Microfilaments: rRNA - Ribosomal RNA [form the core of a cell's
- solid rods made of globular proteins called ribosomes]
actin tRNA - transfer RNA [carry amino acids to the
- primarily structural in function and are an ribosomes during protein synthesis]
important component of the cytoskeleton

mRNA are signaling proteins (doesn't last long)

Inclusion Bodies: transcriptome - spectrum of mRNA molecules
- storage bases (physiology) (varies according to cell function and type)
- indicative of wide variety of intracellular
infections (pathology)
- passive masses Cell/Plasma Membrane:
- composed of bilayer phospholipids and
globular protein molecules
Cilia and Flagella: - the arrangement of compounds is called the
- motile, cell surface projections composed of fluid mosaic mode
array of microtubule doublets - proteins in plasma membrane are responsible
- essential for the locomotion of individual to its antigenicity
organisms - flexible, elastic, and has protective barrier to
- cilia: move fluids and debris over a cell's separate the internal and external parts of the
surface cell
- flagella: long and propels the entire cell - has selective permeability
- plays an active role in determining what enters
*complementary strand = needed by the parent and exits the cell
strand of DNA in Telophase - 90% phospholipid bilayer
 Intercellular adhesion and contact of cells:
- the point where cells connect is - cell adhesion

Physio session 3 Desmosomes:

- local thickenings of adjacent plasma
*** membranes
Uncharged and Oily Molecules - can penetrate - with tiny fibrils radiating from the thickening
without the aid of proteins into the cytoplasm
Inner Hydrophobiregion layer - does not allow - achored to the cytoskeleton
charged particles - adhesive intracellular junctions
Molecular weight = daltons - they mechanically integrate adjacent cells
molecular cut off rate in passing through pure - mediated by desmosomal cadherins
bilipid layer = 100 daltons
*** Tight Junctions:
- polar and non-polar molecules does not attract - an area or zone where the plasma membranes
each other of two adjacent cells immediately adhere to
*** each other
- found below the free surface of epithelial cells
fluid mosaic theory - lipids of membranes are - passes completely around the peripheral
structured, diverse, fluid and responsive to - zonula occludens = type of cell junction
some environmental factors characterized by forming an adhesion complex
- serving as a tight seal between the cells
bilayer phospholipids:
- phospholipids contain phosphate groups.
- principal constituents of the matrix Gap Junctions:
- are ampiphatic - formed by membrane proteins that extend
- hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail between adjacent cells
- it is thermodynamically stable - forms a passageway
- great chemical diversity - passage for exchange of small molecules and
- two leaflets (bilayer) are composed of different ions
mixes of phospholipid molecules - exchange of ions permits one cell to affect the
electrical activty of the adjacent cell
- has special fucntional importance in cardiac
Proteins: and intestinal muscles
- primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes - also called Connexon
quarterary structures - made up of connexin monomers
- embedded in the cell membrane - has functional importance in cardiac muscle
- forms channels in the cell membrane and certain types of smooth muscles in the
- intergral and peripheral proteins gastrointestinal tract
- integral proteins are transmembrane proteins,
have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
- peripheral proteins are hydrophilic Functions of cell membrane proteins:
- Most proteins are ampiphatic - transtport substances
- provision of a site of binding
5 functional types of membrane proteins and - contribution to the formation of cell junctions
functions - provision of enzymes with active sites facing
- either cytosol or extracellular fluid
- identification or recognition of cell type or - most membrane channels is permeable to
cell origin specific ions
- temperature can affect diffusion

Membrane channel:
- permits simple or quasi-simple diffusion of Electrochemical gradient:
solutes in aqueous solution or osmosis of water - refer to the combined effects of the
through a membrane concentration gradient and electrical gradient
on the diffusion rate of an individual ion
Ligand: - refers to the charges in the membrane
- when receptor meets its messenger -

Facilitated diffusion:
Transporter (carrier): - requires a carrier system in the membrane
- binds nonconvalently and reversibly with - still does not require ATP
specific molecules or ions to move them across -
a membrane

Enzymes:
- proteinatious catalysts Osmosis:
- encourages chemical reactions - movement of water throughout the cell
membrane

Receptor:
- binds noncovanlently with specific molecules Physio session 4
- initiates the change the cellular permeability

Structural proteins: Osmosis:

- ??? - movement of water across membranes
- water diffuses freely through water channels
called aquaporins
Carbohydrates in membranes - osmotic gradient controls the gradients of
- glycolipids, glycoproteins and proteoglycans water [always follows the concentration of the
carb containing membrane compounds solute] [low-high]
- mostly hydrophilic - osmotic pressure increases the size of the
cytoplasm
- stops when the same concentration of solute
and solvent is equal in both sides
Simple Diffusion: - isotonic fluid [equal concentration of solutions
- distribution of a substance in a solvent in blood] [restricts unequal movement of water
medium in the cell]
- concentration gradient is important -
- occurs due to the kinetic energy of molecules
and ions *Crenation: shrinking of cell
- concentration gradient is the amount of matter *Interstitial space: fluid-filled space between
that moves from a high concentration to a low cells
concentration.
*edema: swelling of organs due to interstitial - Other factors:
spaces expanding - ingestion of food
*pressure related organs will not work around - age
edema - gender
*anasarca: edema on 60-80% of the organs - time of day
- body size
- reproductive condition
Active Transport: - hormonal state
- uses ATP molecules to oppose the - psychological stress
concentration gradient - salinity of the ambient water (for
- low to high concentration aquatic animals
- consumes energy
- protein pumps Metabolism:
- has carrier proteins - Anabolism:
- - refers to the constructive process of
metabolism
- Catabolism:
*sodium potassium pump - refers to the destructive process of
*proteins need to be deformed to be carriers metabolism
*
*chief ion inside the cell is potassium
*chief ion outside the cell is sodium
Basal Metabolic rate:
- a standardized measure of metabolic rate that
applies to homeotherms
- metabolic rate of endotherms while it is:
- fasting
Physio session 5 - resting
- thermoneutral zone
Metabolic rate:
- the rate at which it converts chemical energy
into heat and external work
- it helps determine the amount of food an Standard metabolic rate (SMR):
animal needs - applies to poikilotherms (ectotherms), animals
- Metabolism: sum total of chemical reactions in that allow their body temperatures to fluctuate
the body freely with variations in environmental
- provide's a quantitative measure of the total temperature
activity of all its physiological mechanisms - metabolic rate of ectotherms while it is:
- can be measured by direct calorimetry or - fasting
studies of material balance - resting
- rate of oxygen consumption is the most
common measure of metabolic rates
*thermoneutral zone: mediates the metabolic
Factors that affect metabolic rates: rate of an endothermal animal
- 2 factors that exert greatest effects on the - a range of environmental temperatures within
metabolic rate: which the metabolic rate is minimal
- the intensity of its physical activity
- the temperature of its environment *oxygen debt: anaerobic metabolism
*gluconeogenesis: develop sugar from new
substances that lack oxygen stimulated by lactic - anaerobic glycolysis: process of breaking down
acid build up. glucose in the absence of oxygen
*calorimetry: the process of measuring the
amount of heat released or absorbed during a physiologic shivering: normal response of the
chemical reaction body to cold temperature

pathologic shivering: is the immune response of

the body to enact fever in response to
Physio session 6 pathogens

- allows energy to be created in the

mitochondria
- ATPsase: enyzmes that synthesizes ATP
Membrane Potential:
- ability of certain cells to create and conduct
Glycolysis: electrical impulses.
- enzymatically catalyzed reactions
- glucose or glycogen (raw substance) is
converted to pyruvic acid (by-product) synaptic cleft:
- 2 phosphorylations happens - space between neurons at the nerve synapse
- 2 ATP molecules are required (1 each (place)
phosphorylation)
- 1 glucose becomes 2 pyruvic acid
- can be aerobic or anaerobic -graded potential: small movements
**2 molecules of ATP are used and 4 are - action potential: sudden change
formed for each glucose processed, providing a - resting
net yield of 2 ATP molecules per glucose - graded
molecule - action

Pyruvic acid products:

- CO2 (carbon dioxide) from Kreb's Cycle
- Water (Electron Transport Chain)
- Acytic acid (lactic acid) from anaerobic
glycolysis Physio session 7

Krebs Cycle: Resting Membrane Potential:

- aka Citric Acid Cycle - the potential difference across the membrane
- release of CO2 (carbon dioxide) at two points of resting neurons
in the cycle - 65mV
- 0 ATP produced - reflects asymmetric distruibution across the
- neuronal membrane
- formation of charges/formation of impulses =
Electron Transport chain depolarization
- Water is created from pyruvic acid - basal metabolism is needed to create the
- 32 ATP produced asymmetry (active transport)
- most efficient way to produce ATP - Na+ (+62mV) K+ (-80mV)
 Neurons:
**asymmetric distribution is maintained by - functional unit of the nervous system
sodium/potassium ATPase - highly irregular shaped cell with 1 or more
cellular processes
- the rough endoplasmic reticulum and
Graded potential: polysomes (collectively referred to as Nissl
- receives inputs via the axodendritic and substance) are abundant in the perikarya
axosomatic synapses [protein producing structures of neurons]
- brief local changes in the postsynaptic - axons = sends signals
membranes - dendrites = receive signals
-

**Axon hillock is where graded potential are

integraded to generate action potentials *axon hillock = trigger zone
**50% of graded potentials can generate action **myelins = composed of lipids, cholesterol and
potentials proteins
***myelin sheath = increases conductivity,
threshold potential determines the generation made by Schwann cells
of the action potential
- -55mV

Action Potential:
- brief reversal in the membrane potential when
membrane permeability of sodium and
potassium increases subsquent to activation of
voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels.

Refractory Period:
- represents the time needed for the voltage-
gated Na+ channels to revert from the
inactivated state to the resting state
- 1ms duration

- Absolute = When an action potential is

initiated, a second action potential cannot be
triggered for about 1ms, regardless of how large
a stimulus is applied to a neuron

- Relative = the membrane potential undergoes

repolarization and approaches the threshold
membrane voltage, overriden by a stronger
action potential
- not all sodium channels are activated