PSYCHOLOGY

1 SEM

STATES OF MIND

CONSCIOUSNESS
Your awareness of everything that is going around you in daily life at a given
time is called consciousness.

● ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

1. Waking consciousness- When a person spends his/her awake time
in an organized and alert manner.
2. When consciousness differs from waking consciousness, it is said to be
an “altered state of consciousness”.
3. It occurs due to the shift in mental activity.
4. A person is less alert, has fuzzy and disorganized thoughts.
5. It can be either hyper or hypo.
6. There are two kinds of thought processes-
❖ Controlled process- Requires attention to the high degree.
Eg;Driving
❖ Automatic process- Requires less of conscious attention. Eg;
Brushing hairs.
7. One controlled and one automatic process are less difficult to do
together at a time. Eg; Brushing hairs while calling, talking.
8. But two controlled processes at the same time are dangerous. Eg;
texting/calling while driving.
9. Forms of altered states- Daydreaming, hypnosis, meditative state,
influence of drugs. Most common altered state- Sleep.

SLEEP
1. Referred as ‘ gentle tyrant’ by Webb in 1992.
2. Sleep is a human's biological rhythm- the natural cycle of the brain that
humans must go through.
 3. Sleep wake cycle is a circadian rhythm that takes a day to be completed.
4. It is controlled by Hypothalamus.

● Role of Hypothalamus
❖ MELATONIN - A hormone secreted by the pineal glands that is
responsible for sleep and also believed to slow aging effects.

Hypothalamus consists of a deep structure called suprachiasmatic

nucleus,SCN, that directs pineal glands to secrete melatonin at the right
time.

Melatonin is also used as supplements for jet lags and slow aging.

❖ SCN - Present in the anterior part of hypothalamus, also called an

internal clock that tells when to sleep and when to wake up.

It is sensitive to light.

When the morning light enters the eyes, they signal SCN via
photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina via retinohypothalamic
tract, leading in secretion of melatonin.

OTHER REASONS OF SLEEP

● Several neurotransmitters are responsible for sleep regulation like serotonin.
● Serotonin producing neurons are active when awake, and less active when
asleep.
● Body temperature decreases causing sleepiness and increases in the morning
waking the person up.

HOW MUCH SLEEP

YOUNG ADULTS - 7 - 9 HRS

SHORT SLEEPERS - 4 - 5 HRS

LONG SLEEPERS- 9 HRS AND MORE

As we age, we sleep lesser ( avg. 6 hrs)

MICROSLEEPS: Short period of sleep that can be measured in seconds rather
than hours or minutes.

In an experiment, rats were placed on treadmills surrounded by water. Rats couldnt

sleep due to continuous rescue but drifted to microsleeps.

THEORIES OF SLEEP
ADAPTIVE THEORY OF SLEEP
1. According to the theory, sleep is the product of evolution.
2. It was given by Webb in 1992.
3. It proposes that humans and animals have evolved different sleeping
patterns to be safe and rescued from their predators.
Eg: Deer sleep at night to avoid lion’s attack.
4. Instead, they sleep and conserve energy.
5. Nocturnal animals like Opossum can afford to sleep the whole day and
be active at night.

RESTORATIVE THEORY OF SLEEP

1. It was given by Dr. William C. Dement in 1927.
2. It states that sleep is important for a person’s physical health. Many
chemicals that were released at the daytime are replenished, secretions
in excess can become toxic and hence are replaced and cells repaired.
3. Most of the repair occurs in deep sleep.
4. Sleep also reduces neuron activity associated with forgetting.
5. Sleep is important in forming memories. Changes in the brain that occur
when a memory is formed, get strengthened when replayed while
sleeping.
6. Brain’s plasticity increases due to enhanced synaptic connections.

SLEEP DEPRIVATION
Any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems associated with sleep cycle
causing concentration issues and irritability.
Good night’s sleep is very important for memory and the ability to think well.

Sleep deprivation includes trembling hands, inattention, drooping eyelids, etc.

Increased risk of diabetes.

SLEEP STAGES
Two types of sleep stages-

1. REM ( rapid eye movement) -

➔ Active type of sleep where parts of dream occur.
➔ Voluntary muscles inhibited.
➔ REM consists of different sleep stages too, i.e., N1, N2, N3.

2. NREM ( non rapid eye movement) -

➔ Span from lighter to deeper sleep.
➔ Body is free to move.

ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH- Machine that allows scientists to record

brain-waves in sleep to determine type of sleep.

Waves shown by EEG are :

1. Beta waves-
➢ Wide awake and mentally active.
➢ Very small and fast waves.
2. Alpha waves-
➢ Person gets relaxed and drowsy.
➢ Slightly larger and slower.
3. Theta waves-
➢ Slower and larger theta waves.
➢ In unconscious sleep.
 4. Delta waves-
➢ In the deepest stage of sleep.
➢ Largest and slowest waves.

4 STAGES:

Sleep consists of several stages that are repeated in cycles throughout the night. These
stages can be broadly categorized into two main types: non-rapid eye movement
(NREM) sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Each stage serves different
functions and is associated with specific characteristics and brain activity. Here's a
detailed breakdown of the stages of sleep:

2. Stage N1 (NREM 1): This is the transitional stage between wakefulness and sleep. It
is a relatively light stage of sleep, and people may experience drifting in and out of
consciousness. Brainwave activity slows down, and theta waves, which are slower and
more synchronized than beta waves, start to appear. This stage usually lasts for only a
few minutes.

3. Stage N2 (NREM 2): This is the first true stage of sleep. It is deeper than N1 but still
considered light sleep. During this stage, brainwave activity further slows down, and
specific brain patterns, such as sleep spindles (short bursts of rapid brain activity) and
K-complexes (sharp waveforms), can be observed. It accounts for the majority of the
sleep cycle and lasts around 50-60% of total sleep time.

4. Stage N3 (NREM 3 or slow-wave sleep): This is also known as deep sleep or

slow-wave sleep (SWS). It is the stage when the brain produces slow, high-amplitude
delta waves. It is the most restorative stage of sleep and plays a crucial role in physical
and mental rejuvenation. During this stage, blood pressure drops, breathing slows
down, and the body repairs and regenerates tissues. Growth hormone is also released
during this stage. It typically occurs earlier in the night and decreases as the night
progresses.

5. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep: REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye
movements and vivid dreaming. It usually starts about 90 minutes after falling asleep
and recurs multiple times throughout the night, becoming longer with each cycle. REM
sleep is associated with increased brain activity, resembling wakefulness.
Physiologically, heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration increase, while voluntary
muscle activity is inhibited (muscle atonia). The brain consolidates memories and
processes emotions during REM sleep, and it is essential for cognitive function and
learning.

The sleep cycle consists of multiple transitions between NREM and REM sleep stages. A
complete sleep cycle typically lasts around 90-120 minutes, and a person may
experience 4-6 cycles during a typical night's sleep. The proportion of time spent in
each stage of sleep varies throughout the night, with more deep sleep occurring early
in the night and more REM sleep occurring in the later stages.

REM REBOUND : Increased amounts of REM sleep after being deprived of REM
on earlier nights.

SLEEP DISORDERS
1. NIGHTMARES-

Nightmares are a type of sleep disorder known as a parasomnia.

They are vivid, disturbing dreams that can cause feelings of fear, anxiety, or
terror, often resulting in awakening from sleep.

Nightmares typically occur during the rapid eye movement (REM) sleep stage,
which is when most dreaming occurs.

Some additional information about nightmares:

Causes:

1. Stress and anxiety: High levels of stress, anxiety, or traumatic experiences

can contribute to the occurrence of nightmares.

2. Sleep deprivation: Lack of sufficient sleep or disruptions in sleep patterns can

increase the likelihood of experiencing nightmares.

3. Medications and substances: Certain medications, such as antidepressants,

can influence dream activity and increase the chances of nightmares. Substance
abuse or withdrawal from drugs and alcohol can also trigger nightmares.
4. Medical conditions: Nightmares can be associated with certain medical
conditions, such as sleep apnea, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and
other mental health disorders.

5. Sleep disorders: Conditions like sleep deprivation, sleep apnea, or restless leg
syndrome can disrupt the sleep cycle and contribute to nightmares.

Effects and Symptoms:

1. Intense emotions: Nightmares can evoke intense emotions, such as fear,

panic, sadness, or anger, leading to distress upon awakening.

2. Sleep disturbances: Frequent nightmares can disrupt sleep patterns, leading

to sleep deprivation and daytime fatigue.

3. Anxiety and fear of sleep: Recurring nightmares can cause anxiety and fear of
going to sleep, resulting in insomnia or sleep difficulties.

4. Impact on daily life: The emotional and physical effects of nightmares can
impact daytime functioning, mood, and overall quality of life.

Management and Treatment:

1. Improve sleep hygiene: Maintain a regular sleep schedule, create a

comfortable sleep environment, and engage in relaxation techniques before bed
to promote better sleep quality.

2. Address underlying conditions: If nightmares are associated with an

underlying medical or mental health condition, treating or managing that
condition may help reduce their occurrence.

3. Therapy: Techniques like cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) can be effective

in addressing nightmares. Therapy may involve exploring the content and
emotions of the nightmares, developing coping strategies, and desensitization.

4. Medications: In some cases, medication may be prescribed to manage

nightmares. This is typically considered when other treatment approaches have
been ineffective or when nightmares significantly impact daily functioning.
2. RBD ( REM behavior disorder)-

Rare disorder in which a mechanism that blocks the movement of voluntary

muscles fails, leading a person to thrash around and act out of the nightmares.

REM sleep disorder, also known as REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD), is a sleep
disorder characterized by the absence of muscle paralysis during REM sleep.
Normally, during REM sleep, the brain sends signals to inhibit muscle activity,
resulting in a state of temporary paralysis known as muscle atonia. However, in
individuals with REM sleep disorder, this muscle atonia is disrupted, leading to
abnormal behaviors and movements during REM sleep. Here's some additional
information about REM sleep disorder:

Causes:

1. Neurological conditions: REM sleep disorder can be associated with certain

neurological conditions, such as Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy,
and Lewy body dementia.

2. Medications: Some medications, such as certain antidepressants and

antipsychotics, have been linked to the development or exacerbation of REM
sleep disorder.

3. Brainstem abnormalities: Structural abnormalities or damage to the

brainstem can interfere with the regulation of muscle atonia during REM sleep,
leading to the disorder.

Symptoms:

1. Acting out dreams: Individuals with REM sleep disorder may physically act
out their dreams during sleep, which can involve behaviors like talking, yelling,
punching, kicking, or jumping out of bed.

2. Vocalizations: Along with physical movements, individuals may also make

sounds, such as shouting, screaming, or speaking, during REM sleep.

3. Vivid dreams: There is often a strong association between the abnormal

behaviors and the content of vivid and sometimes violent or intense dreams.
 4. Safety concerns: Due to the lack of muscle paralysis, individuals with REM
sleep disorder may injure themselves or their sleep partners during episodes.

Diagnosis and Treatment:

1. Polysomnography (PSG): Diagnosis of REM sleep disorder typically involves a

sleep study called polysomnography. This test records brain activity, eye
movements, muscle activity, and other physiological parameters during sleep to
identify the absence of muscle atonia during REM sleep.

2. Safety precautions: Creating a safe sleep environment is essential to prevent

injury during episodes of REM sleep disorder. This may involve removing
potentially dangerous objects from the bedroom and ensuring that the sleep
environment is free from hazards.

3. Medications: In some cases, medications such as clonazepam or melatonin

may be prescribed to help reduce the frequency and intensity of REM sleep
disorder episodes.

4. Management of underlying conditions: If REM sleep disorder is secondary to

an underlying neurological condition, managing that condition may help
alleviate the symptoms of REM sleep disorder.

3. NIGHT TERROR-

A state of panic while sleeping in which one can sit up, scream, run around,etc..

Night terrors typically occur during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep,
specifically during the transition from stage N3 (deep sleep) to stage N2.

Unlike nightmares, which occur during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and
are often accompanied by vivid dream recall, individuals experiencing night
terrors usually have no memory of the episode upon awakening.

Some additional information about night terrors:

Causes:

1. Genetics: Night terrors can sometimes run in families, suggesting a genetic

predisposition to the disorder.
2. Sleep deprivation: Lack of sufficient sleep or disrupted sleep patterns can
increase the likelihood of experiencing night terrors.

3. Stress and anxiety: High levels of stress, anxiety, or emotional disturbances

can contribute to the occurrence of night terrors.

4. Fever or illness: Night terrors may be more common in children who have a
fever or are experiencing an illness.

Symptoms:

1. Abrupt awakening: Night terrors typically occur within the first few hours of
sleep, and the individual may suddenly sit up in bed with a look of intense fear
or panic.

2. Intense emotions: During a night terror episode, the individual may exhibit
symptoms of extreme fear, panic, or terror, often accompanied by rapid
breathing, increased heart rate, and sweating.

3. Limited or no awareness: Unlike nightmares, individuals experiencing night

terrors are usually unresponsive to attempts to comfort or console them. They
may also have no memory of the episode upon awakening.

4. Agitated behavior: During a night terror, the individual may exhibit agitated
and frenzied behavior, such as screaming, thrashing, or running around the
room.

5. Limited recall: While there is no memory of the night terror itself, some
individuals may have a vague recollection of feeling scared or disturbed upon
waking up.

Management and Treatment:

1. Ensure safety: During a night terror episode, it is essential to ensure the

safety of the person experiencing it and those around them. Clear the
immediate environment of any potential hazards.

2. Create a soothing sleep environment: Maintaining a regular sleep schedule,

creating a calm and relaxing sleep environment, and practicing good sleep
hygiene can help reduce the frequency of night terrors.
 3. Address underlying factors: If stress, anxiety, or other emotional factors
contribute to night terrors, it may be helpful to address and manage these
underlying issues through therapy or stress reduction techniques.

Nightmares Night terrors

1. Usually vividly remembered 1. Not usually remembered

2. Occur during REM sleep 2. Occur during NREM sleep
3. People don't move. 3. People can move, walk around

SLEEPWALKING ( SOMNAMBULISM )
An episode of walking or moving around in one’s sleep.

Occurs in approx. 29 percent of children of age group 1 ½ years - 13 years.

Heredity plays a major role if a child is responsible for sleepwalking.

People may do more than just sitting, like walking around, eating something, etc. .

It is said that preventing sleep loss can lessen sleepwalking.

INSOMNIA
Inability to get sleep or good quality of sleep is called as Insomnia.

There are many causes of insomnia, both psychological and physiological.

Some of the psychological causes are worrying, trying too hard to sleep, or having
anxiety, etc. .

Physiological causes are too much caffeine, indigestion, or aches and pain, etc. .

Several steps people can take to help them sleep :

❖ Avoid consuming non caffeinated drinks before bedtime.

 ❖ Go to bed only when you are sleepy.
❖ Don’t do anything in your bed but sleep.
❖ Don’t try too hard to get to sleep, and especially do not look at the clock and
calculate how much sleep you aren’t getting.
❖ Keep to a regular schedule.
❖ Don’t take sleeping pills or drink alcohol or other types of drugs that slow down
the nervous system.
❖ Exercise is particularly useful for combating hypersomnia, but can also treat
insomnia.
❖ There are sleep clinics and sleep experts who can help people with insomnia.

SLEEP APNEA
Sleep disorder in which a person snores or stops breathing for 10 seconds.

In this, people don’t get a peaceful sleep.

According to the National Institutes of Health (2011), from 5 to 25 percent of adults in

the United States suffer from apnea.

Apnea can cause heart problems as well as poor sleep quality and depression.

Some people can benefit from wearing a nasal opening device, losing weight (obesity is
often a primary cause of apnea), or using a nasal spray to shrink the nasal tissues.

There are three main types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), central sleep
apnea (CSA), and complex sleep apnea syndrome (also known as mixed sleep apnea or
treatment-emergent central sleep apnea).

Symptoms of Sleep Apnea:

- Loud snoring

- Pauses in breathing during sleep (observed by a sleep partner)

- Excessive daytime sleepiness or fatigue

- Morning headaches
- Dry mouth or sore throat upon waking up

- Difficulty concentrating or memory problems

- Irritability or mood changes

- Restless sleep or insomnia

Treatment Options:

- Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP): CPAP is a common treatment for sleep
apnea. It involves wearing a mask over the nose or mouth during sleep, which delivers a
constant flow of air pressure to keep the airway open.

- Oral appliances: Certain dental devices can be used to reposition the jaw and tongue,
helping to keep the airway open during sleep.

- Lifestyle changes: Weight loss, regular exercise, avoiding alcohol and sedatives, and
sleeping in a side position can help reduce the severity of sleep apnea.

- Surgery: In some cases, surgical interventions may be considered to address the

physical obstructions causing sleep apnea.

NARCOLEPSY
When a person slips directly into REM sleep, during the day without warning, it is
known as Narcolepsy.

Narcolepsy is a chronic neurological disorder that affects the brain's ability to regulate
sleep-wake cycles. It is characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden and
uncontrollable episodes of falling asleep (known as "sleep attacks"), and other related
symptoms. Here's some additional information about narcolepsy:

1. Excessive Daytime Sleepiness (EDS): The primary symptom of narcolepsy is an

overwhelming and persistent feeling of sleepiness during the day. This often results in
difficulty staying awake and alert, regardless of the quality and duration of nighttime
sleep. Individuals with narcolepsy may struggle to stay awake in situations that require
attention or engagement, such as work, school, or while driving.
2. Cataplexy: Cataplexy is a unique symptom of narcolepsy that involves a sudden loss
of muscle tone or muscle weakness triggered by strong emotions such as laughter,
surprise, or anger. These episodes can range from mild muscle weakness to complete
physical collapse, leading to temporary loss of voluntary muscle control. Cataplexy can
last for a few seconds to a few minutes.

3. Sleep Paralysis: Sleep paralysis is the temporary inability to move or speak while
falling asleep or waking up. It occurs when the brain transitions between sleep stages
but the voluntary muscles remain temporarily immobilized. Sleep paralysis can be
accompanied by hallucinations and a sense of pressure or a presence in the room.

4. Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Hallucinations: People with narcolepsy may

experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations while falling asleep.

1. Hypnagogic Hallucinations: Hypnagogic hallucinations occur during the transition

from wakefulness to sleep, typically as a person is falling asleep.

These hallucinations can be visual, auditory, or tactile in nature. They often have
dream-like qualities and can be vivid, intense, and sometimes bizarre.

Common visual hallucinations may include seeing objects, people, or scenes that are
not actually present. Auditory hallucinations may involve hearing sounds, voices, or
music.

Tactile hallucinations may give the sensation of being touched or movement on the
body. Hypnagogic hallucinations are typically brief and can last from a few seconds to a
few minutes.

2. Hypnopompic Hallucinations: Hypnopompic hallucinations occur during the

transition from sleep to wakefulness, usually as a person is awakening.

Similar to hypnagogic hallucinations, they can be visual, auditory, or tactile in nature.

Hypnopompic hallucinations may also have dream-like qualities and can be vivid and
intense.
People may see objects, people, or scenes that are not actually there, hear sounds or
voices, or experience sensations on their body. These hallucinations can sometimes be
disorienting and may cause a sense of confusion upon awakening. Like hypnagogic
hallucinations, hypnopompic hallucinations are typically brief and can last from a few
seconds to a few minutes.

5. Disrupted Nighttime Sleep: People with narcolepsy may experience fragmented or

disrupted nighttime sleep, including frequent awakenings, vivid dreams, and frequent
shifts between sleep stages. This can contribute to daytime sleepiness and fatigue.

Narcolepsy is believed to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental

factors, although the exact cause is not fully understood. It is often diagnosed through
a combination of clinical evaluation, sleep studies (such as a polysomnogram and
multiple sleep latency test), and assessment of symptoms.

Treatment for narcolepsy aims to manage symptoms and improve daytime functioning.
Treatment options may include:

- Stimulant medications: These medications help promote wakefulness and reduce

daytime sleepiness.

- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or sodium oxybate: These medications

can help manage symptoms of cataplexy and improve nighttime sleep.

- Scheduled naps: Planned and strategic daytime naps can help alleviate excessive
sleepiness and improve alertness.

- Lifestyle adjustments: Establishing regular sleep patterns, maintaining a healthy

sleep environment, and avoiding sleep-depriving factors can help manage symptoms.
DREAMING
Dreaming is a fascinating and complex aspect of human sleep and consciousness. Here
are some key points to consider about dreaming:

1. Definition: Dreaming is a mental activity that occurs during sleep and is

characterized by a variety of sensory, perceptual, emotional, and cognitive experiences.
Dreams often involve vivid imagery, narratives, and a sense of presence and
participation.

2. Stages of Sleep: Dreams primarily occur during the rapid eye movement (REM)
stage of sleep. REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements, increased brain
activity, and muscle paralysis (except for rapid twitches). Most dreaming takes place
during REM sleep, although some dreams can occur during non-REM sleep stages as
well.

3. Dream Content: Dreams can vary greatly in content and theme. They may include
familiar or unfamiliar people, places, and events. Dreams often reflect personal
experiences, emotions, memories, and desires, but they can also involve surreal or
fantastical elements. The content of dreams is influenced by individual differences,
culture, and personal preoccupations.

4. Functions of Dreaming: The purpose and functions of dreaming are not yet fully
understood. Several theories propose different explanations, including:

- Memory Consolidation: Dreams may play a role in consolidating and organizing

memories, helping to integrate new information with existing knowledge.

- Emotional Processing: Dreams may provide a way for the brain to process and
regulate emotions, allowing individuals to work through unresolved emotional
experiences.

- Cognitive and Creativity Enhancement: Dreams can sometimes enhance

problem-solving abilities and foster creative thinking by exploring alternative scenarios
and associations.
 - Threat Simulation: Dreams may serve as a simulation for potential threatening
situations, allowing the brain to rehearse and prepare for challenges.

Dream Recall: The ability to remember dreams can vary among individuals. Some
people have vivid and detailed dream recall, while others may struggle to remember
their dreams. Factors such as sleep quality, sleep disorders, sleep interruptions, and
individual differences influence dream recall.

THEORIES OF DREAMING

1. Freud’s interpretation
Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, put forth a prominent theory on
dreams that is known as the Freudian theory of dreaming.

According to Freud, dreams serve as a pathway to access unconscious desires, wishes,

and conflicts that are repressed or hidden from conscious awareness.

Key elements of Freud's theory:

1. Manifest Content and Latent Content: Freud distinguished between the manifest
content and latent content of dreams. The manifest content refers to the actual
storyline, images, and events that are recalled upon waking.

However, Freud believed that the true meaning of dreams lies in their latent content,
which represents the underlying unconscious desires, fears, and conflicts.

2. Wish Fulfillment: Freud suggested that dreams are a fulfillment of unconscious

wishes. These wishes are often socially unacceptable or forbidden, and they are
disguised and distorted in dreams to avoid direct confrontation with conscious
awareness. Dream symbols and imagery are believed to represent these hidden desires
in symbolic form.

3. Symbolism and Displacement: Freud proposed that dreams employ symbolism and
displacement to mask and distort the true meaning of the unconscious desires.
Symbolism involves the representation of one thing by another, and displacement
refers to the redirection of emotional significance from the original source to a more
acceptable object or event in the dream.
4. The Unconscious Mind: Freud's theory of dreaming is rooted in his broader
understanding of the unconscious mind. He believed that the unconscious contains
thoughts, memories, and desires that are repressed or forgotten but still influence our
thoughts, behaviors, and dreams.

5. Dream Analysis: Freud developed a method called dream analysis to uncover the
latent content of dreams. Through free association and interpretation, he encouraged
individuals to explore the symbolic elements of their dreams, enabling them to gain
insight into their unconscious desires and conflicts.

2. Activation- synthesis hypothesis

The activation-synthesis hypothesis is a theory proposed by Allan Hobson and Robert
McCarley in the 1970s to explain the process of dreaming.

According to this hypothesis, dreams are a result of the brain's attempt to make sense
of random neural activity during REM (rapid eye movement) sleep.

Key elements of the activation-synthesis hypothesis:

1. Random Neural Activation: The hypothesis suggests that during REM sleep, the
brainstem and other structures in the brain generate random neural signals. These
signals are believed to arise from the brain's ongoing activation processes, which are
unrelated to external stimuli or conscious intentions.

2. Synthesis of Dream Content: When the brain receives these random neural signals,
the cortex (the outer layer of the brain responsible for thinking and perception) tries to
make sense of them by creating a narrative or story. This process involves synthesizing
the random signals with existing memories, emotions, and cognitive associations.

3. Dream Content as Meaningless: According to the activation-synthesis hypothesis,

the resulting dream content does not hold any deep symbolic meaning or represent
unconscious desires. Instead, dreams are seen as the brain's attempt to impose
meaning on random neural activity.

4. Dream Characteristics: The activation-synthesis hypothesis suggests that the bizarre

and often illogical nature of dreams can be attributed to the brain's efforts to create a
coherent narrative out of random signals. Dream elements, such as surreal imagery and
sudden scene shifts, are seen as byproducts of the brain's synthesis process.
The activation-synthesis hypothesis challenges the idea that dreams are purposeful or
meaningful experiences. Instead, it suggests that dreams are a side effect of the brain's
internal activity during REM sleep.

ACTIVATION INFORMATION MODE(AIM) MODEL

Hobson and colleagues have reworked the activation-synthesis hypothesis to reflect

concerns about dream meaning, calling it the activation-information-mode model, or
AIM.

In this newer version, when the brain is “making up” a dream to explain its own
activation, it uses meaningful bits and pieces of the person’s experiences from the
previous day or the last few days rather than just random items from memory.

HALL’S COGNITIVE THEORY

Calvin Hall's cognitive theory of dreaming suggests that dreams are influenced by a
person's everyday experiences and concerns.

He emphasized the continuity between waking life and dream content, with dreams
reflecting ongoing interests, activities, and interactions. Hall believed that dreams
involve cognitive processes such as memory consolidation, problem-solving, and
creative thinking.

He also emphasized the importance of personal symbolism in dream interpretation,

with individuals developing their unique set of symbols based on their experiences.

Hall's theory focused on the role of cognition and personal experiences in shaping
dream content.

OTHER THEORIES

Dr. William Domhoff (1996) concluded that across many cultures, men more often
dream of other males whereas women tend to dream about males and females equally.

Men across various cultures tend to have more physical aggression in their dreams than
do women, and women are more often the victims of such aggression in their own
dreams.

Domhoff also concluded that where there are differences in the content of dreams
across cultures, the differences make sense in light of the culture’s “personality”.
HYPNOSIS
Hypnosis is simply a state of consciousness in which a person is especially susceptible
to suggestion.

It involves guiding someone into a trance-like state, often through calming techniques
and repetitive instructions and the person may experience a heightened level of
concentration and be more open to positive suggestions or instructions given by a
hypnotist.

It is important to note that hypnosis does not involve losing control but is a
cooperative process between the hypnotist and the person being hypnotized.

A person cannot be hypnotized against his/her will.

HOW HYPNOSIS WORKS

1. The hypnotist tells the person to focus on what is being said.

2. The person is told to relax and feel tired.

3. The hypnotist tells the person to “let go” and accept suggestions easily.

4. The person is told to use vivid imagination.

Hypnosis can:

Create amnesia for whatever happens during the hypnotic session, at least for a brief
time.

Relieve pain by allowing a person to remove conscious attention from the pain.

Alter sensory perceptions. (Smell, hearing, vision).

Help people relax in situations that normally would cause them stress.

Hypnosis can’t:

Give people superhuman strength.

Reliably enhance memory. (There’s an increased risk of false-memory retrieval).

Regress people back to childhood.

Regress people to some “past life.”

THEORIES OF HYPNOSIS
THEORY OF DISSOCIATION:

Ernest Hilgard (1991; Hilgard & Hilgard, 1994) believed that hypnosis worked only on
the immediate conscious mind of a person, while a part of that person’s mind (a
“hidden observer”) remained aware of all that was going on.

In one study (Miller & Bowers, 1993), subjects were hypnotized and told to put their
arms in ice water, although they were instructed to feel no pain.

There had to be pain—most people can’t even get an ice cube out of the freezer without
some pain—but subjects reported no pain at all. The subjects who were successful at
denying the pain also reported that they imagined being at the beach or in some other
place that allowed them to dissociate from the pain.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

According to this theory, hypnosis is primarily influenced by social interactions,

expectations, and cognitive processes of the individuals involved.

In social cognitive theory, hypnosis is seen as a cooperative social interaction between

the hypnotist and the person being hypnotized. It suggests that individuals respond to
hypnosis based on their beliefs, attitudes, and expectations about what hypnosis
entails

Cognitive processes are another crucial component of the social cognitive theory of
hypnosis. It emphasizes how the individual's thoughts, perceptions, and attention can
influence their hypnotic experience.

The social cognitive theory of hypnosis also highlights the importance of individual
differences in hypnotic responsiveness. Factors such as personality traits, cognitive
styles, and prior experiences can influence how a person responds to hypnosis.

Some individuals may be more susceptible to hypnotic suggestions due to their

cognitive characteristics or their willingness to engage in the hypnotic process.

INFLUENCE OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS

physical dependence condition occurring when a person’s body becomes unable to
function normally without a particular drug.

Drug tolerance
The decrease of the response to a drug over repeated uses, leading to the need for
higher doses of drug to achieve the same effect.

Withdrawal

Physical symptoms that can include nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and high blood
pressure, resulting from a lack of an addictive drug in the body systems.

Negative reinforcement

The tendency to continue a behavior that leads to the removal of or escape from
unpleasant circumstances or sensations.

HOW IT AFFECTS: Drugs that can lead to dependence cause the release of dopamine
in a part of the brain called the mesolimbic pathway, a neural track that begins in the
midbrain area (just above the pons, an area called the ventral tegmental area or VTA)
and connects to limbic system structures, including the amygdala, the hippocampus,
and the nucleus accumbens, and continues to the middle of the prefrontal cortex.

When a drug enters the body, it goes quickly to this area, known as the brain’s “reward
pathway,” causing a release of dopamine and intense pleasure. The brain tries to adapt
to this large amount of dopamine by decreasing the number of synaptic receptors for
dopamine.

Psychological dependence: the feeling that a drug is needed to continue a feeling of

emotional or psychological well-being.

Positive reinforcement: The tendency of a behavior to strengthen when followed by

pleasurable consequences.