Introduction to Linguistics

Learning Outcomes:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of the theories underlying language acquisition

and teaching, as well as their impact.

2. Reexamine linguistic theories and concepts and use them to inform the
instruction

Of grammar, listening, speaking, reading, and other communication skills.

3. Demonstrate familiarity with the basic concepts and methods in the study of
phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics:

A. Linguistics and English Language Teaching

Language teaching and teachers’ understanding of how languages function is

fundamentally linked. Teachers informed about how a language acts will be able to
explain to pupils how the language functions and foresee and respond to potential
learning challenges.

 Understanding phonology can help explain Interference issues that English

language learners could run into with the English sound system. To give an
example, Filipino English learners are prone to substitute /p/ and /v/ for missing
sounds like // and / Philippine languages, except for Ivatan and Ibanag, such
as /paen/ for /fn/”fan” and /bn/for/vn/”kan.” It is advisable for language teachers to
keep in mind that each language has a unique Inventory of phonemes that may
vary from other languages. As evidenced by the examples, such variances may
lead to the use of sounds that only closely resemble the intended noises.

 Language instructors must be aware of how grammatical elements like

morphemes words, phrases, and clauses act very differently in different
 languages: Inflections such as-s/es and ed, for instance, are used to show
plurality and tense. The term “children” in the Tagalog word for plurality, mga
bata, is articulated as a separate word. The difficulty the Filipinos have with
English tenses may be explained by the fact that Tagalog verbs have no tense,
only aspects, perfective “kumain” and imperfective “kumakain”.

 The teacher’s understanding is crucial in assisting pupils in deciphering words by

breaking them down into their component pieces. Students can practice by
segmenting or parsing the words below while noting the morpheme-ment that is
repeated in humiliation, governance, disillusionment, and enhancement.
Students who learn that the meaning of the suffix “-ment” is “state of being
embarrassed,” “state of governing,” “state of being disillusioned,” and “state of
enhancing.”

 Word construction techniques like derivation may aid students in understanding

and remembering the meaning of words that adhere to patterns in lengthening
short words

 When instructing students in discussions, teachers’ understanding of discourse

structure may be useful. Understanding modals that convey formality and a
greater level of courtesy while dealing with someone who is older, in higher
position, or in seeking permission. When requesting permission from a person
who is older or in a higher position that the speaker, for instance, it is appropriate
to use may rather than can. e.g., Can I use the computer at the office?

B. Theories of Language

1. Structuralists

 See language in terms of its structure. They believe that by describing the observable
and verifiable features of the language, one can learn it. Hence, as the name Implies,
structuralists.
  See language as a system and studying these systems would make it possible to learn
language.

Some of the most prevalent thoughts that sprung out of structuralist views are the following:

a) Language is primarily vocal. Speech is the fundamental language medium; writing is

merely a supplementary way to convey language. According to linguists, writing is
subordinate to speaking in the language.

b) Language is a system of systems. To create meaningful words, sounds are organized in

a predetermined order. The phrase “She bought a new novel” is acceptable, but the
phrase “She bought a new novel a” is not, as the word order of the latter is not in
accordance with the established S-V-O word order in English grammar.

c) Language is arbitrary. The meanings of a language’s words and the concepts they
express are not innately related to one another.

D) Language is a means of communication. Language is an important tool for communicating. It

gives shape to people’s thoughts, as well as guides and controls their activity.

2. Transformationalists and Cognitivists Language is a system of knowledge that is universal

and innate, manifested in linguistic forms.

a) Language is innate. Because every normal child has a language acquisition device
(LAD) in their brains, they are predisposed to learning their first language in a very short
period-roughly five years after birth.

b) Writing is artistic. It makes it possible for native speakers to create and comprehend new
sentences that they have neither heard nor used before.

c) Language is universal. It is universal in the sense that all typical children develop a
mother tongue and on a highly abstract level, all languages must share essential
characteristics of human languages. For instance, all languages include rules that turn
sounds into words, and words into phrases and clauses, and all languages have
 transformation rules that allow speakers to ask questions, negate sentences, or issue
orders.

Chomsky’s acquisition hypothesis includes the Language Acquisition Device or LA

Infants are born with a set of principles known as the LAD, which aids in language
acquisition and considers both the sequence in which infants learn language structures
and the errors they make along the way.

In accordance with theory, all people possess an innate capacity for decoding language
Understanding the grammar of our own language in the context of the universal. Our
minds can generate our sentences throughout time because of internal acquisition
device in the brain.

Vygotsky’s Social Interactionist theory, on the other hand, explains language learning as
a process that results from our encounters with other people and the outer world. And it
is because of this need to communicate with others that we can do so. McLeod, S. A.
However, Vygotsky’s perspective was more social and pedagogical.

Chomsky’s Nativism Theory Vygotsky’s Social Interactionist Theory

Language is a social phenomenon. (Hoff.
Language ability is innate in humans. E., 2014)
(Chomsky, N. 1960)
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a Language is a learned process.
set of learning language tools.
Social interaction is relevant to language
There is the Universal Grammar (UG) in acquisition and cognitive abilities.
which all human languages are build.

Functionalists

a) Language is a dynamic mechanism for information exchange among

speech community members. It serves as a platform for the
presentation of functional meaning, including the expression of
 emotions, persuasion, information gathering and dissemination, and the
incitement of others to act in a certain way.

b) This perspective on language places more emphasis on its meaning

and functions than its grammatical features, which results in language
instruction materials that are organized according to categories of
meaning and functions rather than by grammar and structure-related
components.

4. Interactionists

a) Language is a tool for creating interpersonal connections and carrying

out social Interactions between people. It is a technique for establishing
and preserving social connections through dialogue. According to this
theory, language learning is not just a matter of acquiring the rules of
grammar and vocabulary, but it is also a social process that involves
interaction with others.

Structuralists Cognitivist Functionalist Behaviorist

Transformationalist
s
System Mental Phenomenon
Arbitrary (absolute) Innate To persuade Repetition
Means of LAD To give/ask Reinforcement
Communication information
Primarily Vocal To make someone
does something

C. Acquisition of Language

1. Behaviorist Learning Theory

 • The behaviorist perspective, which derives from a general theory of learning, claims
that an individual’s language behavior is influenced by sequences of varied incentives in
his or her environment.

It views the acquisition of a language as a behavior, like other types of human conduct,
rather than a mental phenomenon, and as a process of habit building. Since learning a
language is said to be accomplished by forming habits based on stimulus- response
chains, language is seen as both a mechanical and human activity. The repercussions of
a response are highlighted by behaviorism, which also contends that it is the behavior
that follows a response that reinforces it and so contributes to the association’s strength.

Process of Habit (Littlewood 1984)

a) The child imitates the sounds and patterns which s/he hears around her/him.

b) People recognize the child’s attempts as being like the adult models and reinforce
(reward) the sounds by approval or some other desirable reaction.

c) To obtain more of these rewards, the child repeats the sounds and patterns so that these
become habits.

d) In this way the child’s verbal behavior is conditioned (‘shaped”) until the habits coincide
with the adult models.

2.Cognitive learning theory views the acquisition of a language as a behavior, similar to othe
types of human conduct, rather than a mental phenomenon, and as a process of habit building.
Since learning a language is said to be accomplished by forming habits based on stimulus-
response chains, language is seen as both a mechanical and human activity. The repercussions
of a response are highlighted by behaviorism, which also contends that it is the behavior that
follows a response that reinforces it and so contributes to the association’s strength.

3. Krashen’s Monitor Model (1981)

The five hypotheses are:

  The acquisition/learning hypothesis. It claims that there are two ways of developing
competence in L2:

Acquisition – the subconscious process that results from informal, natural communication
between people where language is a means, not a focus nor an end.

Learning – the conscious process of knowing about language and being able to talk about it.
Language learning has traditionally involved grammar and vocabulary learning.

Acquisition parallels first language development in children while learning approximates the
formal teaching of grammar in classrooms. Conscious thinking about the rules is said to occur in
a second language learning while unconscious feeling about what is correct and appropriate
occurs in language acquisition.

 The natural order hypothesis. Both children and adults acquire grammatical structures
in a predictable order, that is, certain structures are acquired before others, regardless of
the language used.

 The monitor hypothesis. Language performance is normally preceded by the monitor.

Editing may occur before or after the natural output. According to Krashen, monitoring
occurs when there is sufficient time when pressure exists to convey meaning correctly,
and when appropriate rules are in place.

 The input hypothesis. According to Krashen, learners acquire grammatical features

when exposed to them beyond their current level (i.e., I + 1). Context helps make
comprehensible input understandable. Acquisition begins with comprehensible input.
Language structures will be acquired naturally if learners receive understandable input.
The ability to communicate in a second language ‘emerges’ rather than indirectly put in
place by teaching.

The affective filter hypothesis. The filter consists of attitude to language, motivation, self-
confidence, and anxiety. Thus, learners with favorable attitudes and self- confidence may have a
low filter which promotes language learning. Learners with low affective filter seek and receive
more input, interact with confidence, and are more receptive to the input they are exposed to.
On the other hand, anxious learner have a high affective filter which prevents acquisition from
taking place.
D. Influences of Theories on Language Teaching

1. According to applied linguists, a given teaching strategy or methodology may be

supported by both theories of language and theories of language learning. The following
are examples of how structuralism and behaviorism have been combined:

 Audiolingual method (ALM)

 Oral approach/situational language education
 Operant conditioning approach
 Bottom-up text processing
 Controlled-to-free writing

These techniques highlight the need for overlearning, a concept that results in unending,
mindless mimicry, and memorizing is referred to as “mim-mem.” They are also characterized by
mechanical habit-formation training, which is carried out through relentless practice. To reduce
the likelihood of errors, language patterns are repeatedly practiced and drilled until they become
automatic and habitual. Since grammar is taught through analogy, rules are not explained until
after pupils have used a pattern in a variety of contexts.

2. The cognitive approach to learning, which places language analysis before language
usage and teacher instruction before student practice forms, is a result of the cognitive
learning theory. It is consistent with the idea that learning is a mental process, which
serves as the foundation for cognitive-based and schema-based learning. Boosting
techniques like Think-Aloud, Story Grammar, Directed Reading Thinking Activity, etc.

3. The functional view of language has led to communication-based approaches such as

task- based language instruction, notional-functional approach, natural approach, and
communicative language teaching/communicative approach. These methods are
learner- centered and enable students to collaborate in groups or pairs on information
gap tasks and problem-solving activities that make use of communication strategies like
information sharing, meaning negotiation, and interaction.
 4. The holistic approach to language acquisition, also known as whole-person learning, has
given birth to humanistic methodologies in language learning as well as Community
Language acquisition, thanks to the viewpoint that is both cognitive and affective. These
approaches place a strong emphasis on teaching students as a whole person, including
their thoughts, feelings, language abilities, and behavioral skills. Humanistic educational
philosophy provides students with “vocabulary for expressing one’s feelings, for sharing
one’s values and viewpoints with others, and for developing a better understanding of
their feelings and needs."

E. Linguistic Concepts

LINGUISTICS

➤ The systematic examination of the features of both specific languages and of language, in
general, is the main goal of linguistics, which is the scientific study of
Scope of Linguistic Studies

Phonology The study of the sound system of language:

the rules that govern pronunciation. It
comprises the elements and principles that
determine sound patterns in a language.

Phonetics The study of language at the level of sounds:

how sounds are articulated by the human
speech mechanism and received by the
auditory mechanism, as well as how sounds
can be distinguished and characterized by the
way they are produced.

Morphology The study of word formation; it deals with the

internal structure of words. It also studies the
changes that take place in the structure of
 words, e.g., the morpheme ‘go’ changes to
‘went’ and ‘gone’ to signify changes in tense
and aspect.
Syntax The study of the way phrases, clauses, and
sentences are constructed It is the system of
rules and categories that underlies sentence
formation. Also, it involves the description of
rules and positioning of elements in the
sentence such as noun phrases, verb
phrases, adverbial phrases, etc.

The purpose of these pieces in the sentence,

or their function, is also attempted to describe
using syntax. For instance, “the student
serves various purposes in the following
sentences:

a) The student is writing a new play.

b) The teacher gave the student a new

play.

In sentence a), the student functions as the

subject of the sentence while in sentence b),
it functions as an indirect object.

Semantics It addresses the degree of linguistic meaning.

It tries to understand how words are related to
one another in terms of meaning, for example
and how these links might be demonstrated
by creating ‘categories’. Semantics explains
how words and sentences have meaning.
Pragmatics It addresses the contextual elements of
meaning in certain circumstances. The study
 of pragmatics focuses on how language is
applied in everyday conversation. In contrast
to the study of sentences, pragmatics
considers utterances, or the sentences that
speakers of a language say or utter

Discourse It is the study of linguistic units that are longer

than a sentence. At this level, the connections
between sentences that give a text coherence
or connection are examined. An exchanged
utterance or a written text may be the
linguistic unit that discourse and pragmatics
study.

A. PHONOLOGY

1. Phoneme is a distinctive, contrasted sound unit, e.g., /m/, /æ/,/n/. These distinct sounds
enter combination with other sounds to form words, e.g., /mæn/’man’. It is the smallest
unit of sound of any language that causes a difference in meaning. It is a phone
segment that has a contrastive status. The basic test for a sound’s distinctiveness is
called a minimal pair test. A minimal pair consists of two forms with distinct meanings
that differ by only one segment found in the same position in each form. For example,
[stp] ‘sip’ and [zip] ‘zip’ forms a minimal pair and show that the sounds [s] and [z]
contrast in English because they cause the difference in meaning between the words
‘sip’ and ‘zip’; hence, they are separate phonemes-/s/and/z/.

2. Allophones are variants or other ways of producing a phoneme. They are phonetically
similar and are frequently found in complementary distribution. For example, the
systematic variations of /t/ are: The /t/ in the top is aspirated [th]; the /t/ in stop is
released [t]; the /t/ in the pot is unreleased.

3. Consonant sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract as
the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth. The airflow is either
 blocked momentarily or restricted so much that noise is produced as air flows past the
constriction. Consonants are described in terms of physical dimensions: place of
articulation, manner of articulation, voicing, as shown in Figure 1.

 Place of Articulation

a. Bilabial (from bi ‘two’ + labial ‘lips’). The primary constriction is at the lips(/ p ,b,m,w/)

b. Labiodental (from labio ‘lip’ + dental ‘teeth’). The primary constriction is between the
lower lip and the upper teeth (/ f ,v/).
 c. Interdental (from inter ‘between’ + dental ‘teeth’). The primary constriction is between the
tongue and the upper teeth (/ theta , delta/). (d) Alveolar (from alveolar ridge). The
primary constriction is between the tongue and the alveolar ridge

(/ t ,d,s,z,n,l/).d. Palatal (from palate). The primary constriction is between the tongue and the
palate (/ overline s , overline z , overline c , overline r ,y/).

d. Velar (from velum). The primary constriction is between the tongue and the velum (/
k ,g,n/).
e. Glottal (from glottis, which refers to the space between the vocal cords). The primary
constriction is at the glottis (/h/).
 Manner of Articulation

a. Stops – two articulators (lips, tongue, teeth, etc.) are brought together such that the flow
of air through the vocal tract is completely blocked (/ p ,b,t,d,k,g/).Fricatives – two
articulators are brought completely blocked the airflow but not completely blocked. The
airflow the sun the narrow open it.

Creates friction, hence the term fricative (/ f ,v, theta, sigma,z,5, overline z ,h/)C. Affricates –
articulations correspondingse that begin likestaps (with a complete closure in the vocal tract)
and end like fricatives (withnarrow opening in the vocal tract) Vencelerate ( J overline c ,J/) and
endean be described asa stop plus a fricative, some phonemic alphabets
transcribe//as/ts/and/j/as

D Nasals a nasal articulation is one in which the airflow through the mouth is completely blocked
but the velum is lowered, forcing the air through the nose /m.n.n

f. Liquids and Glides-both terms describe articulations that are mid-way between true
consonants (ie, stops, fricatives, affricates, and nasals) and vowels, although they are
both generally classified as consonants, Liquid is a cover term for all l-like and ir-like
articulations (/).

/p/ =(+bilabial+stop -voice)

/b/=(+bilabial+stop+voice)

4. Vowels-vowel production in the vocal tract is normally unhindered, and they are voiced.
The following physical attributes are used to describe them: tongue height, frontness, lip
rounding, and tenseness. The tongue can have various areas that are elevated or
dropped. The lips could be pursed or fanned out. But the airstream’s path is never, so
constrained that it cannot freely move through the passage. Vowels can be sung, and
they can change in pitch and volume. They could be lengthy or brief.

5. Suprasegmentals are prosodic characteristics that all sounds have, regardless of where
or how they are spoken. Pitch, Intonation, stress, and junction are these characteristics.
They differ in terms of time, pitch, and intensity.

6. Stress-It is a phrase used to describe a combination of pitch, loudness, and duration that
produces vowel prominence. Primary stress refers to the syllable that experiences the
most noticeable stress. One can alter the pitch (often by raising it), make the syllable
louder, or lengthen it to create a stressed syllable.

7. Pitch – is the characteristic of a sound that allows us to classify its pitch on a scale from
low to high.

8. Intonation-The melodic pattern of an utterance as described in phonetics. It can convey

a variety of emotive meanings, such as surprise, rage, or happiness, as well as perform
grammatical duties. Variations in the voice’s pitch are the main factor in intonation.

9. Junctures-pauses or breaks between syllables.

B.MORPHOLOGY

1. Morpheme is a word or a word’s component with meaning, cannot be broken down

into more manageable meaningful pieces without losing its significance or leaving behind
meaningless leftovers and appears repeatedly in several terms, and has a dependable
meaning. The word unhappiness has 3 morphemes: (un-), (friend), (-ly) while the word friend is
a single morpheme.
 2. Allomorphs - morphs that are members of the same morpheme. For instance, the
Allemorphy, and // in the words /kaets/’cats’, /bgz ‘bags’, and /bsz ‘buses’ are Letters of
of the plural morphemes (e)s’: Allomorphs, for instance, me variants that salomarphs of
thicaly or morphologically condith of the words like “oven” and “children” is an allomorph
of the “plural” morpheme.”

2.Allomorphs-morphs that are members of the same morpheme. For instance, the letters/s/, /z/,
and /2/ in the words/kaets/ ‘cats’, /bgz ‘bags’, and /bsz “buses’ are allomorphs of the plural
morphemes “€s’. Allomorphs are morpheme variants that can be phonologically or
morphologically conditioned; for instance, the suffix “en” n

Words like “oxen” and “children” is an allomorph of the “plural” morpheme. 4. Free morphemes-
those that can stand on their own as independent words-eg. (View In review and (like) in unlike;
they can also occur in isolation.

5. Bound morphemes- those that cannot stand on their own as independent words; the
need to be attached to a free morpheme or a free form-e.g. (re-), and (un-) they ar
commonly called affix.

6 inflectional morphemes – always attached to complete words.

There are 8 inflectional morphemes

-s 3rd person, singular He brings food.
-s Plural Jehan eat her snacks.
-‘s Possessive Ila’s teddy bear is expensive.
-ed Past tense John walked there.
-ing Progressive tense He’s bringing some food.
-en Pat participle The sun has risen.
-er Comparative My bag is better than hers.
-est Superlative My bag is the best amongst
my classmates.

7.Derivational morphemes – added to root morphemes to derive new words.

 e.g. loyal + ty = loyalty
dis + comfort = discomfort

B.SYNTAX is the study of the way phrases, clauses and sentences are constructed.
Structure of Structure of Structure of Structure of
Predication Complementation Modification Coordination
Has two components: Has two components: Has two components: Has two components:
a subject and a a verbal element and consists of a joins two
predicate (e.g., the a complement (e.g., headword and a independent clauses
sun shines, gathered the house is modifier (e.g., that contain related
information) beautiful, but the Spanish sardines, ideas of equal value
soup tasted a little bit Philippine flag) or connected but not
sour) always by a
coordinating
conjunction (e.g.,
pins and needles,
peace and war)

C.SEMANTICS is a branch of linguistics and logic concerning meanings.

Lexical Ambiguity A characteristic of a word that has more than

one possible meaning.
Syntactic Ambiguity A characteristic of a sentence that more than
one possible meaning.
Synonymy Words having the same idea (e.g., big, and
large, small, and tiny, beautiful, and lovely)
Antonymy Two words which are different in form and in
meaning ( e.g., hot and cold, black and white,
boiling and freezing)
Hyponymy Word or a phrase that has its meaning
include within another word; the contained
word is also known as the superordinate
(e.g., laptop contains the meaning if
computer; therefore, laptop is a hyponym of
 the superordinate computer)
Homonymy A sense relation in words with the same
phonetic form but different in meaning (e.g.,
bow, ‘to bend forward to show respects’ or ‘a
weapon that shoots arrows’)
Anaphora A linguistic expression that refers to another
linguistic expression (e.g., The earthquake
killed hundreds of thousands of people in
Haiti. It was devastating.) It is used
anaphorically to refer the earthquake ‘.
Deixis Charcateristics of a word that has one
meaning but can refer to various entities.
Entailment A relationship between sentences in which a
first sentence will be true if other sentences
are true if other sentences are true;
implication or deduction; and called
paraphrase.
Conference Two or more expressions refer to just one
person or thing.

PRAGMATICS is the study of how language is used in real communication. A major factor in
sentence interpretation includes the speaker's and addressee's background attitudes and
beliefs, their understanding of the context of the sentence and their knowledge of how language
is used to communicate information.

Speech Act Theory

Firstly, introduced the British philosopher, John L. Austin as he believed that an utterance can
constitute an act.

Communication or conversation may fulfill various functions such as to promise, give praise,
congratulate, annoy, flatter, etc.
SPEECH ACTS

1. Locutionary Acts as the act of saying something which has literal meaning. Concerned with
meaning of the speaker's utterance. Traugott and Patt (1980:229) define that locutionary act is
the act of producing a recognizable grammatical utterance in the language.

2. Illocutionary Acts is performed in uttering certain words in given context and its
interpretation is concerned with force. Coulthard (1977:19) stresses that illocutionary act is
potentially under the control o its speaker. Traugott and Pratt (1980:229) view this act as the
attempt to accomplish some communicative purposes such as promising, waning, arguing,
announcing a verdict, betting, warning, making appointment, etc. Fraser (1983:35-44) states
that we are linguistically communicating when we perform an illocutionary act.

Representatives: illocutionary acts that undertake to represent situation, whether past,

present, future or hypothetical, e.g., predicting, telling, insisting, suggesting, or swearing
that something is the case.

Directive: illocutionary acts designed to get the addressee to do something, e.g.

requesting, commanding, ordering, pleading, inviting. daring, and challenging.

Commissive: illocutionary acts that commit the speaker to doing something e.g.,
promising, threatening, vowing, and offering.

Expressive: illocutionary acts that express only the speaker's psychological state, e.g.,
congratulating, thanking, deploring, condoling, welcoming and apologizing.

Declarations: illocutionary acts that bring about the situation they refer to, e.g., blessing,
firing, baptizing, bidding, passing sentence.

3.Perlocutionary Acts refers to Austin's notion of perlocutionary act stated above, Coulthard
(1977:18-19) and Pratt (1977:81) define that perlocutionary act is the act performed because of
the locutionary and illocutionary acts causing a change in the mind of listener so that he
becomes 'alarmed', 'convinced', 'deterred', etc. (Coulthard 1977:18-19; Pratt 1977:81).
 QUIZ

1. Which conversational maxim is violated in this utterance? Speaker A: How's your exam
Stephen?" Speaker B: "I was amazed by our principal because of his short message as
we enter the room."
A. Maxim of quality
B. Maxim of quantity
C. Maxim of relation
D. Maxim of manner
 2. Language learning refers to how a learner acquires and uses the language. Which
statement about language learning is correct?
A. Language learning has a sequence to follow to learn it.
B. Language learning may fully be acquired if the learner has lived in the country where
the native language originates.
C. Language learning is a constructive process that must be practiced every day.
D. Language learning occurs in a nonconstructive and formal process.

3. The study of illocutionary acts is an area of___________.

A. Pragmatics
B. Semantics
C. Morphology
D. Syntax

4. Cina thinks that he must pass the exam to get an additional allowance. Obviously, "he" refers
to Cina. What concept of referential semantics explains this?
A. Deixis
B. Entailment
C. Anaphora
D. Prototype

5.It studies language at the level of sounds, how sounds are articulated by the human
speech mechanism and received by the auditory mechanism, and how sounds can be
distinguished and characterized by the way they are produced.
A. Phonetics
B. Semantics
C. Pragmatics
D. Discourse
6. It is the study of how language is used in real communication.
A. Phonetics
B. Semantics
C. Pragmatics
D. Discourse
7. It is the study of chunks of language which are bigger than a single sentence. At this level,
inter-sentential links that form a connected or cohesive text are analyzed.
A. phonetics
B. Semantics
C. Pragmatics
D. Discourse

8. Which of the following best describes the final sound in the word 'lunch'?
A. Voiced velar fricative
B. Voiceless alveolar fricative
C. Voiceless aspirated velar affricate
D. Voiceless alveopalatal affricate

9. It refers to the pauses or breaks between syllables.

A. Juncture
B. Stress
C. Pitch
D. Intonation

10. In the phrase structure rules, prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by a
A. Noun
B. Objective pronoun
C. Noun phrase
D. Clause

11. Which of the following is NOT a belief of structuralists about language?

A. Language is primarily vocal.
B. Language is a system of systems.
C. Language is innate.
D. Language is a means of communication

12. Which of the following is a belief of transformationalists and cognitivists about language?
A. Language is primarily vocal.
B. Language is a system of systems.
C. Language is innate.
D .Language is arbitrary
13. perspective emphasizes the role of social interaction in language learning?
A. Structuralist
B. Transformationalist
C. Interactionist
D. Functionalist

14. According to behaviorist learning theory, how is language learning achieved?

A. Through forming habits based on stimulus-response chains
B. Through innate capacity
C. Through social interaction
D. Through emphasizing the meaning and functions of language

16. Which these states that language structures will be acquired naturally if learners receive
understandable input?
A. The affective fitter hypothesis
B. The monitor hypothesis
C. The input hypothesis
D. The behaviorism hypothesis

17. Which approach to language acquisition emphasizes the importance of teaching students as
a whole person, including their thoughts, feelings, language abilities, and behavioral skills?
A. The cognitive approach
B. The functional view
C. The holistic approach
D. The structuralism approach

18. Which area of linguistic studies addresses the way phrases, clauses, and sentences are
constructed, as well as the rules and categories that underlie sentence formation?
A. Phonetics
B. Morphology
C. Syntax
D. Semantics

19.Which of the following is the primary constriction between the tongue and the velum?
A. Bilabial
B. Velar
C. Alveolar
D. Palatal

20.Which of the following is NOT a component of the Structure of Coordination?

A. Consists of two independent clauses
B. Contains related ideas of equal value
C. Connected but not always by a coordinating conjunction
D. Has a subject and a predicate

ANSWER KEY
1. Answer: C. Maxim of relation
Explanation: Speaker 8 has said information that's not relevant to what speaker A's being asked.
Distracters: A. Maxim of Quality-when the speaker has said that's not true or valid. B. Max of Quantity -
when the speaker has said more than what's being asked and D. Maxim of Manner-speaker violates this
maxim when s/he says something in an ambiguous manner.

2. Answer: D. Language learning occurs in a no constructive and formal process.

Explanation: Language learning may fully be implemented with no constructive processes.
Distracters: A. Language learning has a sequence to follow to learn it. - this is a false
statement because there is no required sequence to learn a language. B. Language learning may fully be
acquired if the learner has lived in the country where the native language originates. - the statement is
also incorrect because one may learn the language without even going to the country it originates from.
C. Language learning is a constructive process that must be practiced every day. -this statement is
incorrect because ones may learn a language in a non-constructive process.

3. Answer: A. Pragmatics-pragmatics is the study of how language is used in communication illocutionary

act refers to what the speaker does when uttering a sentence.
Distracters: B. Semantics is the branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning. C. Morphology is
the study of words and their parts. D. Syntax is the arrangement of words and phrases to create a correct
sentence in a language.

4. Answer: C. Anaphora - refers to the arrangement of antecedent in a sentence. If the antecedent

precedes the pronoun, it's anaphora.
Distracters: A. Deixis is used as a pointing word or phrase such as this, that, these, those, here etc. B.
Entailment is the other term of paraphrasing. D. Prototype is incorrect because this is type of theory
wherein a categorization of graded degree that belongs to each other is being observed.

5. Answer: A. phonetics-how the words being articulated with their sound.

Distracters: B. Semantics is the branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning. C Pragmatics is
the field of linguistics concerned with what a speaker conveys, and a listener

6. Answer: D. Discourse is the way we exchange communication and form a narrative with other people.
Distracters: A. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds and their physiological production at acoustic
qualities. B. Semantics is the branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning C. Pragmatics-this is
how

7. Answer: D discourse-this is the way we exchange communication and form a narrative with other
people.
Distracters: Phonetics is incorrect because is the study of speech sounds and their physiological
production and acoustic qualities. B. Semantics is the branch of linguistics and logic concerned with
meaning. C. Pragmatics is how the language is being used in real communication

8 Answer: D. voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate Its mode of articulation is sibilant affricate, which implies
that high-frequency turbulence is created by first completely stopping the airflow and then directing it
with the tongue to the sharp edge of the teeth. The alveolo-palatal region is where it articulates
Distracters: A. The voiced velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound that is used in various spoken
languages. B. Voiceless alveolar fricative pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the
alveolar ridge (gum line) just behind the teeth. C. Voiceless aspirated velar affricate is pronounced only
using the release of air.

9. Answer: A. juncture-pauses or breaks between syllables that make a harmonious sentence.

Distracters:
A. Stress is the emphasis of the syllable, and this usually signals how we identify a noun or if the word
has the same spelling, C. Pitch is the highness and lowness of your voice. D. Intonation is the rise and of
the human voice.

10. Answer: B. Prepositional phrases always consist of two basic parts at minimum: the object and the
preposition.
Distracters: A. Noun is an incorrect answer and same as option C which is a noun phrase. D. Clause also
doesn't form a prepositional phrase as it conveys either an independent or dependent clause.

11. Answer: c) Language is innate.

Explanation of distractors: a) is a correct statement, as structuralists believe that speech is the primary
mode of language. b) is also correct, as structuralists view language as a and its components must be
organized in a predetermined order to create meaningful words. d) is also correct, as language is seen as
an important tool communication and for shaping people's thoughts and activities.
12. Answer, c) Language is innate
Explanation of distractors:
a) is a belief of structuralists, not transformationalists and cognitivists.
b) is also a belief of structuralists, not transformationalists and cognitivists.
d) is a belief of structuralists, not transformationalists and cognitivists
13. The correct answer: Interactionist. The text explains that Vygotsky's Social Interactionist theory sees
language learning as a process that results from our encounter with other people and the outer This
perspective emphasizes the role of interaction in language learning, unlike the other options. social
Distractor explanation:
A) Structuralist: This option is incorrect because Structuralist perspective emphasizes the study of the
underlying structure of language, including its grammar, syntax, and phonology does not focus on social
interaction in language learning. B. Transformationalist: This option is incorrect because it is not a well-
known perspective language learning. D) Functionalist: This option is incorrect because the Functionalist
perspective places an emphasis on the meaning and functions of language, rather than its grammatical
feature mentioned in the text. It does not specifically focus on social interaction in language learn.

14. The correct answer is a) Through forming habits based on stimulus-response chains. T text explains
that the behaviorist perspective views language acquisition as a process of he building. Learning a
language is accomplished by forming habits based on chains, and language is seen as both a mechanical
and human activity. stimulus-response.
Distractor explanation:
B. Through innate capacity: This option is incorrect because it is the opposite of the behaviorist
perspective. The behaviorist perspective claims that language learning is not achieved through innate
capacity but rather through environmental factors.
C) Through social interaction: This option is incorrect because it is not in line with the behaviorist
perspective. The behaviorist perspective does not place emphasis on social interaction in language
learning.
D) Through emphasizing the meaning and functions of language: This option is incorrect because it is
more in line the Functionalist perspective, which places more emphasis the meaning and functions of
language, rather than its grammatical features.

15. The correct answer is c) Acquisition is a subconscious process, while learning is a conscious process.
Krashen's Monitor Model differentiates between acquisition and learn Acquisition is a subconscious
process that results from informal, natural communication between people where language is a means,
not a focus nor an end. On the other hand, learning is a conscious process of knowing about language
and being able to talk about it Language learning has traditionally involved grammar and vocabulary
learning.
Distractor explanation:
A) Acquisition is a conscious process, while learning is a subconscious process: This option incorrect
because it is the opposite of what Krashen's Monitor Model proposes. B. Acquisition occurs through
formal teaching of grammar, while learning occurs through informal, natural communication between
people: This option is incorrect because it is not line with Krashen's Monitor Model. It is the opposite of
what the model suggests. D) Acquisition and learning are interchangeable terms: This option is incorrect
because Krashen's Monitor Model makes a clear distinction between acquisition and learning, as
explained above.

16. Answer: c) The input hypothesis Explanation: The input hypothesis, as stated in the text, posits that
learners acquire grammatical features when exposed to them beyond their current level. Acquisition
begins with comprehensible input. The hypothesis suggests that language structures will be acquired
naturally if learners receive understandable input
Option a) is incorrect because the affective filter hypothesis focuses on the attitudes and motivation of
learners. Option b) is incorrect because the monitor hypothesis refers to the role of editing in language
performance. Option d) is incorrect because behaviorism is not mentioned in the text as a hypothesis
related to language learning.

17. Answer: c) The holistic approach

Explanation: The holistic approach, as stated in the text, emphasizes teaching students as a whole
person, including their thoughts, feelings, language abilities, and behavioral skills. This approach has
given birth to humanistic methodologies in language learning, which place a strong emphasis on the
cognitive and affective aspects of learning.
Option a) is incorrect because the cognitive approach places language analysis before language usage
and teacher instruction before student practice. Option b) is incorrect because the functional view of
language has led to communication-based approaches. Option d) is incorrect because the structuralism
approach is not mentioned in the text as an approach related to language acquisition.

18. Answer: c) Syntax

Explanation: Syntax, as stated in the text, is the study of the way phrases, clauses, and sentences are
constructed. It involves the description of rules, of positioning of elements in the sentence such as noun
phrases, verb phrases, adverbial phrases, etc. The purpose of these pieces in the sentence, or their
function, is also attempted to describe using syntax.
Option a) is incorrect because phonetics is the study of language at the level of sounds. Option b) is
incorrect because morphology is the study of word formation. Option d) is incorrect because semantics
addresses the degree of linguistic meaning and how words and sentences have meaning.

19. Correct answer: b) Velar

Explanation: The primary constriction between the tongue and the velum is called Velar. It
Includes the sounds/k/, /g/, and /n/.
Distractors:
A) Bilabial: The primary constriction in Bilabial is at the lips.
C) Alveolar: The primary constriction in Alveolar is between the tongue and the alveolar ridge.
D) Palatal: The primary constriction in Palatal is between the tongue and the palate.

20. Answer: d)
Explanation: This question assesses the examinee's ability to distinguish the Structure of
Coordination from other structures in syntax. The correct answer is D, which describes the
Structure of Predication. A and B describe the characteristics of the Structure of Coordination,
while C describes the function of a coordinating conjunction.