CHAPTER 4 josed-loop Response INTRODUCTION d-loop response of a process pertains to the dynamic behaviour of the ile system (including controller, measuring clement, final control element), an upset which can be caused either by a change in the set point or by a ge in the load/disturbances acting on the process. The characteristics of element present in the loop affects the performance of the process. The bined effect of different types of controller and different types of process is luated on the basis of amount of overshoot, final steady state error, and the taken for the controlled variable to reach the set point. Depending upon the of process, different controller modes may be required to achieve optimum formance. TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF CLOSED LOOP s 4.1 and 4.2 depict the block diagram and the signal flow diagram of a loop respectively. To simplify calculations, unity transfer function is as- for sensing and final control element. Further, following assumptions are for simplifying analysis. . Measuring lag of sensor is zero, so that controlled variable is the feedback variable, i.e., b = c. 2. The controller lag is zero. Fig. 4.1 Block diagram ofclosedloop ‘Fig. 4.2 Signal low diagram of closed loop ' system with unity feedback system with unity feedback88 Process Control: Principles and Applications The process equation is given by: c= Gyn+ DNu, ( = 6, (Gye) + I Ny, G, = Controller transfer function G, = Process transfer function N, = Process load function for disturbance uy m=G\e (Controller equation) it wimOlptHen eS wigs. (4 ¥ 1466, = 1 and — = ———_ vy 14+G,G, a r If) 9, ¥=0,..then £ = —_ c u 1+G,G, and? vo Seq aa, c ui 1+ GG, Combining the effect of both ‘set point’ and ‘disturbance’: 4 GG, N ei 4. Semen cor” “ 1 N ; yey ¢ ReInEGE: 1EGc, If there are more than one load variable, say 7, the process and error equati would be: > % GG, y SS (4: 6G, )* Bea," af ( ist From above equations, it is clear that there can be two sources of deviation. (i) Variation of load variables (u) (ii) Variation of set point (v) In servo control, the controlled variable ‘c’ is expected to follow the set with zero or minimal deviation; while in regulatory control, the controlled variable to remain constant despite the changes in load variables, The error controlled variable resulting from the change in set point and upon di bance is the basis on which different controllers are compared, Three comm error terms are: Error resulting from the step change in the load — Offset error (E,) from the step change in set point — Static error (E) — from the linear change in set point — Velocity error & 1 aa ng) — Sy Ly, le TATE daa,Closed-loop Response 89 Now, let us take a closer look at different processes and control modes to study their closed-loop response, 4,3 PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER IN CLOSED LOOP In an analog system, a proportional controller amplifies the error signal to gener- ate the control signal. If the error signal is in voltage, and the control signal is also in voltage, then the proportional controller used in the loop is just an amplifier. Figure 4.3 depicts a level control system with m and q,, as the inflow and outflow respectively. The downstream head w acts as the disturbance and c is the level in the tank. 4 is the cross-sectional area of the tank. de m-q- AT (4.10) %™ (4.11) Where R is the resistance of the outflow pipe The mass balance equation [Eq. (4.10)] can be represented by the electrical circuit shown in Fig. 4.4, with the governing equation as: ott dt Capacitance is equivalent to area of the tank. Inflow and outflow are equiva- lent to current, and level is equivalent to electric potential (V). If J, flows through a resistive element as shown in Fig. 4.5, then J, = —. If J, flows through resistance element having its other end at different poten- v-v, tial V,, as shown in Fig. 4.6, then J, = Now, let us find the process equation for Fig. 4.3 in Laplace domain. m(s) — 4e{8) = As (8) : (4.12) ago) = =H) ' (4.13) R Therefore, e(s) = [a] m(s) + [ I x (4.14) 1+ ARs 1+ ARs a 4 (downstream head) R = do Fig.4.3 Level control system90 Process Control: Principles and Applications Tt ae Z R Fig. 4.5 Electrical equivalent when, stream flow through resie Ris open to atmosphere Fig. 4.4 Electrical equivalent of Eq. (4.10) Ao 2 VN LastloKa Fig. 4.6 Electrical equivalent of Eq. (4.11) | eee el a where T= time constant of the vessel = AR; it depends on the capacity (C and resistance, R. Figure 4.7 depicts the use of proportional controller in ae loop system. 1 Tere Nm pets = | te [ar [tel ag Substituting G, and G; in Eq, (4.16), we get, _ [0+ 75) v(s) =o)» 9) = Te T+ KR) 1+ KR 72K, = K,< 1+6K,>0 = K>-2Closed-loop Response 95 d For 0-0", k,= + and sec 6 1 rad ie 2 ee? 3) & D Ce for Apart from giving ultimate values of gain, substitution method also gives the frequency at the ultimate values of Ky 4.4 INTEGRAL CONTROLLER IN CLOSED LOOP Integral control is often employed for control of fluid flow, liquid level, and “pressure. Let us analyze the integral control of a single capacitance process shown in Fig. 4.3. de ma qy= AT 1 cae a Hence, m= a aul@ Taking Laplace transform e(s) = u(s) R m(s) — = As c(s) es) = u; T= AR " (4.20) i aa” aes és 1 Integral controller function = G, = —— eG ee Process transfer function = Gy ier 1 1475” i where c= controlled variable = vessel head T= vessel time constant = RC R= resistance of outlet valve C = vessel capacitance = A = area m= manipulated variable= inflow = 4 = load variable = downstream head il gata . The contro} equation isi m = Ge = (6) wher ral n iene Al) a eb semeaeer integral is 4.10, Load transfer function = N =96 Process Control: Principles and Applications N. u Te+1 R + Gy Fig. 4.10 Block diagram of Fig. 4.3 with integral controller 1 N = | —— |v -] ——]u 1+G,G, 1+G,G, 1 e(s) = ———,—-v(s) - 1h u(s) 1+ ———__ 1 ee T, s(1+ Ts) T, s(1+ Ts) Ts i SOE) a iis iO TT,s°+Ts+R TTs+Ts+R Ts Ts+1 mas| 1 ( ro R (temo gClosed-loop Response 97 The integral time 7; of the controller must be selected to provide proper damp- ing, Since there is no offet, a moderate damping ratio may be chosen " avalue 1 ‘of about ca usually adequate, The integral time for damping ratio oft = can be computed from the following equation: 7 =42 RT (4.24) Figure 4.11 depicts the effect of 7; on the system response. It can be observed that small value of 7; increases the range of oscillations. Step response 0 5 10 15 Time (sec.) Fig. 4.11 Integral response of first-order system to unit step change in set point Example 4.4 Show that for the process shown i in be E4.1(a), instability is possible with integral control. Solution The process equation is: m —u = ae ' Taking Laplace transform, €) = Foms)= Fes ee iin bearer Level in vessel A= C= capacitance of vessel = Area m= manipulated variable = Inflow = load variable = Outflow = cohen 1+G,G, 1+G,G, aaah haters = i wu (E4.4.1) aap where98 Process Control: Principles and Applications Fig, 4.4 is the block diagram representation of the process shown in Fig. N “ T As y e 1 m soe c a lucie As ia a Gy at Fig. E4.4 Block diagram of Fig. £4-1(a) with integral controller The transient solution to the characteristic equation (denominator 9 (£4.4.1)) is a sinusoidal function without damping (there is no ‘s’ term), h producing a continuously oscillating controlled variable. Outflow in this pro does not depend upon the head; liquid is pumped out at a constant rate. § es or decreases, the tank will overflow or go empty. The pro inflow increas gral controller to su itself is not self-regulating and the addition of an inte} system will make it unstable. Recommendation: Do not use integral for processes that are not self-regulating. 4.5 PI CONTROLLER IN CLOSED LOOP d integral controls are often combined in order to obtain the inherent stability of proportional control and off fhe most commonly used mode of controlle Proportional an vantages of both the modes — removal of integral control. PJ is industries. Consider the same process of Fig. 4.3. The block diagram closed-loop system with P/ controller is shown in Fig. 4.12. Tha R 1 " : as a The process equation Is: e(s) ean m(s) esi u(s) where c= controlled variableClosed-loop Response 99 nce of outlet valve R= T= vessel time constant = RC C= A= vessel area m= manipulated variable = inflow = load variable = downstream head substituting values of G), G,, and N in Eq, (4.16), T, (Ts +1) Ts e) > Fe(Ts+ D+ RK, (T+) Ta(To+1) + RK, (75+ 1) Reducing the denominator to the standard form: (s) u(s) (4.25) > 5, Coe or T?s*+ 267.5 +1; eae @, ny o, T,s(Ts +1) Ts RK c= te 2 ay 4.26 "TK UTstl Ts 427541 ee where = Characteristic time _ U4 RK) eo ig 2 ee Eg ee ey : Re ‘ 4RK,T (RK,) ARK) ae ? P (RK, +1)? ac wna f= | = Damping ratio 4RK,T It is noticeable that the order of the system has increased; K, and 7; should be chosen carefully so that the system does not become highly underdamped result- ing in oscillations. rr Example 4.5 For proportional-integral control of the process shown in the Fig F41(),ealeulate the relation between proportional sensitivity and integral tn tone NE : tin For dai Fe Bk hota natipn> Aiold fda Qi Solution The process equation is; c(3) = jms us)400 Process Control: Principles and Applications ok, and Nimemnie ds As A = process capacitance, G. 1 The controller equation is: m (8) = «, 1+ 7 Jeo is sions for G, and G, in characteristic equation (1 + G, G), putting expre: T,s° +267, s+1=0 Characteristic equation = where 2 aurea AT, T. = characteristic time constant) 7 ~~ c ie 2 £= damping factor = Kp Ti 4A P 1 1 For a damping ratio of 5 an Kr)? a i) lope 4A 3 O 9 Example 4.6 For the process shown in Fig. E4.1 (a), inflow to tank i manipulated variable ‘m’. Outflow ‘uw’ through a pump on outflow line a disturbance. Controller is P/ having a proportional gain of 4, area of the te 2 m’, measuring element has unity transfer function. (a) Draw the block diagram of the process control loop. (b) Find @, and the value of K; which will result in a closed-loop respé having a damping factor of 0.5. Solution Block diagram of the controlled system is shown in Fig. E4.6.Closed-loop Response 101 2s) 42st 2K, =0 Comparing with standard form. s+ 2days + of = 0, 26a, = 2; for C= 0.5 @, = 2 rad/sec 2 2K, = a} or Ky = Spates) Example 4.7 A process control loop has G, as PI controller, Process is an inte- grating element with a process gain of K. Control valve and measuring element have unity transfer function. Find the relationship among K, K,, and K, for a damping factor of 0.5, Solution K K, Here, G. = x, (1 “),6 a= s 5 Characteristic equation (CE) = 1 + GG, =0 19h, ]2)en ha = s+9K,K+K,K,K=0 Comparing with the standard equation, s? + 2¢@,s + @,” = 0, we have: @,= ¥KiK,K 26a, = K, K Given that ¢= 0.5 1 [K,K =— |“ =05 = oe a = K,K=K, Example 4.8 The servo motor has a gain of ed and a time constant of vol 20 seconds. The speed sensor changes its output linearly from 0-8 V for a speed change of 0-80 rpm, The controller is of PY mode with 0-10 V output and 50% PB. The constant of integration is 5(% nin) . Output of the controller goes through an amplifier of gain 2 to drive thé’ motor, Set point is 55 rpm. (i) Draw the process control loop with transfer function inside each block and range of values with appropriate units outside each block. (ii) Find natural frequency of the closed-loop system, Solution Figure £4.8 shows the block diagram of controlled system with proper values and units and transfer functions.102 Process Control: Principles and Applications sees, Controller Amplifier Motor ssV5 = 1) Jo-tov }0-20V| OF as(i+¢) 2 a ‘a z ip M jeasuring element O8V 80 «(10 Fig. E4.8 1% v x, ~ 100% output __10 Ae , : 50% input (2x sv 100 (5 x 10) K,= 100 : poe 60 sec e x 8) 100 Characteristic equation of the closed-loop transfer function is: 1+ G.G, G, G,=0 => 1+25(1+LJa[ 4 }*(§)-° 8s 20s+1 10. (8s +1) 2 1 ip 85 (20s + 1) oa => lee 8s (20s + 1) + 16s +.2=0 160s? + 8s + 16s +2=0 160s? + 24s +2=0 = 0.11 rad/secClosed-loop Response 103 Solution dh -q=A qi a dh 2? = AZ qi dt Using Taylor’s series, do = Gos + OMY pag, (R= Ay5 he = 4m” Go = Gos + 3h, (h= hy) In terms of deviation variables, Q,=6H Q; (8) — Q, (s) = ASH (s) Q, (8) - 6H (s) = 9sH (s) bhiank 4 ; AG) fae Q(s) As+3yh, 6495 “kK, Here, G,= controller transfer function = K, (! me s fase he G, = Process transfer function = ath ) 6+9s G,, = Measuring element transfer function = = “ i +s Characteristic equation = 1 + G, G, G,, = 0 ae = 9s + 15s? + 5(6 + K,) + K, K;=0 1 hi + ¢ becomes 95° + 15s? + Ils + 5K,=0 a terion104 Process Control: Principles and Applications 302 and a= Lit td 3 see So K= Case He K;, = 10 The characteristic equation becomes 9s? + 15s? + 16s + 10K, = 0 4 rad 3 sec x8 3 9 Observation: High value of K, results in reduced Kj. Substituting s = /@ and equating real and imaginary parts, @= = 4.6 PD CONTROLLER IN CLOSED LOOP PD controllers offer the advantages of stability of proportional action reduction of stabilization time due to the derivative action. The derivative is useful for control of systems having large dead time and a very large of storage elements. Consider the PD control of a two capacitance pi shown in Fig. 4.13. ; ’ | Q % an ee At —tu Fig. 4.13 Two capacitance non-interacting process with PD controller ‘The system equations are: equivalent to areas A, and 4), Introducing de Laplace transform,