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4.4 Theory of computation

Status

4.4.1 Abstraction and automation

4.4.1.1 Problem-solving
Be able to develop solutions to simple logic problems.

Be able to check solutions to simple logic problems.

4.4.1.2 Following and writing algorithms

Understand the term algorithm.
A sequence of steps that can be followed to complete a task and that always
terminates.

Be able to express the solution to a simple problem as an algorithm using

pseudo-code, with the standard constructs:

sequence

assignment

selection

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 iteration

Be able to hand-trace algorithms.

Be able to convert an algorithm from pseudo-code into high level language

program code.

Be able to articulate how a program works, arguing for its correctness and its
efficiency using logical reasoning, test data and user feedback.

4.4.1.3 Abstraction
Be familiar with the concept of abstraction as used in computations and know
that:

representational abstraction is a representation arrived at by removing

unnecessary details

abstraction by generalisation or categorisation is a grouping by common

characteristics to arrive at a hierarchical relationship of the 'is a kind of' type.

4.4.1.4 Information hiding

Be familiar with the process of hiding all details of an object that do not contribute
to its essential characteristics.

4.4.1.5 Procedural abstraction

Know that procedural abstraction represents a computational method.
The result of abstracting away the actual values used in any particular
computation is a computational pattern or computational method - a procedure.

4.4.1.6 Functional abstraction

Know that for functional abstraction the particular computation method is hidden.
The result of a procedural abstraction is a procedure, not a function. To get a
function requires yet another abstraction, which disregards the particular
computation method. This is functional abstraction.

4.4.1.7 Data abstraction

Know that details of how data are actually represented are hidden, allowing new
kinds of data objects to be constructed from previously defined types of data objects.

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 ℹ Data abstraction is a methodology that enables us to isolate how a
compound data object is used from the details of how it is constructed.
For example, a stack could be implemented as an array and a pointer
for top of stack.

4.4.1.8 Problem abstraction/reduction

Know that details are removed until the problem is represented in a way that is
possible to solve, because the problem reduces to one that has already been solved.

4.4.1.9 Decomposition
Know that procedural decomposition means breaking a problem into a number of
sub-problems, so that each sub-problem accomplishes an identifiable task, which
might itself be further subdivided.

4.4.1.10 Composition
Know how to build a composition abstraction by combining procedures to form
compound procedures.

Know how to build data abstractions by combining data objects to form

compound data, for example tree data structure.

4.4.1.11 Automation
Understand that automation requires putting models (abstraction of real world
objects/phenomena) into action to solve problems. This is achieved by:

creating algorithms

implementing the algorithms in program code (instructions)

implementing the models in data structures

executing the code

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 ℹ Computer science is about building clean abstract models (abstractions) of
messy, noisy, real world objects or phenomena. Computer scientists have
to choose what to include in models and what to discard, to determine the
minimum amount of detail necessary to model in order to solve a given
problem to the required degree of accuracy.

Computer science deals with putting the models into action to solve
problems. This involves creating algorithms for performing actions on, and
with, the data that has been modelled.

4.4.2 Regular languages

4.4.2.1 Finite state machines (FSMs) with and without
output
Be able to draw and interpret simple state transition diagrams and state transition
tables for FSMs with no output and with output (Mealy machines only).

4.4.2.2 Maths for regular expressions

Be familiar with the concept of a set and the following notations for specifying a
set:

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

[and] set comprehension:

A = {x∣x ∈ N ∧ x ≥ 1}

where A is the set consisting of those objects x such that x ∈ N and x ≥ 1 is

true.

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 ℹ ∣ [a pipe] means such that]
x ∈ N means that x is a member of the set N consisting of the natural
numbers, ie {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …}.

The symbol ∧ means AND.

The term ∧ x > = 1 means AND x is greater than or equal to 1.
In Python, {2 ∗ x for x in {1, 2, 3 }} constructs {2, 4, 6} .
This is said to be a set comprehension over the set {1, 2, 3} .

Know that the empty set, {}, is the set with no elements.

Know that an alternative symbol for the empty set is Ø (or the LaTeX version)
∅.
A set is an unordered collection of values in which each value occurs at most
once.

Several languages support set construction.

In Python, for example, use of curly braces constructs a set:

{1, 2, 3}

Be familiar with the compact representation of a set, for example, the set
{0 1 ∣n ≥ 1}. This set contains all strings with an equal number of 0 s and 1s.
n n

ℹ For example:
{0n 1n ∣n ≥ 1} = {01, 0011, 000111, 00001111, …}

Be familiar with the concept of:

finite sets

infinite sets

countably infinite sets

cardinality of a finite set

Cartesian product of sets

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 ℹ A finite set is one whose elements can be counted off by natural
numbers up to a particular number, for example as:

1st element, 2nd element, …, 20th (and final) element.

The set of natural numbers, N and the set of real numbers, R are
examples of infinite sets.

A countably infinite set is one that can be counted off by the natural
numbers.

The set of real numbers is not countable. The cardinality of a finite set
is the number of elements in a set. Cartesian product of two sets, X
and Y , written X × Y and read 'X cross Y', is the set of all ordered
pairs (a, b) where a is a member of A and b is a member of B.

Be familiar with the meaning of the term:

subset

proper subset

countable set

Be familiar with the set operations:

membership

union

intersection

difference

ℹ The set difference A\B (or alternatively A − B) is defined by A\B =

{x : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}

4.4.2.3 Regular expressions

Know that a regular expression is simply a way of describing a set and that
regular expressions allow particular types of languages to be described in a
convenient shorthand notation.

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 ℹ For example, the regular expression a(a∣b)∗ generates the set of
strings {a, aa, ab, aaa, aab, aba, …}.

Students should be familiar with the metacharacters:

∗ - (0 or more repetitions)
+ - (1 or more repetitions)
? - (0 or 1 repetitions, ie optional)
∣ - (alternation, i.e. or)

() - to group regular expressions

❗ Any other metacharacters used in an exam question will be explained

as part of the question.

Be able to describe the relationship between regular expressions and FSMs.

Regular expressions and FSMs are equivalent ways of defining a regular

language.

Be able to write a regular expression to recognise the same language as a given

FSM and vice versa.

❗ A student's ability to write very simple regular expressions and FSMs

will be assessed.

4.4.2.3 Regular language

Know that a language is called regular if it can be represented by a regular
expression.

Also, a regular language is any language that a FSM will accept.

4.4.3 Context-free languages

4.4.3.1 Backus-Naur Form (BNF)/syntax diagrams

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 Be able to check language syntax by referring to BNF or syntax diagrams and
formulate simple production rules.

Be able to explain why BNF can represent some languages that cannot be
represented using regular expressions.

4.4.4 Classification of algorithms

4.4.4.1 Comparing algorithms
Understand that algorithms can be compared by expressing their complexity as a
function relative to the size of the problem. Understand that the size of the problem is
the key issue.

Understand that some algorithms are more efficient:

time-wise than other algorithms

space-wise than other algorithms

Efficiently implementing automated abstractions means designing data models

and algorithms to run quickly while taking up the minimal amount of resources such
as memory.

4.4.4.2 Maths for understanding Big-0 notation

Be familiar with the mathematical concept of a function as a mapping from one
set of values, the domain, to another set of values, drawn from the co-domain, for
example N → N.
Be familiar with the concept of:

a linear function, for example y = 2x

a polynomial function, for example y = 2x2
an exponential function, for example y = 2x
a logarithmic function, for example y = log 10 x
Be familiar with the notion of permutation of a set of objects or values, for
example, the letters of a word and that the number of permutations of n distinct
objects is n factorial (n!).

n! is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to n.

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 4.4.4.3 Order of complexity
Be familiar with Big-O notation to express time complexity and be able to apply it
to cases where the running time requirements of the algorithm grow in:

constant time

logarithmic time

linear time

polynomial time

exponential time

4.4.4.4 Limits of computation

Be aware that algorithmic complexity and hardware impose limits on what can be
computed.

4.4.4.5 Classification of algorithmic problems

Know that algorithms may be classified as being either:

tractable - problems that have a polynomial (or less) time solution are called
tractable problems.

intractable - problems that have no polynomial (or less) time solution are
called intractable problems.

ℹ Heuristic methods are often used when tackling intractable problems.

4.4.4.6 Computable and non-computable problems

Be aware that some problems cannot be solved algorithmically.

4.4.4.7 Halting problem

Describe the Halting problem (but not prove it), that is the unsolvable problem of
determining whether any program will eventually stop if given particular input.

Understand the significance of the Halting problem for computation.

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 ℹ The Halting problem demonstrates that there are some problems that
cannot be solved by a computer.

4.4.5 A model of computation

4.4.5.1 Turing machine
Be familiar with the structure and use of Turing machines that perform simple
computations.

Know that a Turing machine can be viewed as a computer with a single fixed
program, expressed using:

a finite set of states in a state transition diagram

a finite alphabet of symbols

an infinite tape with marked-off squares

a sensing read-write head that can travel along the tape, one square at a time

One of the states is called a start state and states that have no outgoing
transitions are called halting states.

❗ Exam questions will only be asked about Turing machines that have one
tape that is infinite in one direction.

Understand the equivalence between a transition function and a state transition

diagram.

Be able to:

represent transition rules using a transition function

represent transition rules using a state transition diagram

hand-trace simple Turing machines

Be able to explain the importance of Turing machines and the Universal Turing
machine to the subject of computation.

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 ℹ Turing machines provide a (general/formal) model of computation and
provide a definition of what is computable.

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