Chapter 3 Highway Alignment and Surveys 4AGNMENT 3.1 HIG! The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground is called the alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal deviations and curves. Changes in gradient and vertical curves are covered under vertical alignment of roads. ‘A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment would result in ‘one or more of the following disadvantages : {a) increase in construction cost (b) increase in maintenance cost (c) increase in vehicle operation cost (d) increase in accident rate. Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly structures by the road side. Hence the importance of careful considerations while finalizing the alignment of a new road need not be over emphasised. 3.1L] Requirements The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations are that it should be : (@) short (b) easy “(© safe, and @) economical 51IRVEYS. HIGHWAY ALIGNME NT AND SURVEY a short (OF shortest) alignment between Wo termnin, a dd be the shortest, though there may We seven eviations font the shortest path It is desirable (© have it woul Signer . iat cause Short 4 stations, A straight a practical considerations whic! 1 should be such that tl Bagy : The alignmen ; with minimum problems, Also the alignment s! Wh easy rants and CUNY os cafe The alignment should be sate enough for construction and maintenance tiy \ " MS . 1 the view point ‘of stability of natural hill slopes, embankment and cut slopes q, foundation of embankments, Also it should be safe tor the trafle operation with i geometric features, Boonomioal : The road alignment including initial cost, maintenance cost factors should be given due consideration before wor alignment, wou! tis easy to CONATUEE and maintain the Fo, ould be eary for the operation of vehic, I, t could be considered economical only i the total g ? \ t and vehicle operation cost iy lowest, All the King out the economics of a Mt The alignment should be such that it would offer maximum utility by sory, maximum population and products, The utility of a road should be judged trom ity wt Value per unit length of road, (For details refer Art, 2.9), _ 32 Factors Controlling Aligament For i te And eae to be shortest, it should be straight between the two terminal statioy abated phe ~ s various practical difficulties such as intermedia . A shortest route may have very steep B hot easy for vehicle operation, Simi 7 oe oe ee . Similarly, there may be constructi ina pac Ys y be construction and ma a a oe ey otherwise be short and easy, Roads are aes ; gay eee ler to cater for intermediate places of imporance} A road which is economi ical in the initial otis most economical in , construction cost, need not necessari shoes fea a * b ve operation cost, It may ietnaul ifferent alternatives fro! peration may work out to b v m construction vie 0 be the costliest of can seldom fulfill all the requi w point, Thus it may b 5 ce le requireme y be seen that an ali Considering all the ne ents simultaneously; hence a judicial coated The various factors which control the highway (a) Obligatory points (b) Traffic (c) Geometric design (d) Economics (e) Other considerations alignment in general may be listed as In hill roads addition al care has to be pi a given for; Drainage Geometric standards of hill roads, and Resisting length '53 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT i i the fa) Obligatory Points : ‘There are contol points governing the alignment of highS These control points may be divided broadly into two categories. igh @ Points through which the alignment is to pass. ii) Points through which the alignment should not pass. j) Obligatory points through which the road alignment has to pass may cause the alignment t0 often deviate from the shortest or easiest path. The various examples of this category May be bridge site, intermediate town, a mountain pass or a quarry. Whea it is necessary to cross hill range, mountains or high ridges the various alternatives are to cut a tunnel across or to go round the hills or to deviate until a suitable pill pass is available. The suitability of these alternatives depend on many other factors, like the topography and site conditions and cost considerations. Figure 3.1 a shows how the straight alignment AB is deviated along the hill side pass, thus avoiding a tunnel or heavy cutting. PROPER BAIOGE LOCATION 2 —.—. 1 a (CONNECTING BY LINK ROAD (c) Alignment to connect intermediate town _(d) Alignment avoiding an intermediate area Fig. 3.1 Obligatory Points Controlling Alignment of Roads The road bridge across a river can be located only at place where the river has straight and permanent path and where the bridge abutment and pier can be properly founded. The road approaches to this bridge should not be curved near the bridge and as far as Possible the skew crossing should be avoided. Thus in order to locate a bridge across a Tiver the alignment may have to be changed. Figure 3.1b shows that the straight alignment between stations A and B which passes across the river bend, is to be deviated along the path shown in order to cross the river at a proper bridge location at the straight Portion of the river on the up-stream side of the band. - While aligning a road between two stations, it may often be desirable to connect some of the important intermediate towns, villages or other places. The straight alignment ABLIGNMENT AND SURVEYS HIGHWAY A! order to connect the intermedi in Fi in may be shifted along line ABC, 2s shown in Fig. 3.10? i en station C. It is also possible to connect the ee ete N same figure, thus avoiding the deviation of the St 54 e road should not s also may make it, The obligatory points whj, ii) Obli i hich th (ii) Obligatory points through Se tg port rt gs places, very costly structy church, grave or tomb hay necessary to deviate a should be avoided while aligning bo mosques; * se. Acquiring cosy unsuitable land etc. Religious places il P a i ied for any PUPS been provected PY ieabetla waa resulting in incre cost. Marshy, Pea, structures would mean heavy Ba le for onstruction and should and water logged areas are general. ternative and the alignment has to avoided as far as possible. However if! there, isno alt : rage cost are Tikely to be a taken across such an area, the construction and mainte costo be adopted high due to special construction techniques and drainage measures ms i th of a straight alignment will al A lake, a pond or @ valley which falls on the pat ly necessitate the alignment t0 deviate from the straight path and go round along the grag, line as shown in Fig. 3.1d. () Traffic: The alignment should suit traffic requirements. Origin and Destinatio, study should be carried out in the area and the desire lines be drawn showing the trend g traffic flow. The new road to be aligned should keep in view the desired lines, traf, flow patterns and future trends. (©) Geometric Design : Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve and sight distance also would govern the final alignment of the highway. If straight aad at, often it may be necessary to provide very steep gradients. As far as Tesi one rae el gradient should be flat and less than the ruling or spon maximum allowable ae a a ones the ae in view of the design 7 P efficient of lateral friction. It maj necessary to make adj ‘ ; ry be jjustment in the horizontal alignment of roads keeping in view the minimum radius of curve and the transition curves. The absolute minimum sight distance, which should invari jee \ tance, jould invariably be avail i = a a is id re distance for the fast waive a oi he ot ee fea! for safe overtaking operations 7 chi ere way Got ela gy te ge hole fae in such ble lity do not cause restrictions to the aoe deel : ; stance The details of hae of these geometric design factors are given in Chapter 4, (d) Economy : The ali economical. In worki ised based 3 working out the 2 on the ches opera aaa Bes ee te ntl ita Gren should also be if high embankments and deep citings The initial cost P i maintenance and are av nstruction can be \ ‘ina manner to balance the cutting and fling oided and the alignment i is chosen Various inti fos as Mich may govem te ClOrs, political conside © ; lood leve] Zanaae consi Considerations and alignment ime ee i. The subsurface kept in view, water level, jENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY LOCATIONS $3 \ foreign (rTHOry Coming across a straight alignment will necessitate deviation of alignment around the foreign land. At times the alignment is decided only on strategic iderations gonside tn a fat terrain it is possible to have a very long stretch of road, absolutely straight without horizontal curves. But straight road of very long stretch may be monotonous for diving Hence after a few kilometers of straight road, it may be desirable to have a slight bend to break the monotony and keep the driver alert Special considerations while aligning roads on hilly areas Stability : While aligning hill roads, special care should be taken to align the road along the side of the hill which is stable. A common problem in hill roads is that of land slides. The cutting and filling of earth to construct roads on hill-side causes steepening of existing slopes and affect its stability, Drainage : Numerous hill-side drains should be Provided for adequate drainage facility across the road. But the cross drainage structure being costly, attempts should be made to align the road in such a way where the number of cross drainage structures are minimum, Geometric standard of hill roads : Different sets of geometric standards are followed in hill roads with reference to gradient, curves and speed and they consequently influence the sight distance, radius of curve and other related features, The route should enable the ruling gradient to be attained in most of the length, minimising steep gradients, hair pin bands and needless rise and fall, Resisting length ; The resisting length of a road may be calculated from the total work to be done to move the loads along the route taking the horizontal length, the actual difference in levels between the two stations and the sum of ineffective rise and fall in excess of floating gradient. In brief, the resisting length of the alignment should kept as low as possible. Thus the ineffective rise and executive fall should be kept minimum. Before a highway alignment is finalised in highway project, the engineering surveys are to be carried out. The surveys may be completed in four stages. The first three stages Consider all possible alternate alignments keeping in view the various requirements of highway alignment as discussed in Art. 3.1.2. The fourth stage is meant for the detailed Survey of the selected alignment. The stages of the engineering surveys are ‘ (a) Map study (b) Reconnaissance (c) Preliminary surveys (d) Final location and detailed surveys. \ay ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS nw WIG 56 32.1 Map se ble, it is possible to suggest the likely routes of ye mera pographie maps are available from the Survey of India, with 15 oF 30 the road wrour intervals: The main features like rivers, hills valleys etc, are also shown on meet “aps. BY careful study of such maps, it is possible to have an idea of several possible these re routes $0 that further details of these may be studied later atthe site. ‘The probable aispment can be located on the map from the following details available on the map. na (a) Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes (b) When the road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through a mountain, pass (c) Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the river, if any, (d) When a road is to be connected between two stations, one of the top and the other on the foot of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view the permissible gradient; say the ruling gradient. Refer Fig. 3.2. Suppose the scale of the contour map is known, then from the counter intervals it is possible to decide the length of road required between two consecutive contours, keeping the gradient within allowable limits. !n this case, the contour interval is 15 metre and if the ruling gradient is fixed as | in 20, the road length between two consecutive contours has to be 15 x 20 = 300 meter. With the known scale of the map, the various possible alternate routes may be drawn by drawing arcs of the above (300 metre) length between the consecutive contour lines. Let A and B be two stations to be connected by a road, see Fig. 3.2. AB is the shortest route (straight line) APQB is a steep route in which the gradient positively exceeds | in AB - Shortest route APOB - Steeper gradient APLMNB - Flatt APEFGE ‘er gradient Flatter gradient (Alternate route) Fig. 3.2 Alignment with allowable Gradients5 rm 6 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS. 3.2.1 Map Study Ifthe topographic map of the area is available, it is possible to suggest the likely routes of the road, In India topographic maps are available from the Survey of India, with 15 or 30 meter contour intervals. The main features like rivers, hills valleys ete. are also shown on these maps. By careful study’ of such maps, itis possible to have an idea of several possible alternate routes so that further details of these may’ be studied later at the site, The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details available on the map. (a) Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes (b) When the road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through a mountain pass avoiding bend of the river, if (c) Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, any. (d) When a road is to be connected between two stations, one of the top and the other ‘on the foot of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view the permissible gradient; say the ruling gradient Refer Fig, 3.2. Suppose the scale of the contour map is kn¢ own, then from the counter intervals it is possible to decide the length of road required between two consecutive contours, keeping the gradient within allowable limits. n this case, the contour interval is 15 metre and if the ruling gradient is fixed as | in 20, the road length between two consecutive contours has to be 15 x 20 = 300 meter. With the known scale of the map, the various possible alternate routes may be drawn by drawing arcs of the above (300 metre) Jength between the consecutive contour lines. Let A and B be two stations to be connected by a road, see Fig. 3.2. AB is the shortest route (straight line) APQB is a steep route in which the gradient positively exceeds | in AB - Shortest route APQB - Steeper gradient APLMNB - Flatter gradient APEFGB - Flatter gradient {Alternate route) Fig. 3.2 Alignment with allowable GradientsENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY LOCATIONS 57 20 as the distance between the contour interval is only about 200 metre (assuming the scale to be | em = 150 metre). APLMNB is a route with an approximate slope of | in 20 whereas APEFGB is an alternate alignment with the same gradient, Thus from the map study alternate routes from map study to drop a cert undesirable ground, enroute. M; further surveyed in the field, can be suggested, It may also be possible ‘ain route in view of any unavoidable obstructions or lap study thus gives a rough guidance of the routes to be 3.2.2 Reconnaissance The second stage of surveys for highway location is the reconnaissance to examine the general character of the area for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies. A field survey party may inspect a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed alternative routes of the map in the field, Only very simple instrument like abney level, tangent clinometer, barometer etc, are used by the reconnaissance party to collect additional details rapidly (not accurately), All relevant details not available in the map are collected and noted down. Some of the details to be collected during reconnaissance are given below : @) Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, obstructions along the route which are not available (ii) Approximate values of gradient, alternate alignments, permanent structures and other in the map. t, length of gradients and radius of curves of (iii) Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and natural ground water level along the probable routes, (iv) Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and observation of geological features. (¥) Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries. (vi) When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain, additional data regarding the geological formation, type of rocks, dip of strata, seepage flow etc. may be observed so as to decide the stable and unstable sides of the hill for highway alignment. A rapid reconnaissance of the area, especially when it is vast and the terrain is difficult, may be done by an aerial survey. From the details collected during the reconnaissance, the alignment proposed after study may be altered or even changed completely. As a result of the reconnaissance a few alternate alignments may be chosen for further study based on practical considerations Observed at the site, 3.23 Preliminary Survey The main objectives of the preliminary survey are : (i) To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical information and details of topography, drainage and soil. (li) To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment.HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS S8 (iii) To estimate quantity of earth work materials and other construction aspects workout the cost of alternate proposals and (iv) To finalise the best alignment from all considerations The preliminary survey is carried out to collect all the physical information which ay, necessary IN connection with the proposed highway alignment. The preliminary Survey may be carried out by any one of the following methods y party carries out SUVeys Using thy (a) Conventional approach, in which a surve i Iecting topographical and other dat, required field equipment, taking measurements, Co! and carrying out soil survey. (b) Modern rapid approach, by serial survey taking the required aerial photography and by photogrammetric methods and photo-interpretation techniques for obtaining the necessary topographic and other maps including details of soil and geology. The procedure of the conventional methods of preliminary survey is given in following steps : (i) Primary trayerse : The first step in the preliminary survey is to establish the line recommended in the reconnaissance. For primary traverse, following the alternate alignments either secondary traverses OF independent primary traverses may be necessary. As these traverses are open traverses NO adjustment of errors is possible later, so the angles should be very accurately measured by the theodolite. The length of the centre line should be measured by using very good and accurate chaining methods or by tacheometry or by modern instruments. ‘After establishing the centre lines of preliminary survey, the topographical features are recorded. All geographical and other man made features along the transverse and for a certain width on either side are surveyed and plotted. The width to be surveyed is generally decided by the survey party, but the absolute minimum width is the land width of the proposed alignment. k is also carried out side by side to give the centre tions. The levelling work in the preliminary fficient to obtain the approximate earth work in (ji) Topographical features : (iii) Levelling work: Levelling worl line profiles and typical cross sect survey is kept to a minimum just su! the alternate alignments. of land to be surveyed, cross section | ly 100 to 200 metre in plain terrain, atu i hilly terrain. ein To draw contours of the strip taken at suitable intervals, general rolling terrain and upto 30 metre in lydrological data : Drainage investigations and hydrological (iv) Drainage studies and H) data are collected so as to estimate the type, number and approximate size of of cross. drainage structures. Also the vertical alignment of the hi . \ rade Tine is decided based on the hydrological and Beane the ponded water level, depth of water table, amount of surface runoff, i such as HFL, , Cte. () Soil survey ; Soil survey is an essential part of the Suitability of the proposed location is to be finally deci Preliminary survey as the led based on the soil survey } cae ae oo survey conducted at this stage also helps j gs 1 Ta, Pe, saa a uer subsoil any Kite Out details of pavement type and the approximate and surface drainage details are requi i required to make a Comparative study oe Fequirements. All © proposals.ENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY LOCATIONS 59 At this Stage a detailed soil Survey is not necessary. Post hole auger or any other suitable types of hand augers depending on the soil type, may be used to collect the soil gample up to a depth of 1 to 3 metre below the likely finished road level or the existing ground level, whichever is lower. When the road is expected to be constructed over an embankment, the depth of exploration should extend upto twice the height of embankment from the ground level During the soil exploration if the ground water table is struck, the depth from the ground surface is also noted i When the work has to be done rapidly, geophysical method of soil exploration are suited as accuracy is not very important during the preliminary survey. The elec resistivity method is commonly used in road Projects. The method is based on the principle that the earth and rock materials may be identified by the different values of the resistance to flow of a direct current best The soil samples collected during the field work are subjected to identification and classification test in the laboratory. Soil profile is obtained by drawing the longitudinal section along the proposed road alignment upto the depth of exploration. The types of swils encountered along the route upto the depth under consideration are marked on the sil profile either symbolically or by suitable colour coding. (vi) Material survey : The survey for naturally occurring materials like stone aggregates, soft aggregates, etc. and identification of suitable quarries should be made. Also availability of manufactured materials like cement, lime, brick, etc. and their locations may be ascertained. (vii) Traffic survey : Traffic surveys conducted in the region form the basis for deciding the number of traffic lanes and roadway width, pavement design and economic analysis of highway project. Traffic volume counts of the classified vehicles are to be carried out on all the existing roads in the region, preferably for 24 hours per day for seven days. Origin and destination surveys are very useful for deciding the alignment of the roads. This study may be carried out on a suitable sample of vehicle users or drivers. In addition the required traffic data may also be collected so that the traffic forecast could be made for 10 to 20 year periods. (viii) Determination of final centre line : After completing the preliminary surveys and conducting the comparative studies of alternative alignments the final centre line of the road is to be decided in the office before the final location survey. For this, the preliminary survey maps consisting of contour plans, longitudinal profile and cross sections of the alternate alignments should be prepared and carefully studied to decide the best alignment satisfying engineering, aesthetic and economical requirements. After selecting the final alignment, the grade lines are drawn and the geometric elements of the horizontal and vertical alignments of the road are designed.ENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY LOCATIONS 59 At this stage a detailed soil Survey is not necessary. Post hole auger or any other suitable types of hand augers depending on the soil type, may be used to collect the soil sample up to a depth of 1 to 3 metre below the likely finished road level or the eXisting ground level, whichever is lower When the road “expected to be constructed over an embankment. the depth of exploration should extend upto twice the height of embankment from the ground level, During the soil exploration if the ground water table is struck, the depth from the ground surface is also noted When the work has to be done suited as accuracy is not very important during the preliminary survey. The elect resistivity method is commonly used in road projects. The method is based on the principle thatthe earth and rock materials may be identified by the different values of the resistance to flow of a direct current ’ rapidly, geophysical meth f soil exploration are be The soil samples collected during the field work are subjected to identification and classification test in the laboratory. Soil Profile is obtained by drawing the longitudinal section along the-proposed road alignment upto the depth of exploration. The types of soils encountered along the route upto the depth under consideration are marked on the soil profile either symbolically or by suitable colour coding (vi) Material survey : The survey for naturally occurring materials like stone aggregates, soft aggregates, etc. and identification of suitable quarries should be made, Also availability of manufactured materials like cement, lime, brick, ete. and their locations may be ascertained. (vii) Traffic survey : Traffic Surveys conducted in the region form the basis for deciding the number of traffic lanes and roadway width, pavement design and economic analysis of highway project. Traffic volume counts of the classitied vehicles are to be carried out on all the existing roads in the region, preferably for 24 hours per day for seven days. Origin and destination surveys are very useful tor deciding the alignment of the roads. This study may be carried out on a suitable sample of vehicle users or drivers. In addition the required traffic data may also be collected so that the traffic forecast could be made for 10 to 20 year periods. (viii) Determination of final centre line : After completing the preliminary surveys and conducting the comparative studies of alternative alignments the final centre line of the road is to be decided in the office before the final location survey. For this, the preliminary survey maps consisting of contour plans, longitudinal profile and cross sections of the alternate alignments should be prepared and carefully studied to decide the best alignment satisfying engineering, aesthetic and economical requirements. After selecting the final alignment, the grade lines are drawn and the geometric elements of the horizontal and vertical alignments of the road are designed. Aerial photographic surveys are very much suited for preliminary surveys, especially when the distance and area to be covered are vast. The survey may be divided into the following steps : (a) Taking aerial photographs of the strips of land to be surveyed with the required longitudinal and lateral overlaps. Vertical photographs are necessary for the preparation of mossaics.HIGHWAY ALIGNMEEL AND SURVEYS seq and control points are selected Wer gtereaneey (4) The photographs are eecamined uneler eter 1 the control points are 6 proposals for establishing the traverses of the alternate prop! Jocated en the maps snd subsequently contour lines may ) stereo pale ohoetvations, the spot levels ( ia Abie e ‘ eo ha At Phen ater 1 pairs the topographical details may be noted he obstainney eo fon the sterer Hoven on the snaps » peolog features, soil CH Phetojoteyrotation methods are used to ansesa the geological Conditions, drvinape requirements ete SOF Pinal bocation nod Detailed Survey The alivnivent finalised at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be ae located on the Held by establishing the centre line. Next detailed survey should be carried out for collecting the infor Hion Necessary for the preparation of plans and construction Uetoils for the highway project The centre line of the road finalised in the diawings is to be translated on the ground during the location survey, This is done using a transit theodolite and by staking of the centre tine The location of the centre line should follow, as closely as practicable, the Mignment finalised afer the preliminary surveys. Major and minor control points are established on the ground and centre Pegs are driven, checking the geometric design fequitements, However modifications in the final location may be made in the field, if found essential, The centre line stakes are driven at suitable intervals, say at 50 metre intervals in plain and rolling tertains and at 20 metre in hilly terrain. Detailed survey Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 metre and at all drainage and under pass structures. Levels along the final centre line should be taken at all staked points, Levelling work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earth work calculations and drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes. The cross section levels are taken upto the desired width, at intervals of 50 to 100 metre in plain terrain, 50 to 75 metre in rolling terrain, 50 metre in bui -up areas and 20 metre in hilly terrain. The cross sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves and where there is abrupt change in cross slopes. All river crossing, valleys etc. should be surveyed in detail upto considerably distances on either side. All topographical details are not Adequate hydrological details are al: A detailed soil Survey is carried out to enable drawing of the soil profile. The depth upto which soil sampling is to be done may be 1.5 to 3.0 metre below the ground line or ichever is lower. However in case of high ed down and also plotted using conventional signs. Iso collected and recorded. The data duri is detailed plans, dest ey should be elaborate and complete for preparing 'gn and estimates of the project.ip SURYELS HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND “i J control points ae selecray | wd under stereoieopes wees ences Oe cenneiay te Yon of the alternate propovals fir establishing, the traverses and subsequently contour Sines trig Js, the spot le vie cpigrphicl details may be notey y topogr obeervation ©) Using steren pat 40 pairs t ie obtained, luo Soon the seroo pai down on the maps cess the geological features, Soi] 5 ore used (0 Asses B Hhotointerpretation methods ar ay Wh J 4 ete conditions, drainage requiremer Survey 4 Final Location and Detailed 3 ey ffice after the preliminary survey is to be firs the ree ing line, Next detailed survey should be Carried ng the aan the preparation of plans and construction n necessary for The alignment finaly located on the field by eu out for Collecting the inform details for the highway project Location ed in the drawings is to be translated on the ground during the location survey. This is done using a transit theodolite np eee Centre line, The location of the centre line should follow, as close ly nese ; oe fe slignment finalised after the preliminary surveys, Major and minor control p a established on the ground and centre pegs are driven, checking the geometric lesign requirements, However modifications in the final location may be made in the field, if found essential, The centre line stakes are driven at suitable intervals, say at 50 metre intervals in plain and rolling terrains and at 20 metre in hilly terrain, The centre line of the road fi Detailed survey Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of and under pass structures, Levels along the final cen points. Levelling work is of gfeat importance calculations and drain about 250 metre and at all drainage tre line should be taken at all staked as the vertical alignment, earth work d are to be worked out fom the level notes. The cross section levels are taken Upto the desired width, at intervals of 50 to 100 metre in plain terrain, 50 to 75 metre in rolling terrain, 50 metre in built-up areas and 20 metre in hilly terrain. The cross sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves and where there is abrupt change in cross slope All river crossing, valleys etc. should In detail upto considerably distan soneither side, ee All topographical details are not Adequate hydroloy ; ted down and also plotted Bical details are also collected and recorded, A detailed soi] Survey ji ied out tg enabl Upto Which soil sampling i 4 finished grade jj using conventional signs. ‘The data dj luring the detail ‘d detailed plans, . SUTVEY should by pari design and estimates of ine Project HE a compete for ane60 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS trol points are sel (b) The photographs are examined under stereoscopes a Papal Sid for establishing the traverses of the alternate propo ‘ located on the maps. evels and subsequently contour lines may raphical details may be noteq tions, the spot I ne the topog! (©) Using stereo-pair obs a e stereo pairs be obtained. Also from th down on the maps. ‘ Pe : thods are used to assess the geological features, soi] jon met qd) Photo-interpretati 0 ge requirements etc. conditions, drainas al Location and Detailed Survey ‘ ie, i the preliminary SU ey is to be first t finalised at the design office after i ne ey establishing the centre line. Next detailed survey ae be carried information necessary for the preparation of plans and construction 3.2.4 Fini The align! located on thi ‘out for collecting the details for the highway project. Location The centre line of the road finalised in the drawings is to be translated on the ground during the location survey: This is done using @ transit theodolite and by staking of the centre line. The location of the centre line should follow, as closely as practicable, the alignment finalised after the preliminary surveys. Major and minor control points are established on the ground and centre pegs are driven, ‘checking the geometric design requirements. However modifications in the final location may be made in the field, if found essential. The centre line stakes are driven at suitable intervals, say at 50 metre and at 20 metre in hilly terrain. intervals in plain and rolling terrains Detailed survey Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 metre and at all drainage and under pass structures. Levels along the final centre line should be taken at all staked points. _Levelling work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earth work calculations and drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes. The cross section levels are taken upto the desired width, at intervals of 50 to 100 metre in plain terrain, 50 to 75 metre in rolling terrain, 50 metre in built-up areas and 20 metre in hilly eas ue a sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves and where t s abrupt change in cross slopes. All river crossit in detail upto considerably distances on either side, einaavalleys etoushoukles muneevet All topographical details are noted down A Adequate hydrological details are also eile oe ae Se oe A detailed soil survey is carried out ° i oe it to enable drawit . Seas eee is to be done may be 1.5 Bee nai ee oF ie embankments, ae sual bo NOIEYRY shows, eet - roe Th ere . upto twice the hei is Te soning bogs ey mc ends pon ol pe nd aa along the alignment may be determined for esi mn eee ing the pavement. The data during the detailed survey detailed plans, design and estimates cee elaborate and comps iaaimeee™*DRAWINGS AND REPORT 3,3 DRAWINGS AND REPORT 43.31 Drawings The following drawings are usually prepared in a highway project Key map a (i) Index map (iii) Preliminary survey plans (iv) Detailed plan and longitudinal section {v)_ Detailed cross-section (vi) Land acquisition plans (vii) Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining structures (viii) Drawings of road intersections (ix). Land plans showing quarries etc. Key map should show the proposed and existing roads, and important places to be connected. The size of the plan generally should not exceed 22 x 20 cm. The scale of the map is chosen suitably depending upon the length of road. Index map should show the general topography of the area. The details are symbolically represented. The index map should also be of suitable scale, the size being 32x 20cm. Preliminary survey plans showing details of the various alternate alignments and all informations collected should be normally drawn to scale of 10 cm = | km to 25 cm =1km. Detailed plans show the ground plan with alignment and the boundaries, contours at intervals of | to 2 metre in plain country a scale of 1/2400 and in close country, a scale of 1/1200 may be adopted for detailed plans. The size of the drawing may be A-2 size or 60 x 42 cm approximately. Longitudinal sections should be drawn to the same horizontal scale of the ground as in detailed plan. Vertical scale may be enlarged 10 times of the longitudinal scale. The longitudinal section should show the details such as datum line, existing ground surface, vertical profile of the proposed road and position of drainage crossings. Detailed cross sections are generally drawn to natural scale of | cm = 2.0 to 2.5 m. Cross section should be drawn every 100 m or where there are abrupt changes in level. In hill roads the cross sections should be drawn at closer intervals. The cross section drawings should extend at least up to the proposed right of way. The cross section Number, the reduced distances and the area of filling and/or cutting should be shown on toss section drawings. Land acquisition plans and schedules are usually prepared from the survey drawings for land acquisition details, These plans show all general details such as buildings, wells, Nature of gradients and other details required for assessing the values. The scale adopted May be 1 cm = 40 m or less.8 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS are usually drawn £0 scale vycture enlarged Seales Up -d design for cross drainage and masonry structures the size of drawing Detaile he str of | em = 1 m. For details of any complicated portion of t Howeve 1 m or upto half full size may be employed. f draw ns should be (0 4 scale of not to 8 cm = of streal should not exceed the standard size, Cross sections Jess than 1 cm = 10m. Drawings of road intersections should be prep: shoulders, islands etc. to scale. uarries for construction materials are (0 be acquired be prepared. The size of these maps and sition. ared showing all details of Pavement, Land plans for quarries. Where 4 for new projects, separate land plans should scales may be similar to those suggested under land acqui: 3.3.2 Estimates : i The project estimates should consist of general abstract of cost and ani estimates for each major head. If the project work is proposed to be executed in stages, the estimate should be prepared for each stage separately, 3.3.3 Project Report The project report forms an important part of the project document. It should contain information such as (i) general details of the project and its importance ad including selection of the route, alignment, traffic, etc. (ii) feature of the ro: (iii) road design and specifications (iv) drainage facilities and cross drainage structures (v) materials, labour and equipment (vi) rates (vii) construction programming and (viii) other miscellaneous items like di rest houses, etc. version roads, traffic control, road side amenities, 34 HIGHWAY PROJECT 3.4.1 General In a new highway project, the engineer has to plan, design and construct either a net- work of new roads or a road link. There are also projects requiring re-design and re- alignment of existing roads of upgrading the geometric design standards. Once a highway is constructed, development takes lace alon; joinit subsequent changes in alignment or improvements rc ng te difficult. A badly aligned highway is not only a source of potential traffic hazard, but also causes a considerable increase in transportation cost and strain on the drivers and the passengers. Therefore, proper investigation and planning are most important in a road project, keeping in view the present day needs as well as the future developments. of the region. —HIGHWAY PROJECT 3 342 New Highway Project The new highway project work may be divided into the following stages : (i) Selection of route, finalisation of highway alignment and geometric design details (ji) Collection of materials and testing of subgrade soil and other construction materials mix design of pavement materials and design details of pavement layers. (iii) Construction stages including quality control. Route selection The selection of route is made keeping in view the requirements of alignment and the geological, topographical and other features of the locality as explained in Art.3.2. However special care shou.d be taken as regards the geometric design standards of the road for possible upgrading of speed standards in future, without being necessary to re- align the road. After the alignment if finalised, the plans and working drawings are prepared. The geometric design requirements of highways have been given in Chapter 4 and the details and requirements of hill roads are given in Chapter 12 Materials and design The soil samples collected from the selected route during the soil surveys are tested in the laboratory in order to design the pavement thickness required and the design of embankment and cut slopes. The basic construction materials such as selected soil, aggregates etc. are collected from the nearest borrow pits and quarries and stacked along the roads alignment after subjecting these materials to the specified laboratory tests. In order to design the mixes for the pavement component layers and to specify quality control test values during road construction, mix design tests are carried out in the laboratory. The possibility of using low-cost construction material like soil-aggregate mixes, soft aggregates, stabilized soil and pozzolanic concrete mixes, in the sub-base or base course layers of pavement should be fully explored. When high quality pavement materials like bituminous mixes or cement concrete are to be used in the surface course, the mix design specification and construction control tests should be strictly followed. The pavement thickness is designed based on anticipated traffic, stability and drainage conditions of the subgrade and the type and thickness of pavement layers chosen for the construction. In India, the CBR method has been recommended by the Indian Roads Congress for designing the thickness of flexible pavements. Recommended procedure for the design of cement concrete payment has also been specified by the Indian Roads Congress, (Please See Chapter 7 for details). Construction The construction of the read may be divided into two stages, viz. : (i) earth work (ii) Pavement construction. The earth work consists of excavation and construction of the embankments. During the excavation for highway cuts, the earth slopes, their protection and construction of drainage network are taken care of. Highway embankments may be best constructed by rolled-fill method by compacting the soil in layers under controlled Moisture and density using suitable rollers. In the case of high embankments, the stability of the embankment foundation and slopes and the possible settlement of the embankment with time have to be investigated.reparation of with the P! ment, f the pave! st ce courses © 64 const ment 608 5 J the construction ol i given below : ject work The P' grade AN! in a new Pr The various steps ) Map Study Me : ve survey: 4 general | ea (iiy Reconnaissance O° and curvey of 62" identification © x inspection of the site le 4) gurvey plone tea : etal ‘i of alignment (iii), Preliminary’ Survey * design and other requirements gamenity alignments. consideration of geometric ae cq analysis and preparation of plans an d cross section selection of final alignment. drawing for the new alignment are + ites, d comparison of Bi section an Typical plan, lon E shown in Fig: - - drawings to th 5 the rawings to the (iv) Location of Final Alignment: Transfer of the alignment ie alignment; setting ground by driving pegs along the centre line of finally cho: ints, circular out geometric design elements by location of tang' : ; and transition curves, elevation of centre line and superelevato) (v) Detailed Survey: Survey of the highway construction work for th longitudinal and cross sections, computations of earth work quant construction material; and checking details of. geometric design elements. of construction materials, their collection and testing. e preparation of tities and other (vi) Materials Survey : Survey (vii) Design : Design details of embankment and cut slopes, and bridges, and pavement layers. (viii) Earth Work : Excavations for highway cuttin; i and dr embankments. ee 5 —— (ix) Pavement Construction : Preparati 4 ior i La pi n of subgrade, construction of sub-base and foundation of embankments m, construction of (x) Construction Controls : Quali t : ality control tests duri i pa and check for finished road surface Sea cc een levation and extra widening of pavements at curves. ne 3.4.3 Re-alignment Project Zig-zags, stee as early as po r are y like National and eee rectified A Reometric desi conditions fan 3 ae P gradients and i an ‘ nde a Highways, It wil ke wor wast in weais pais distances. ‘ater importance arameters th worth whi an the rulj 1 While to ado f urable and the costs a tne values more liberal values of ved are not Specified, where excessi * the ve. In such :