1 Introduction to Sonar

History of Sonar

“If you cause your ship to stop, and place the head of a long tube in the
water and place the outer extremity to your ear you will hear ships at a
great distance from you”
— Leonardo da Vinci, 1490.

1. “. . . ship to stop” −⇒ reduce self-noise

2. “. . . tube in water” −⇒ transducer
3. “. . . to your ear” −⇒ receiver
4. “. . . will hear ships” −⇒ detection
5. “. . . at a great distance” −⇒ low attenuation

1687 Issac Newton: first theoretical prediction of sound speed

ρπ 1
� 2
ρp c
1847 Culladon and Sturm:
• first accurate measurement of speed of sound in water
• light flash/underwater bell

1900 Submarine Signal Company: first commerical application.

• range from ship to lighthouse
• simulataneous sounding of underwater bell and foghorn

1914 Fessendon: first active sonar system (detect iceberg 2 miles)

World War I: experiments.

• passive sonar operational equipment
• active sonar experiments
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR 2

Passive Sonar Equation

NL

DI

TL
DT

range absorption SL

SL − T L − (N L − DI) = DT

Active Sonar Equation

SL RL
Iceberg
* TL
TS
NL
DI

DT

N L − DI
SL − 2T L + T S − ( ) = DT
RL
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR 3

Tomography
NL

SL DT
* DI USA
TL

Hawaii

SL − T L − (N L − DI) = DT

Parameter definitions:

• SL = Source Level
• TL = Transmission Loss
• NL = Noise Level
• DI = Directivity Index
• RL = Reverberation Level
• TS = Target Strength
• DT = Detection Threshold
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR 4

Reverberation vs. Noise-limited Range

• Active Sonar
• Range independent noise vs. range dependent reverberation
• Define Echo Level: EL = SL − 2TL + TS

Echo Level
Level
(dB)

Reverberation
Level

Noise Level

reverberation Range (time)

limited range

Echo Level
Level
(dB)

Reverberation
Noise Level Level

noise Range (time)

limited range
1 INTRODUCTION TO SONAR 5

Definition of sound intensity

dB = decibel (after Alexander Graham Bell)

For acoustics:
I
dB = 10 log10
Iref
2 ARRAYS 6

2 Arrays

Summary of array formulas

Source Level
2
• SL = 10 log I I = 10 log pp2 (general)
ref ref
• SL = 171 + 10 log P (omni)
• SL = 171 + 10 log P + DI (directional)

Directivity Index
• DI = 10 log( IID ) (general)
O

ID = directional intensity (measured at center of beam)

IO = omnidirectional intensity
(same source power radiated equally in all directions)
• DI = 10 log( 2�L ) (line array)
• DI = 10 log(( ��D )2) = 20 log( ��D ) (disc array)
4�L L
• DI = 10 log( �x2 y ) (rect. array)

3-dB Beamwidth α3dB

• α3dB = ± 25.3�
L deg. (line array)
• α3dB = ± 29.5�
D deg. (disc array)
• α3dB = ± 25.3�
Lx , ± 25.3�
Ly deg. (rect. array)
 2 ARRAYS 7

f = 12 kHz D = 0.25 m beamwidth = +−14.65 deg

−20
−40
Source level normalized to on−axis response

−60
−80
−90 −60 −30 0 30 60 90
theta (degrees)
f = 12 kHz D = 0.5 m beamwidth = +−7.325 deg

−20
−40
−60
−80
−90 −60 −30 0 30 60 90
theta (degrees)
f = 12 kHz D = 1 m beamwidth = +−3.663 deg

−20
−40
−60
−80
−90 −60 −30 0 30 60 90
theta (degrees)

This figure shows the beam pattern for a circular transducer for D/� equal
to 2, 4, and 8. Note that the beampattern gets narrower as the diameter is
increased.
2 ARRAYS 8

comparison of 2*J1(x)/x and sinc(x) for f=12kHz and D=0.5m

0

sinc(x)
−10
2*J1(x)/x
Source level normalized to on−axis response

−20

−30

−40

−50

−60

−70

−80
−90 −60 −30 0 30 60 90
theta (degrees)

This figure compares the response of a line array and a circular disc
transducer. For the line array, the beam pattern is:
⎣2
sin( 12 kL sin α) ⎤
�

b(α) = �
1
2 kL sin α

whereas for the disc array, the beam pattern is

⎣2
2J1 ( 12 kD sin α) ⎤
�

b(α) = �
1
2 kD sin α

where J1 (x) is the Bessel function of the first kind. For the line array, the
height of the first side-lobe is 13 dB less than the peak of the main lobe.
For the disc, the height of the first side-lobe is 17 dB less than the peak of
the main lobe.
2 ARRAYS 9

Line Array
z
�

L/2 �

l
�



dz 
�
r
α
θ
�

A/L �

x
�

−L/2 �

Problem geometry

Our goal is to compute the acoustic field at the point (r, λ) in the far field of a uniform
line array of intensity A/L. First, let’s find an expression for l in terms of r and λ. From
the law of cosines, we can write:
l2 = r2 + z 2 − 2rz cos �.
If we factor out r 2 from the left hand side, and substitute sin λ for cos �, we get:
z2
⎝ �
2 2 2z
l =r 1− sin λ + 2
r r
and take the square root of each side we get:
�1
z2
⎝
2z 2
l =r 1− sin λ + 2
r r
We can simplify the square root making use of the fact:
p(p − 1) p(p − 1)(p − 2)
(1 + x)p = 1 + px + + + ···
2! 3!
and keeping only the first term for p = 12 :
1 1
(1 + x) 2 �
=1+ x
2
Applying this to the above expression yields:
z2
⎝ �
1 2z
l�
= r 1 + (− sin λ + 2 )
2 r r
2 ARRAYS 10

z2
Finally, making the assuming that z << r, we can drop the term r2
to get
l�
= r − z sin λ

Field calculation

For an element of length dz at position z, the amplitude at the field position (r, λ) is:
A 1 −i(kl−λt)
dp = e dz
Ll
We obtain the total pressure at the field point (r, λ) due to the line array by integrating:
A � L/2 1 −i(kl−λt)
p= e dz
L −L/2 l
but l �
= r − z sin λ, so we can write:
A −i(kr−λt) � L/2 1
p= e eikz sin � dz
L −L/2 r − z sin λ
1
Since we are assuming we are in the far field, r >> z sin λ, so we can replace r−z sin �
with
1
r
and move it outside the integral:
A −i(kr−λt) � L/2 ikz sin �
p= e e dz
rL −L/2

Next, we evaluate the integral:

�L/2
A −i(kr−λt) eikz sin �
⎝
p= e
rL ik sin λ −L/2
� 1 1
⎣
A −i(kr−λt) � e 2 ikL sin � − e− 2 ikL sin � ⎤
p= e
rL ik sin λ
1
Next move the term L
into the square brackets:
� 1 1
⎣
A e 2 ikL sin � − e− 2 ikL sin � ⎤
p = e−i(kr−λt) �
r ikL sin λ
eix −e−ix
and, using the fact that sin(x) = 2i
, we can write:
A −i(kr−λt) sin( 12 kL sin λ)
⎝ �
p= e 1
r 2
kL sin λ
which is the pressure at (r, λ) due to the line array. The square of the term in brackets is
defined as the beam pattern b(λ) of the array:
�2
sin( 12 kL sin λ)
⎝
b(λ) = 1
2
kL sin λ
2 ARRAYS 11

Steered Line Array

Recall importance of phase:
• Spatial phase: kz sin λ = 2�� z sin λ
• Temporal phase: πt = 2T� ; T = f1

L/2
r

θ
θ0
A/L
x

-L/2

k sin λ = vertical wavenumber

k sin λ0 = vertical wavenumber reference

To make a steered line array, we apply a linear phase shift −zk sin λ0 to the excitation of
the array:

A/L iz(k sin �−k sin �0 ) iλt

dp = e e dz (1)
r
We can write
sin λ0
zk sin λ0 = πz
c
z sin λ0
zk sin λ0 = πT0 (z) ; T0 (z) =
c
The phase term is equivalent to a time delay T0 (z) that varies with position along the line
array. We can re-write the phase term as follows.

eiz(k sin �−k sin �0 ) eiλt = eikz sin � e−iλ(t+T0 (z))

integrating Equation 1 yields:

sin( k2L [sin λ − sin λ0 ])

⎝ �
A
p = e−i(kr−λt)
r ( k2L [sin λ − sin λ0 ])
The resulting beam pattern is a shifted version of the beampattern of the unsteered line
array. The center of the main lobe of the response occurs at λ = λ0 instead of λ = 0.
 2 ARRAYS 12

steered and unsteered line array (theta_0 = 20 deg)

0

−10
Source level normalized to on−axis response

−20

−30

−40

−50

−60

unsteered beam
−70
steered beam

−80
−90 −60 −30 0 30 60 90 120
theta (degrees)

This plot shows the steered line array beam pattern

⎣2
sin( kL
�
2 [sin α − sin α0 ]) ⎤
b(α) = �
( kL
2 [sin α − sin α0 ])

for α0 = 0 and α0 = 20 degrees.

2 ARRAYS 13

Example 1: Acoustic Bathymetry

�

�

2θ3dB

D = 0.5 m

Given: Compute:
• f = 12 kHz • �=
• Baffled disc transducer • DI =
• D = 0.5 m • SL =
• Acoustic power P = 2.4 W • α3dB =

Spatial resolution, τ Depth resolution, λ

2d
τ = 2d tan α3dB TF = c (earliest arrival time)
2r
=d · TL = c (latest arrival time)
λ = (TL − TF ) · c/2
= d( cos 1λ3dB − 1)
=d·
For d = 2 km

τ=
λ =
2 ARRAYS 14

Example 2: SeaBeam Swath Bathymetry

Transmit: 5 meter unsteered line array (along ship axis)

�
�

2 degrees

90 degrees

Receive array: 5 meter steered line array (athwartships)

  

 
 returns received

only from +− 2 degrees

2 degrees

No returns No returns

Net beam (plan view)

Ship’s Ship’s
Track Track

One beam,
2 by 2 degrees 100 beams, 2 by 2 degrees
(without steering) (with steering)
3 PROPAGATION PART I: SPREADING AND ABSORPTION 15

3 Propagation Part I: spreading and absorption

Table of values for absorption coefficent (alpha)

13.00 Fall, 1999 Acoustics: Table of attentuation coefficients

frequency [Hz] alpha [dB/km] frequency [Hz] alpha [dB/km]

1 0.003 50000 15.9
10 0.003 60000 19.8
100 0.004 70000 23.2
200 0.007 80000 26.2
300 0.012 90000 28.9
400 0.018 100000 (100 kHz) 31.2
500 0.026 200000 47.4
600 0.033 300000 63.1
700 0.041 400000 83.1
800 0.048 500000 108
900 0.056 600000 139
1000 (1kHz) 0.063 700000 174
2000 0.12 800000 216
3000 0.18 900000 264
4000 0.26 1000000 (1 MHz) 315
5000 0.35 2000000 1140
6000 0.46 3000000 2520
7000 0.59 4000000 4440
8000 0.73 5000000 6920
9000 0.90 6000000 9940
10000 (10 kHz) 1.08 7000000 13520
20000 3.78 8000000 17640
30000 7.55 9000000 22320
40000 11.8 10000000 (10 MHz) 27540
3 PROPAGATION PART I: SPREADING AND ABSORPTION 16

Absorption of sound in sea water (from 13.851 class notes).

3 PROPAGATION PART I: SPREADING AND ABSORPTION 17

Absorption of sound in sea water

Relaxation mechanism
(conversion of acoustic energy to heat)

Four mechanisms

• shear viscosity (θ � 10−12 sec)

• structural viscosity (θ � 10−12 sec)
• magnesium sulfate — MgSO4 (θ � 10−6 sec) [1.35 ppt]
• boric acid (θ � 10−4 sec) [4.6 ppm]

Relaxation time, θ
• if σθ << 1, then little loss.
• if σθ � 1 or greater, then generating heat (driving the fluid too fast).

The attenuation coefficient � depends on temperature, salinity, pressure

and pH. The following formula for � in dB/km applies at T=4� C, S=35
ppt, pH = 8.0, and depth = 1000 m. (Urick page 108).

−3 0.1f 2 44f 2
� � 3.0 × 10 + 2
+ 2
+ 2.75 × 10−4 f 2
1+f 4100 + f
 3 PROPAGATION PART I: SPREADING AND ABSORPTION 18

Solving for range given transition loss TL

The equation
20 log r + 10−3 �r = T L
cannot be solved analytically. If absorption and spreading losses are
comparable in magnitude, you have three options:
• In a ”back-of-the-envelope” sonar design, one can obtain an initial
estimate for the range by first ignoring absorption, then plugging in
numbers with absorption until you get an answer that is “close
enough”.
• For a more systematic procedure, one can do Newton-Raphson
iteration (either by hand or with a little computer program), using
the range without absorption as the initial guess.
• Another good strategy (and a good way to check your results) is to
make a plot of TL vs. range with a computer program (e.g., Matlab).

Newton-Raphson method: (Numerical recipes in C, page 362)

f (xi )
xi+1 = xi −
f � (xi )
To solve for range given TL, we have:
f (xi ) = T L − 20 log xi − 10−3 �xi
20
f � (xi ) = − − 10−3 �
r

�= TL = x0 =

f (xi )
i xi 20 log xi 0.001�xi f (xi ) f � (xi ) f (xi )/f � (xi ) xi+1 = xi − f � (xi )
0
1
2
3
4
3 PROPAGATION PART I: SPREADING AND ABSORPTION 19

Example 1: whale tracking

L = 2 km

Passive sonar equation:

Given:
• f0 = 250 Hz
• P = 1 Watt (omni) • DT = 15 dB

• line array: L = 2 km • NL = 70 dB

Question: How far away can we hear the whale?

TL = =
�=
DI =
SL =

TL = 20 log r + � ≈ r ≈ 10−3 =
�=
8680
Rt = �
=

r= (w/o absorption) r= (with absorption)

 3 PROPAGATION PART I: SPREADING AND ABSORPTION 20

TL vs range for alpha=0.003 dB/km, f=250 Hz

140

120

100
TL (dB)

80

60

40
100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
range (m)

Figure 1: TL vs. range for whale tracking example (f=250 Hz, � = 0.003 dB/km).

f (xi ) = T L − 20 log xi − 10−3 �xi =

20
f � (xi ) = − − 10−3 � =
r

�= TL = x0 =

f (xi )
i xi 20 log xi 0.001�xi f (xi ) f � (xi ) f (xi )/f � (xi ) xi+1 = xi − f � (xi )
0 500,000 114 1.5 -1.5 −3.7 × 10−5 40540 459500
1 459,500 13.2 1.38 -0.6 −4.05 × 10−5 14805 444694
2 445,000 112.96 1.34 -0.3
3
4
3 PROPAGATION PART I: SPREADING AND ABSORPTION 21

Example 2: dolphin tracking

L = 1 m

Passive sonar equation:

Given:
• f0 = 125 kHz
• SL 220 dB re 1 µ Pa at 1 meter • DT = 15 dB

• line array: L = 1 m • NL = 70 dB

Question: How far away can we hear (detect) the dolphin?

TL = =
�=
DI =

TL = 20 log r + � ≈ r ≈ 10−3 =

�=
8680
Rt = � =

r= (w/o absorption) r= (with absorption)

r= (w/o spreading)

f (xi ) = T L − 20 log xi − 10−3 �xi =

 3 PROPAGATION PART I: SPREADING AND ABSORPTION 22

TL vs range for alpha=30 dB/km, f=125 kHz

400

350

300

250
TL (dB)

200

150

100

50

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
range (m)

Figure 2: TL vs. range for dolphin tracking example (f=125 kHz, � = 30 dB/km).

20
f � (xi ) = − − 10−3 � =
r

�= TL = x0 =

f (xi )
i xi 20 log xi 0.001�xi f (xi ) f � (xi ) f (xi )/f � (xi ) xi+1 = xi − f � (xi )
0 5000 74 150 -67 -0.034 1970 3030
1 3030 69.6 90.9 -3.5 -0.037 95 2935
2 2935 69.35 88.05 -0.4 -0.368 10.9 2925
3 2925
4
4 PROPAGATION PART II: REFRACTION 23

4 Propagation Part II: refraction

In general, the sound speed c is determined by a complex relationship

between salinity, temperature, and pressure:
c = f (S, T, D)
Medwin’s formula is a useful approximation for c in seawater:
c = 1449.2 + 4.6T − 0.055T 2 + 0.00029T 3
+(1.34 − 0.010T )(S − 35) + 0.016D
where S is the salinity in parts per thousand (ppt), T is the temperature in
degrees Celsius, and D is the depth in meters. (See Ogilvie, Appendix A.)

Partial derivatives:
ρc ρc ρc
= 4.6 m/sec/C� = 1.34 m/sec/ppt = 0.016 m/sec/m
ρT ρS ρD
For example:
• �T = 25� =� �c = 115 m/sec
• �S = 5 ppt =� �c = 6.5 m/sec
• �D = 6000 m =� �c = 96 m/sec

sound speed c
D S T c

depth

z
4 PROPAGATION PART II: REFRACTION 24

Sound across an interface

p
�
�
�
�
r y

�
�
�
�
�
�
θ1 �
� p
�
� t

�
� θ2
k1 = ω/c1 �
� k2 = ω/c2
θ1 �
� x
�
�
�
�
ρ , c1�
�
1 �
� ρ , c2
2
�
�
p
i
�
�
1

p1 = pi + pr = Ie−i(k1 x cos λ1 +k1 y sin λ1 ) + Re−i(−k1 x cos λ1 +k1 y sin λ1 )

p2 = pt = T e−i(k2 x cos λ2 +k2 y sin λ2 )

At x = 0, we require that p1 = p2 (continuity of pressure)

(I + R)e−ik1 y sin λ1 = T e−ik2 y sin λ2

Match the phase to get Snell’s law:
sin α1 sin α2
=
c1 c2
4 PROPAGATION PART II: REFRACTION 25

If c2 > c1 , then α2 > α1

p
t

θ2
t

x
θ1

p
i
c1 c2
If c2 < c1 , then α2 < α1

p
t
θ2
x
θ1

p
i
c1 c2

Sound bends towards region with low velocity

Sound bends away from region with high velocity
4 PROPAGATION PART II: REFRACTION 26

c x

z z
Linear sound Radius of curvature R is constant
speed profile� (arc of a circle)

Goal: prove that the radius of curvature R is constant for a linear sound
speed gradient.

Use the following:

1. Snell’s law: sinc λ = constant = δ or c = sinα λ
(δ is the horizontal slowness or ray parameter)
dS
2. radius of curvature: R = dλ
dc
3. gradient: g = dz
4. dz = dS cos α
dx

dS
θ
dz�

First use Equation 4 in Equation 2:

dS dz 1
R= = ·
dα dα cos α
dz dc 1
R= ·
dc dα cos α
dz
Then use Equation 3 for dc :
1 dc
R= ·
g cos α dα
4 PROPAGATION PART II: REFRACTION 27

but from Equation 1 we can write:

dc cos α
=
dα δ
and so we can write:
1
R=
gδ
Hence, for linear sound speed gradient, radius of curvature is constant.

=� ray paths are arcs of a circle

c x�

z z�

For gradient g > 0, upward refraction occurs.

c x�

z� z

For gradient g < 0, downward refraction occurs.

4 PROPAGATION PART II: REFRACTION 28

Other forms for R

sin λ
Since c� = δ = constant for a ray, we can choose any known value.

sin λ
For example, choose c� at the turning point z = zt .
x

z�
t
θ t = π/2
z�

� sin α(zt ) 1
At α = =� = =δ
2 c(zt ) c(zt )

Then:
c(zt )
R=
g
But
c(zt ) = c(z0 ) + g(zt − z0 )

So we can write:
c(z0 )
R= + (zt − z0 )
g
for z0 any given depth.
4 PROPAGATION PART II: REFRACTION 29

Example 1: Arctic propagation

1440 m/s Xc
c x

g=0.016
θ

4000 m
z 1504 m/s z
θ t = π/2

At zt = 4000 m, αt = �/2, c(zt ) = 1504 m/s.

c(zt )
Then radius of curvature R = g =

What is range to first turning point, Xc ?

R−z
�
AB = 2 2Rz − z 2
R R
R−z
A
S = 2R cos−1 ( )
B R
z

Distance Xc is the chord:

�
Xc = 2 2Rz − z 2 =

Arc length S is the distance traveled by the ray:

R−z
⎦ ⎛
−1
S = 2R cos =
R
 4 PROPAGATION PART II: REFRACTION 30

What is the launch angle α(z0 ) for this ray?

sin(α(z0 )) 1
=
c(z0 ) c(zt )
⎨ �
−1 ⎩ c(z0 ) ⎡
α(z0 ) = sin =
c(zt )

Example 2: Bi-linear duct

1490 m/s 1540 m/s DU DL

c
x
θ
g=−0.05
z=1000m za

g=0.015

zt z t =4333 m

z=5000m
z 1550 m/s sea bottom

Upper:
c(zt )
RU = =
g
�
DU = 2 2RU za − za2 =
Lower:
c(zt )
Rl = =
g
c(za )
zt = RL − + za =
g
�
DL = 2 2RL (zt − za ) − (zt − za )2 =
5 REFLECTION AND TARGET STRENGTH 31

5 Reflection and target strength

Interface reflection
1

y
p
i p
r
θ1 θ1

ρ c
� �
1 �
1
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

ρ c
x
2 2
θ2
p
t

pi = Ieiπte−i(k1x sin λ1−k1 y cos λ1)

pr = Reiπte−i(k1x sin λ1+k1y cos λ1)

pt = T eiπte−i(k2x sin λ2−k2y cos λ2)

5 REFLECTION AND TARGET STRENGTH 32

Boundary condition 1: continuity of pressure:

@ y=0 p 1 = pi + pr = pt = p2

Boundary condition 2: continuity of normal particle velocity:

@ y=0 v 1 = vi + vr = vt = v2

Momentum equation
φv 1 φp
=− ·
φt π φy
φv
but = iτv (since v ≡ eiπt )
φt
i φp
=� v =
τπ φy

Continuity of pressure:
pi |y=0 + pr |y=0 = pt |y=0
(I + R)e−ik1x sin λ1 = T e−ik2x sin λ2
sin λ sin λ
−iπx c 1 −iπx c 2
(I + R)e 1 = Te 2

And so using Snell’s law, we can write:

I +R=T (2)

Continuity of normal velocity:

i cos α1
vi = · ik1 cos α1pi = − pi
τπ1 π1 c 1
5 REFLECTION AND TARGET STRENGTH 33

cos α1
vr = pr
π1 c 1
cos α2
vt = − pt
π2 c 2
vi |y=0 + vr |y=0 = vt |y=0

π2c2 cos(α1)(I − R) = π1c1 cos(α2)T (3)

5 REFLECTION AND TARGET STRENGTH 34

We can solve Equations 1 and 2 to get the reflection and

transmission coeficients R and T :

R π2c2 cos α1 − π1c1 cos α2

R= =
I π2c2 cos α1 + π1c1 cos α2
T 2π2c2 cos α1
T = =
I π2c2 cos α1 + π1c1 cos α2
Recall that given α1, we can compute α2 with Snell’s law:

sin α1 sin α2
=
c1 c2

Special case: α = 0 (normal incidence)

π2 c 2 − π 1 c 1 Z2 − Z 1
R= �
π2 c 2 + π 1 c 1 Z2 + Z 1
2π2c2 2Z2
T = �
π2 c 2 + π 1 c 1 Z2 + Z 1

where Z = πc is defined as the acoustic impedance.

5 REFLECTION AND TARGET STRENGTH 35

Example 1: source in water

y p
t

θ2

�
Air
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

x
Water
θ1 θ1

p
i p
r

πa = 1.2 kg/m3, ca = 340 m/sec =� Za = 408 kg/m2 s

πw = 1000 kg/m3 , cw = 1500 m/sec =� Zw = 1.5 × 106 kg/m2s

408 cos α1 − 1.5 × 106 cos α2

R= � −1
408 cos α1 + 1.5 × 106 cos α2

T = 1 + R � 0 (no sound in air)

5 REFLECTION AND TARGET STRENGTH 36

Example 2: source in air

y
p
i p
r
θ1 θ1

�
Air
� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

x
Water
θ2
p
t

1.5 × 106 cos α1 − 408 cos α2

R= � +1
1.5 × 106 cos α1 + 408 cos α2

T = 1 + R � 2 (double sound in water!)

Does this satisfy your intuition?

Consider intensity:
p2a p2a
Ia = =
πaca 408

p2w 4p2a 4p2a p2a

Iw = = = =
πw c w πw c w 1.5 × 106 3.75 × 105
5 REFLECTION AND TARGET STRENGTH 37

1
=� Iw � Ia
1000
Does this satisfy your intuition?
5 REFLECTION AND TARGET STRENGTH 38

Target Strength
Assumptions:
• large targets (relative to wavelength)
• plane wave source
– no angular variation in beam at target
– curvature of wavefront is zero
Example: rigid or soft sphere
Iscat
TS = 10 log |
Iinc r=rref

r
0

p2�
Iinc =�
πc
Pinc = �r02Iinc
Assume Pscat = Pinc (omnidirectional scattering)�
Pscat �r02Iinc
Iscat =� 2�=�
4�r 4�r2�
For r = rref = 1 meter:
r02
TS = 10 log (Assuming r0 >> �)
4
If r0 = 2 meters, then TS = 0 dB
6 DESIGN PROBLEM: TRACKING NEUTRALLY BUOYANT FLOATS 39

6 Design problem: tracking neutrally buoyant floats

Sonar design problem

2r0 = 25 cm

Require:
• Track to ± 3∗ bearing
• Range error: λ ± 10 meters
• Maximum range: R = 10 km
• Active sonar with DT = 15 dB
• sonar and float at sound channel axis
• baffled line array (source and receiver)
• Noise from sea surface waves (design for Sea State 6)
6 DESIGN PROBLEM: TRACKING NEUTRALLY BUOYANT FLOATS 40

receiver DI: DIR =

pulse length: θ =

array length: L=

source level: SL =

noise level: NL =

transmission loss: TL =

wavelength: �=

source DI: DIT =

time-of-flight: T =

ping interval: Tp =

frequency: f =

target strength: TS =

range resolution: λ=

acoustic power: P=

average acoustic power: P =

7 REVERBERATION 41

7 Reverberation

Surface reverberation

Side View Plan View

�

�
����
* I0
�



� ����
dφ �
��
r

*
Irev
Iinc
Iscat dΑ

dΑ dΑ = (1/2)cτ rdφ

� 1 Iscat 1 ≤
Irev = I · b(α, δ) ·
A 0
· · · b (α, δ)dA
r2 Iinc r2
I
Define the ratio Iscat as ss
inc
I0 �
Irev = 4 ss A b(α, δ)b≤ (α, δ)dA
r
From figure:
cθ
dA =
rdδ
2
consider only beampatterns of the form:
1 , |δ| ⇒ �/2
⎞

b(0, δ) = b≤(0, δ) = ⎧
⎠

0 , |δ| > �/2

I0 cθ
Irev = ss r�
r4 2
7 REVERBERATION 42

cα
Define A as the insonified area 2 r�. Take logs to define the
reverberation level RLs:
RLs = SL − 40 log r + Ss + 10 log A (No absorption)
7 REVERBERATION 43

Example: 100 kHz side-scan sonar

• f = 100 kHz (� = 30 db/km)
• α3dB−H = 0.5∗
• α3dB−V = 30∗
• SL = 201 dB re 1 µ Pa @ 1 meter (rectangular array)
• DT = 15 dB
• NL = 35 dB
• θ = 0.1 ×10−3 sec
Sonar equation:
S + 10 log A ⎡
⎨ �

SE = SL − 2TL − (NL − DIr ) + ⎩ s − DT

TS
How much signal excess for rock bottom vs clay bottom at 300
meter range?
•�=
• Lx =
• Ly =
• DIR =
• 2 TL =
• 10 log A =
Rock: Ss = -20 dB =� SE =
Clay: Ss = -40 dB =� SE =
7 REVERBERATION 44

Compare the echo level of a steel drum to the reverberation

level of rocks and clay at 300 m.
• EL = SL - 2TL + TS
• RL = SL - 2TL + SS + 10 log A
2
Drum is finite cylinder =� TS = 10 log aL
2� =

a a = 0.45 m

L = 1.5 m

EL =
RL |rocks =
RL |clay =

What if drum is in a boulder field with boulders of diameter 2

meters? (assume spherical boulders)

2
TS|boulder = 10 log r4 =
EL |drum - EL|boulder =
7 REVERBERATION 45

Side scan sonar analysis

Slant range correction:

Rs
Hf
� ��
�


�
�
�
��
�
��
Target

Rh

�
By Pythagorus: Rh = Rs2 − Hf2

Object height:

Rs






Hf Target
Ht
 Ls



Rh

Ls H f
By similar triangles: Ht =
Rs + L s
7 REVERBERATION 46

*
2θ
3dB−V
RSmin RSmax
H
θ1
θ2

R
Hmin
RHmax

Side view of sidescan geometry.

Tow direction

R Hmax
R Hmin

Xmin
D
Xmin Xmax
2θ3dB−H

Plan view of sidescan geometry.

7 REVERBERATION 47

Summary of variable definitions for side-scan sonar.�

• λ1 is the angle from the vertical to the near edge of the fan beam in the vertical
plane.
• λ2 is the angle from the vertical to the far edge of the fan beam in the vertical plane.
λ2 = λ1 + 2 � λ3dB-V

• RSmax is the maximum slant range.

RSmax = H/ cos(λ2 )

• RSmin is the minimum slant range.

RSmin = H/ cos(λ1 )

• RHmax is the maximum horizontal range.

RHmax = H tan(λ2 )

• RHmin is the minimum horizontal range.

RHmin = H tan(λ1 )

• Xmax is the along-track resolution at maximum range.

Xmax = 2RHmax � tan λ3dB-H

• Xmin is the along-track resolution at minimum range

Xmin = 2RHmin � tan λ3dB-H

• Tf is the time-of-flight, which is the time required for the sonar ping to travel to
maximum range and back.
Tf = 2 � RSmax /c

• Tp is the pulse repetition interval, which is the time between pings. To avoid overlap
of echos from one ping to the next:

Tp ∼ T f

• v is the velocity of the towfish.

• D is the distance traveled by the sonar towfish during one ping cycle. To avoid gaps
in the sonar coverage:

D = v � Tp � Xmin
8 NOISE 48

8 Noise

Noise levels in the deep ocean (from Urick).�

8 NOISE 49

Sources of noise in the ocean (from Urick).

8 NOISE 50

Five bands of noise:

I. f < 1 Hz: hydrostatic, seismic

II. 1 < f < 20 Hz: oceanic turbulence
III. 20 < f < 500 Hz: shipping
IV. 500 Hz < f < 50 KHz: surface waves
V. 50 kHz < f : thermal noise

Band I: f < 1 Hz

• Tides f � 2 cycles/day
p = πgH � 104 · H Pa
noise level: NL = 200dB re 1 µPa − 20 log H
example: 1 meter tide =� NL = 200 dB re 1 µPa
1
• microseisms f � 7 Hz
On land, displacements are
ρ � 10−6meters

Assume harmonic motion

dρ
ρ ≡ eiπt =� v = = iτρ
dt
Noise power due to microseisms
p = πcv = iτπcρ = i2�f πcρ
|p| = 2�f πcρ = 1.4P a =� NL = 123 dB re 1 µPa
8 NOISE 51

Band II: Oceanic turbulence 1 Hz < f < 20 Hz

Possible mechanisms:

• hydrophone self-noise (spurious)

• internal waves
• upwelling

Band III: Shipping 20 Hz < f < 500 Hz

Example: � 1100 ships in the North Atlantic

assume 25 Watts acoustic power each
SL = 171 + 10 log P = 215 dB re 1 µPa at 1 meter

Mechanisms

• Internal machinery noise (strong)

• Propeller cavitation (strong)
• Turbulence from wake (weak)
8 NOISE 52

Band IV: surface waves 500 Hz < f < 50 KHz

• Observations show NL is a function of local wind speed

(sea state)
• Possible mechanisms:
– breaking waves (only at high sea state)
– wind flow noise (turbulence)
– cavitation (100-1000 Hz)
– long period waves
�
τ = kg
τ
cp =
k
g�
c2p =
2�
if � � 2000 km, then cp � 1500 m/sec =� radiate noise!

Band V: Thermal noise 50 KHz < f

NL = −15 + 20 log f
8 NOISE 53

Directionality of noise
Vertical
• Low frequency
– distant shipping dominates
– low attenuation at horizontal
θ
90

0
NL

−90

• High frequency
– sea surface noise
– local wind speed dominates
– high attenuation at horizontal
θ
90

0
NL

−90

Horizontal
• Low frequency: highest in direction of shipping centers
• High frequency: omnidriectional
9 DESIGN PRINCIPLES 54

9 Design Principles

Summary of important design principles

1. Required maximum range determines maximum frequency

Dyer’s rule : � × r × 0.001 = 10 dB [for r in meters]

2. Required angular resolution determines array size

• α3dB = ± 25.3�
L deg. (line array)
• α3dB = ± 29.5�
D deg. (disc array)
• α3dB = ± 25.3� 25.3�
Lx , ± Ly deg. (rec. array)

3. Required range resolution determines maximum pulse length

cθ
�r =
2

4. In a side-scan sonar, the horizontal (across-track) range

resolution �rh is determined by the beam geometry:
�rh = �r sin α
where α is the angle between a ray drawn at the maximum range
and the vertical.
θ
Δr = cτ/2

Δrh

5. Characteristics of the transducer determine minimum pulse

length.
10 SIDESCAN SONAR 55

• For a narrowband transducer, you must have at least 10 to 15

cycles of the carrier frequency.

10 Sidescan sonar

*
2θ
3dB−V
RSmin RSmax
H
θ1
θ2

R
Hmin
RHmax
10 SIDESCAN SONAR 56

Side view of sidescan geometry.

Tow direction

R Hmax
R Hmin

Xmin
D
Xmin Xmax
2θ3dB−H

Plan view of sidescan geometry.

10 SIDESCAN SONAR 57

Summary of variable definitions for side-scan sonar.

• λ1 is the angle from the vertical to the near edge of the fan beam in the vertical
plane.
• λ2 is the angle from the vertical to the far edge of the fan beam in the vertical plane.
λ2 = λ1 + 2 � λ3dB-V

• RSmax is the maximum slant range.

RSmax = H/ cos(λ2 )

• RSmin is the minimum slant range.

RSmin = H/ cos(λ1 )

• RHmax is the maximum horizontal range.

RHmax = H tan(λ2 )

• RHmin is the minimum horizontal range.

RHmin = H tan(λ1 )

• Xmax is the along-track resolution at maximum range.

Xmax = 2RHmax � tan λ3dB-H

• Xmin is the along-track resolution at minimum range

Xmin = 2RHmin � tan λ3dB-H

• Tf is the time-of-flight, which is the time required for the sonar ping to travel to
maximum range and back.
Tf = 2 � RSmax /c

• Tp is the pulse repetition interval, which is the time between pings. To avoid overlap
of echos from one ping to the next:

Tp ∼ T f

• v is the velocity of the towfish.

• D is the distance traveled by the sonar towfish during one ping cycle. To avoid gaps
in the sonar coverage:

D = v � Tp � Xmin
11 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT FORMULAE 58

11 Summary of important formulae

Source Level
• SL = 171 + 10 log P + DI

Directivity Index
• DI = 10 log( 2�L ) (line array)
• DI = 20 log( ��D ) (disc array)
• DI = 10 log( 4�L�x2 Ly ) (rectangular array)

3-dB Beamwidth α3dB

• α3dB = ± 25.3�
L deg. (line array)
29.5�
• α3dB = ± D deg. (disc array)
• α3dB = ± 25.3� 25.3�
Lx , ± Ly deg. (rectangular array)

Transmission loss, spherical spreading and absorption:

• TL = 20 log r + 10−3 �r

Transmission loss, cylindrical spreading and absorption:

• TL = 10 log r + 10−3 �r

Target strength of a sphere (r0 = radius, assumes r0 >> �):

2
• TS = 10 log r40

Target strength of a cylinder: (at normal incidence, a = radius, L =

length)
2
• TS = 10 log aL
2�

Rule-of-thumb for picking frequency given maximum range

• � × r × 0.001 = 10 dB [for r in meters]

Range resolution
cπ
• �r = 2
11 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT FORMULAE 59

Absorption of sound in sea water (from Prof. Dyer’s 13.851 class notes).
11 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT FORMULAE 60

Table of values for absorption coefficent (alpha)

13.00 Fall, 1999 Acoustics: Table of attentuation coefficients

frequency [Hz] alpha [dB/km] frequency [Hz] alpha [dB/km]

1 0.003 50000 15.9
10 0.003 60000 19.8
100 0.004 70000 23.2
200 0.007 80000 26.2
300 0.012 90000 28.9
400 0.018 100000 (100 kHz) 31.2
500 0.026 200000 47.4
600 0.033 300000 63.1
700 0.041 400000 83.1
800 0.048 500000 108
900 0.056 600000 139
1000 (1kHz) 0.063 700000 174
2000 0.12 800000 216
3000 0.18 900000 264
4000 0.26 1000000 (1 MHz) 315
5000 0.35 2000000 1140
6000 0.46 3000000 2520
7000 0.59 4000000 4440
8000 0.73 5000000 6920
9000 0.90 6000000 9940
10000 (10 kHz) 1.08 7000000 13520
20000 3.78 8000000 17640
30000 7.55 9000000 22320
40000 11.8 10000000 (10 MHz) 27540

Noise levels in the deep ocean (from Urick).