8 Computer Networks

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The greatest breakthrough in technology and communication over the past 20 years has been the
development and advancement of the computer network. From emailing a friend, to online bill
payment, to downloading data from the internet, to e-commerce, networking has made our world
much smaller and forever changed the way we communicate.
Network provides salient features which have made our life easy and comfortable, be it sending an
email, withdrawing money from an ATM machine, online railway or airline reservation, or sharing
audio and video files. Apart from these, the most extensively-used feature is the Print command
sent from a computer to get a printout from a printer attached to some other computer. All this
involves a network.
It is the network that connects various computers to each other and handles a large volume of data.

Fig. 8.1: A Computer Network

8.2 COMPUTER NETWORK—A BRIEF OVERVIEW

Several devices connected to each other for reliable communication/transfer of data constitute a
network. A network can consist of a computer, a fax machine, a printer, a camera, a cell phone, etc. A
collection of interconnected computers is called a Computer Network. Two computers or devices
are said to be interconnected if they are capable of sharing and exchanging information with each
other by following a protocol (set of rules).

CTM: A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and other devices to share data and
other resources (hardware and software resources).
 8.2.1 Advantages of Computer Networks

Internet

Domain
DNS & Data Storage
Firewall
Wi-Fi
Router

Server

Server User PC User PC

User PC

Printer
Printer

Fig. 8.2: The Network Diagram

Let us now discuss why networks are essential. Are there any advantages of networked computers
over stand-alone machines? Yes, networked systems are far better. A network uses a distributed
processing system in which a task is divided among several devices which are interconnected
with each other. Therefore, instead of a single computer being responsible for completing the
entire task, all the interconnected computers are responsible for completing the task assigned
to them. This leads to better performance with high processing speed.
Networks have several advantages which are described below:
(a) Resource Sharing: The primary use of a network is to share among users programs/
applications, data and peripheral devices connected to the network, irrespective of their
physical location. You must have noticed in your networked computer labs that when a print
command is given on one computer, the document is printed by a printer attached to some
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other system. This allows printing of documents by several users and, hence, the printer is
shared by multiple users on the network. Other resources like hard disk, DVD drive, scanner,
etc., can also be shared on a computer network. For example, sharing database, audio and
video files, antivirus software, application software, printers and scanners, etc.
(b) Improved Communication: A computer network enables fast, reliable and secure
communication between users. It saves time and offers easy communication methods.
For example, in an organization, managers work at different locations to make financial reports.
While working on a network, any change made by one manager on his/her computer can easily
be seen by other managers and employees. Thus, a network allows managers to easily update
information. This increases their efficiency and allows them to complete their work quickly.
(c) Reduced Communication Cost: Sharing resources also reduces communication cost. Using
public networks, we can send a large quantity of data at a low cost. Internet and mobile
networks are playing a very important role in sending and receiving text, image, audio and
video data at a low cost.
(d) Reliability of Data: Reliability means backing up of data, i.e., data can be copied and
stored on multiple computers. In a network system, all computers are connected to each
8.2
 other. Thus, the information or message which is shared by each device is stored on their
respective workstations (computers). If, due to some reason (hardware crash, etc.), the data
gets corrupted and, thus, becomes unavailable on one computer, a copy of the same data can
be accessed from another workstation for future use. This leads to smooth functioning and
further processing without disruption.
(e) Central Storage of Data: Files can be stored on a central node (the file server) that can
be shared and made available to each and every user in an organization. With centralized
processing, data is stored and retrieved from a single central location. Thus, there is no
duplication of data and almost no data redundancy.

8.3 EVOLUTION OF NETWORK

The network did not evolve in a single day; rather, it took decades to become more powerful,
efficient and reliable. The network has passed through several stages which are described below:
• ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network): ARPANET, which was jointly
designed and named by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and US Department
of Defence (DoD), was the first network and came into existence in 1969. It was a project that
connected a handful of computers at different universities and US DoD for sharing of data and
messages and playing long-distance games, and socializing with people to share their views.
• NSFNET (National Science Federation Network): In the mid-80’s, another federal agency,
NSFNET (National Science Federation Network), created a new network which was more capable
than ARPANET. Its main aim was to use network only for academic research and not for any
private business activity. Later, many private companies combined their own private networks with
ARPANET and NSFNET to make a more capable and broad network—the Internet. It is the internet
that links two or more networks to make a large network for sharing of information and messages.
ARPANET + NSFNET + PRIVATE NETWORKS = INTERNET

1995 NSF Net

1984 ARPANET 1986 NSF
1969 terminates its Today more than
has more than connects NSF net
ARPANET network on the 1996 Internet2 is 550 million hosts
1,000 individual to ARPANET and
becomes Internet and founded connect to the
computers linked becomes known
functional resumes status as Internet
as hosts as the Internet research network

Fig. 8.3: Evolution of Internet

8.3
 • Internet: In the 1990’s, internet, which is a network of networks, came into existence. The
internet has evolved from ARPANET. The computers are connected through World Wide Web
that comprises a large network and shares a common communication protocol (Transmission
Control Protocol-Internet Protocol, TCP/IP). It allows computers of different types to exchange
information and is known as internet. Millions of domestic, business and government networks
are connected with each other for the purpose of sharing files, data, email, etc. Most of the
computers are not connected directly to the internet. Instead, they are connected to smaller
networks which are further connected to a backbone network through gateways.

CTM: Network of networks makes the internet.

• Interspace: Interspace is a software that allows multiple users in a client-server environment

to communicate with each other by sending and receiving data of various types such as
data files, video, audio and textual data in a 3-D environment. It facilitates online real-time
exchange of data. Interspace is the most advanced term of communication available on the
internet today.
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8.4
 8.4.1 Elementary Terminology of Networks

1. Nodes (Workstations): The term node refers to computers that are attached to a network
and are seeking to share resources.
2. Server: A computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software and hardware resources on
the network.
3. Network Interface Unit (NIU) (MAC Address): A network interface unit is an interpreter
that helps in establishing communication between the server and the client.

4. IP Address: Every machine on a TCP bar/IP Network has a unique identifying number
called an IP Address.
5. Domain Name: It is a way to identify and locate the computers connected to the internet.
It must be unique.

8.5 COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

A network comprises several components along with their functionalities that contribute to
its smooth functioning. To form a network, a lot of hardware devices are required which are
described as follows:
 Sender: A device or a computer that sends the data.
 Receiver: A device or a computer that receives the data.
 Message: Message is the information to be communicated. It may be text, image, audio or
video.
 Transmission Medium: A transmission medium is a physical path through which the data
flows from sender to receiver. A cable or wire or radio waves can be the medium.
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 Protocol: A set of rules that governs data transmission. It represents the communication
methods which are to be followed by the sending and receiving devices.

Network adapter inside

each node

Computer
Printer

Network navigation device

Radio waves
Router (used in some networks)

Transmission media (wireless or

wired) connecting nodes
Networking software
running on each computing
device

iPad

8.6
Fig. 8.5: Components of a Computer Network
8.6 MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION
(a) Analog or Broadband Transmission
• The signal is a radio frequency signal or analog, i.e., it can consist of continuous
electrical waves that are of varying amplitudes.
• Telephone networks use this type of transmission.
• Requires modem for transmitting data over baseband medium.
(b) Digital or Baseband Transmission
• No special device for conversion of signal to be transmitted over baseband medium.
• The signal is a group of discrete electrical units which is transmitted in rapid succession.

8.7 DIFFERENT WAYS OF SENDING DATA ACROSS NETWORK

There are several ways of sending data from one node to another through network. It can
be in the form of calls, messages, etc. By using various types of switching techniques, we can
establish the connection/communication.

8.7.1 Network Switching

A network is made up of several interconnected nodes. There can be a point-to-point connection
or star topology between pairs of devices, but both are not relevant for a large network. Hence,
various switching techniques are used to transfer packets of data from one port of a node to
another. A switched network is made up of a series of interconnected nodes called switches.

8.7.2 Switching Techniques

The main goal of networking is the reliable exchange of data or information among several
interconnected nodes. For the delivery of data with accuracy, various types of switching
techniques are used, namely:
1. Circuit Switching
2. Packet Switching
3. Message Switching

CTM: The technique of sending data across the network is known as Switching technique. The three types
of techniques used are circuit switching, packet switching and message switching.

8.7
 1. Circuit Switching
Circuit switching provides end-to-end connection between two computers. It is established
usually in a telephone network where one person is making a call and another is receiving a call.
In a telephone system, the communication must be established between the two participants,
i.e., the sender and the receiver. The circuit is established between these two participants
before the transfer of data takes place.

Receiver Caller
Fig. 8.6: Circuit Switching

In this technique, the entire link remains dedicated and no other user can use it even if the
path remains idle. The following actions take place during circuit switching:
(a) A request signal is sent by the sender to set up the connection with the receiver. It establishes
a physical connection between the two participants.
(b) All intermediate nodes are identified. These nodes are also called switching nodes.
(c) If the destination node is available, it sends back the acknowledgement of receiving a signal.
Hence, data transmission begins.
(d) When the data transmission is complete, the call can be terminated.

CTM: Circuit switching is a connection-oriented service. In this technique, there is a dedicated link between
the sender and the receiver and no other call can be made during this link, even if the link remains idle.

2. Packet Switching
In packet switching technique, the entire data is divided into small fragments called packets.
Each packet is of a fixed size, usually 128 bytes or 512 bytes. Packet switching is similar to post
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office operation. Each packet has a source address as well as destination address (IP address)
for being transmitted, in the same way as a postman delivers a letter to a specific destination
address.
As there is no direct connection established between the sender and the receiver, each
packet follows different routes and, therefore, the packets are delivered in a random order
at the destination address. It is the TCP protocol which then arranges all received packets in
a sequential order. During the transfer of packets, each packet has to pass through several
intermediate nodes, so each intermediate node checks for destination IP address. If the packet
matches with the node address, it is received; otherwise, it is passed on to the next node until
it reaches the destination IP address.

8.8
 Mainframe

Caller
Receiver

Fig. 8.7: Packet Switching

CTM: Packet switching offers a connectionless service. Data is fragmented into small packets and each
packet is of fixed size in packet switching technology.

8.7.3 Difference between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching

1. The circuit switching reserves the required bandwidth in advance, whereas packet switching
uses bandwidth as and when required by the packets to be transmitted.
2. Circuit switching is a fast technology as compared to packet switching which is a slow
mechanism of transferring packets from sender to receiver.
3. Circuit switching requires a dedicated path. Once the connection is established, the
communication path is entirely dedicated to it until the data is completely transferred
from sender to receiver, whereas in packet switching, packets can use any dynamic path.
4. In circuit switching, if the path is overloaded, the call is blocked and communication is
delayed. But in packet switching, packets are allocated to different paths.
5. Circuit-switched networks are used for phone calls and packet-switched networks handle
data.
6. Packet switching is more efficient because the cost of the link is shared by many users.
7. In circuit switching, the telephone message is sent unbroken. The message is received in
the same order as it is originally sent. In packet switching, the message is broken into
small packets which are randomly sent from source and received in random order at
destination, which is then sequentially arranged.

8.9
 8.8 DATA COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGIES
1. Channel: A channel is a communication path through which the data is transmitted from
the sender device to the receiver device.
2. Baud: The number of changes in a signal per second is known as baud. It is the measuring
unit of the data transfer rate. Technically, baud refers to a number of discrete signal
elements transmitted per second. 1 baud represents only 1 signal change per second and
is equivalent to 1 bit per second.
3. Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be passed along a communication channel in a
given period of time (1 second) is termed as bandwidth. The measuring unit is hertz (Hz),
where 103 Hz = 1 Kilo Hertz (KHz), 103 KHz = 1 Mega Hertz (MHz).
4. Data and Signals: Information that is stored within computer systems and transferred
over a computer network can be divided into two categories—data and signals. Data are
entities that are stored in the form of 0’s and 1’s, which convey some special meaning
to the computer system. When this data is transmitted from one place to another, it is
converted into signal. Signals are the electric or electromagnetic encoding of data and are
used to transmit data.
5. Communication/Transmission Media: It is a means of communication or access (lines
of communication) set up between two organizations to exchange data/information.
Communication media is the way of transmitting the signal from one place to another.
Communication media is also known as transmission media. It plays an important role in
sending and receiving of data to and from the sender and receiver.
6. Data Transfer Rate: It is the amount of data transferred in one direction over a link divided
by the time taken to transfer it in bits per second (bps). The various measuring units are
bits per second (bps) and bytes per second (Bps) or baud, kilobits per second (kbps),
megabits per second (mbps), gigabits per second (gbps), terabits per second (tbps.)

8.9 NETWORK DEVICES

1. Modem: A MODEM (Modulator DEModulator) is an electronic device that enables a computer
to transmit data over telephone lines. It is a device used to convert digital signals into
analog signals and vice versa. There are two types of modems, namely internal modem
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and external modem.

2. RJ-45 Connector: RJ-45 is a standard type of connector for network cables. The RJ-45 (Registered
Jack) connectors are the plug-in devices used in networking and telecommunications
applications. They are used primarily for connecting LANs, particularly Ethernet.

CTM: RJ-45 is a short term for Registered Jack-45. It is an eight-wire connector used to connect computers
on LANs, especially Ethernets.

3. Ethernet Card: It is a hardware device that helps in the connection of nodes within a network.
Ethernet card is also known as a network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface
card). It is a card that allows computers to communicate over a computer network. On
Ethernet card, a physical address of each communicating computer is mentioned. Physical
address is known as MAC address.

8.10
 4. Hub: It is multi-port and unintelligent network device which simply transfers data from
one port of the network to another. A hub is a hardware device used to connect several
computers together with different ports. When the packet reaches one port, it is copied to
all other ports of the hub without changing the destination address in the frame. Rather,
it simply copies the data to all of the nodes connected to the hub.
Hubs can be either active or passive. Hubs can usually support 8, 12 or 24 RJ-45 ports.

Fig. 8.8: Hub

But the problem with hub is that it is not an intelligent device. It shares bandwidth with
all the attached devices and broadcasts the data, i.e., sends the data frames to all the
connected nodes, as it does not remember devices/computers connected to it. Also, it
cannot filter the data and causes unnecessary traffic jams.
A hub can both send as well as receive information, but only one task at a time. However, a
hub is an inexpensive way to connect multiple nodes/devices to network.

CTM: Hub is a device used to connect several computers with each other.

5. Switch: A switch (switching hub) is a network device which is used to interconnect computers
or devices on a network. It filters and forwards data packets across a network. It is also a
multi-port device but with some intelligence and so the data packets received from one port
of network are refreshed and delivered to the other port of the network. The main difference
between hub and switch is that hub replicates what it receives on one port onto all the other
ports, while switch keeps a record of the MAC addresses of the devices attached to it.

Fig. 8.9: Switch

CTM: A switch is a device that transmits data to the computers in a LAN.

6. Bridge: A bridge is a device that works on the physical layer as well as on data link layer. A
network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the
OSI model. Bridges relay frames between two originally separate segments. When a frame
enters a bridge, the bridge not only regenerates the signal but also checks the physical
address of the destination and forwards the new copy only to that port.
8.11
 An important advantage of using a bridge is that it is a smarter hub as it can filter network
traffic on the basis of the MAC addresses.

SERVER SERVER 20.0.0.0/8

10.0.0.0/8 IP ADDRESS
IP ADDRESS
BRIDGE

PC 4 PC 5 PC 4 PC 5

PC 1 PC 2 PC 3 PC 1 PC 2 PC 3
Fig. 8.10: Ethernet Bridge

CTM: A bridge is a device that links two segments together of the original network.

7. Gateway: A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks. In internet, several networks
are communicating with each other and each network has a different configuration. In
order to make reliable communication, there must be a device that helps in communicating.
Gateway is a device which establishes an intelligent connection between a local area network
and external networks with completely different structures.

Internet Web Server

******** Workstation
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Gateway

Fig. 8.11: Gateway

CTM: A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks.

8. Repeater: A repeater is a device that operates only on the physical layer of the OSI model. As
a signal travels a fixed distance, before attenuation of the signal, a repeater is used which
amplifies and restores signals for long-distance transmission. A repeater is an electronic
device that receives a signal before it becomes too weak and regenerates the original
signal. Also, it is a two-port network device that strengthens the signal intensity and
connects two identical networks. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters
are required for cable runs longer than 100 metres. A repeater does not change the
functionality of the network; instead, it makes the signal strong before it degrades.
Repeaters are also extensively used in broadcasting where they are termed as translators
8.12 or boosters.
 Weakened Signal Regenerated Signal

Repeater

Repeater

No signal
through the hill

Communication only possible by bouncing the

signal through the repeater

Fig. 8.12: Working of a Repeater

CTM: Repeater is a device that amplifies a signal that is transmitted across the network so that the signal is
received in the same way as it is sent.

9. Router: A router is a networking device that forwards data packets from the source
machine to the destination machine by using the shortest path. Routers are used at the
network layer, which is the third layer of the OSI model.
INTERNET EXTENDING A NETWORK USING
A LAN CABLE CONNECTION AND A SECOND ROUTER

Secondary
Main Router Router

LAN CABLE CONNECTION

LAPTOP LAPTOP
MOBILE TAB TAB MOBILE

Fig. 8.13: Router

CTM: A router is a networking device that helps in forwarding packets from one machine to another.

10. Wi-Fi Card: A Wi-Fi card is either an internal or external Local Area Network adapter with a
built-in wireless radio and antenna. A Wi-Fi card is used in a desktop computer that enables
a user to establish an internet connection. Wi-Fi cards are known as wireless fidelity cards
as they allow the user to set up connection without any wire. Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)
cards are widely used in notebook computers due to their highly portable nature. The most
common Wi-Fi cards used in desktop computers are PCI-Express Wi-Fi cards made to fit
the PCI-Express card slots on the motherboard. 8.13
 8.10 TYPES OF NETWORKS
A computer network may be small or big depending upon the number of computers and other
network devices linked together. Thus, networks vary in size, complexity and geographical spread.
A computer network can be on a table, in a room, building, city, country, across continents or
around the world.
On the basis of geographical spread, networks may be classified as:
1. PAN
2. LAN
3. MAN
4. WAN

8.10.1 Personal Area Network (PAN)

PANs are small networks used to establish communication between a computer and other
handheld devices in the proximity of up to 10 metres using wired USB connectivity or wireless
systems like Bluetooth or Infrared. PANs are used to connect computers, laptops, mobiles and
other IT-enabled devices to transfer files including emails, digital photos, audio and video, etc.
The Bluetooth technology implements PAN. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and
mouse, Bluetooth-enabled headphones, wireless printers and TV remotes.

10 Metres
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Fig. 8.14: Personal Area Network (PAN)

CTM: The network that belongs to a single person or user is known as PAN.

8.10.2 Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is a privately owned computer network covering a small geographical area (small physical
area), like a home, office or a building such as a school. It can cover an area spread over a few
metres to a radius of a few kilometres.
Occasionally, a LAN can span a group of nearby buildings. In addition to operating in a limited
space, a LAN is owned, controlled and managed by a single person or organization. A LAN can be
set up using wired media (UTP cables, coaxial cables, etc.) or wireless media (Infrared,
Radio waves). If a LAN is set up using unguided media, it is known as WLAN (wireless LAN).
The key purpose of a LAN is to share resources. LAN users can share data, programs, printer,
disk, modem, etc.
8.14
 LAN in your Home LAN in Office

CAMPUS
LAN in Building

LAN in Campus

Fig. 8.15: Local Area Network (LAN)

Data transfer rate speed over a Local Area Network can vary from 10 mbps to 1 gbps.

8.10.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MAN is larger than a LAN and can cover a city and its surrounding areas. A MAN usually
interconnects a number of LANs and individual computers. It also shares the computing
resources among users. All types of communication media (guided and unguided) are used to set
up a MAN. A MAN is typically owned and operated by a single entity such as a government body
or a large corporation. A good example of MAN is the interconnected offices of a Multinational
Corporation (MNC) or cable television networks available in the whole city.

SOHO
Base station customer

Residential
customer

Multi-tenant
customers

Repeater
SME
customer
Base station

Fig. 8.16: Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) 8.15

 8.10.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)
A WAN is a telecommunication network. This type of network spreads over a large geographical
area across countries and continents. WANs are generally used to interconnect several other
types of networks such as LANs, MANs, etc. They facilitate fast and efficient exchange of
information at a high speed and low cost. A WAN uses common carriers like satellite systems,
telephone lines, etc.
A WAN can cover an area with a radius spanning hundreds of kilometres. A network of ATMs,
banks, government offices, international organizations’ offices, etc., spread over a country,
continent or covering many continents are examples of WAN.
All types of communication media (guided and unguided) are used to set up a WAN. The best
known example of a WAN is the internet. The internet is the largest WAN spanning the entire planet.

CTM: A WAN interconnects all the computers across the world.

Wide Area
Network (WAN)
Satellite
Metropolitan
Area Network
(MAN)

Local Area
Personal Area Network (LAN)
Network (PAN)

Fig. 8.17: Wide Area Network (WAN)

The following table summarizes the characteristics of PANs, LANs, MANs and WANs.
Parameter PAN LAN MAN WAN
Area covered Small area A building or campus A city (up to Entire country,
(up to 10 m (up to 10 km) 100 km radius) continent or globe
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radius)
Networking Negligible Inexpensive Expensive Very expensive
cost
Transmission High speed High speed Moderate speed Low speed
speed
Error rate Lowest Lowest Moderate Highest
Network WLAN, USB LAN/WLAN, Hub/ Router, Gateway Router, Gateway
devices used Dongle Switch, Repeater,
Modem
Technology/ Infrared, Bluetooth Ethernet, Wi-Fi Optical fibre, Microwave Satellite
media used Radio-wave,
Microwave

CTM: LAN and WAN are the two primary and best-known categories of area networks; the others have
emerged with technological advances.

8.16
Comparing LAN and WAN
As we have seen, computer networks can be classified into LAN, MAN and WAN categories on
the basis of their geographical domains. A WAN extends over a large geographical area, such as
states or countries. A LAN is confined to relatively smaller areas, such as an office, a building,
etc. A MAN usually covers an entire city. It uses the LAN technology. The most common example
of MAN is the cable television network. Thus, the basic points of difference between LAN and
WAN are as follows:
1. The distance between the nodes in a LAN connection is limited to a specific range. The upper
limit is approximately 10 kilometres and the lower limit is one metre. On the other hand,
WANs are spread across thousands of kilometres in different countries or regions.
2. LANs operate between speeds of 1 mega bit per second (mbps) and 10 mbps while WANs
operate at speeds of less than 1 mbps. To achieve speeds of several hundred mbps, it is
advisable to use the optical fibre technology.
3. The error rate in LANs is lower than that in WANs because of the short distances involved in
LANs. The error rate in LANs is approximately one thousand times less than that in WANs.
4. As LANs are limited by distance, an entire LAN is usually under the control of a single entity,
such as an organization. On the other hand, WANs are usually operated and controlled by
multiple organizations.
Thus, we can say that in comparison to WANs, LANs cover a limited area but they operate with
high speed and low error rates.

8.11 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Topology is a way of connecting devices with each other either physically or logically. Two or
more devices make a link and two or more links form a topology. It is basically a geometrical
representation of how a network is laid out.

CTM: Topology is a way of connecting several devices with each other on a network.

Types of Topologies
Basically, there are five types of topologies and each topology has some advantages and disadvantages.

Types of Topology

Mesh Topology Star Topology Bus Topology Ring Topology Tree Topology

Fig. 8.18: Classification of Network Topologies

8.17
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8.11.2 Star Topology

Computer
In star topology, each communicating device is
connected to a central controller called hub. (A hub is a
hardware device used to connect several computers
together.) Unlike mesh topology, the devices in star
Computer Computer
topology send and receive data indirectly; the data
passes to and from the hub. If the data is required to HUB
be sent from one computer and received by another
computer, then this can be accomplished only by the
central controller as each data is first sent to the hub,
which then relays that data to the destination computer.
The most popular and widely used LAN technology,
Ethernet, currently operates in Star Topology. Computer Printer
Fig. 8.20: Star Topology
8.18
Advantages of Star Topology
(a) Fewer wires are required as compared to mesh topology which, thus, reduces the number
of input/output ports.
(b) Installation and maintenance of network is easy and takes less time.
(c) It is easy to detect faults in this network as all computers are dependent on the central hub.
This means that any problem which makes the network non-functioning can be traced to
the central hub.
(d) The rate of data transfer is fast as all the data packets or messages are transferred through
central hub.
(e) As the nodes are not connected to each other, any problem in one node does not hamper
the performance of other nodes in the network.
(f) Removal or addition of any node in star topology can take place easily without affecting the
entire performance of the network.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

(a) Extra hardware is required for installation of central controller known as hub.
(b) All nodes of star topology are dependent on central hub and, therefore, any problem in
the hub makes the entire network shut down.
(c) The performance of the entire network is directly dependent on the performance of the hub.
If the server is slow, it will cause the entire network to slow down.
(d) More cabling is required in star topology as compared to any other topology (ring, bus,
tree) as all nodes are directly connected to a central hub.

8.11.3 Bus Topology

Bus topology is a multipoint configuration, i.e., several devices are connected to a main long
cable which acts as a backbone. Nodes are connected by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a
connection between the long cable and devices and taps are the connectors that are punctured
inside the main cable. The data flows from one end of the cable to the other.
However, as the signal travels a long distance, it becomes weaker and weaker.
Server

BACKBONE

Nodes
Dropline

Fig. 8.21: Bus Topology

Therefore, there should be a limited number of nodes connected to a line. Ethernet is a common
example of bus topology.

8.19
 Advantages of Bus Topology
(a) Nodes can be connected or removed easily from bus network.
(b) It requires less cable length than a star topology.
(c) Bus network is easy to implement and can be extended up to a certain limit.
(d) It works well for small networks.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

(a) If there is a fault or break in the main cable, the entire network shuts down.
(b) Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
(c) Fault isolation is difficult to detect if the entire network shuts down.
(d) When the network is required in more than one building, bus network cannot be used.
(e) The signal becomes weaker if number of nodes becomes large.
(f) Performance degradation occurs with the increased number of nodes.
(g) Collision of data can take place because several nodes can transmit data to each other at
one time.

CTM: There is a main cable which is connected to several workstations through taps. Collision of data can
take place in bus topology.
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8.20
8.11.5 Tree Topology
In tree topology, all or some of the devices are Central
connected to the central hub, called an active hub
hub, and some of the devices are connected
to the secondary hub, which may be an active Secondary Secondary
hub or passive hub. An active hub contains hub hub
the repeater that regenerates the signal when
it becomes weaker with longer distances. A
passive hub simply provides a connection
Fig. 8.23: Tree Topology
between all other connecting nodes.

Advantages of Tree Topology

(a) The tree topology is useful in cases where a star or bus cannot be implemented individually.
(b) It is most suited in networking multiple departments of a university or corporation, where
each unit (star segment) functions separately, and is also connected with the main node
(root node).
(c) The advantages of centralization that are achieved in a star topology are inherited by the
individual star segments in a tree network.
(d) Each star segment gets a dedicated link from the central bus. Thus, failing of one segment
does not affect the rest of the network.
(e) Fault identification is easy.
(f) The network can be expanded by the addition of secondary nodes. Thus, scalability is
achieved.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

(a) As multiple segments are connected to a central bus, the network depends heavily on the
bus. Its failure affects the entire network.
(b) Owing to its size and complexity, maintenance is not easy and costs are high. Also,
configuration is difficult in comparison to other topologies.
(c) Though it is scalable, the number of nodes that can be added depends on the capacity of the
central bus and on the cable type.

8.21
 CTM: In tree topology, the main central hub is connected to the secondary hub through which all devices
are connected with each other. Tree topology is just like a parent-child relationship.

The decision to select a particular topology for a network does not take place in isolation as
the topology determines the type of media and access methods that would be used on the
network. Therefore, several factors are taken into consideration before selecting a topology
which are as follows:
 Cost: Cost signifies that the network should be cost-effective. For this, it is required to
minimize the installation cost. This can be done by selecting an economical transmission
medium (that is, wires) for data exchange between the network nodes. The network cost
can also be minimized by reducing the distances between the nodes.
 Flexibility: Flexibility signifies that the network must be flexible enough, i.e., it should be
easy to reconfigure. Reconfiguring a network means to rearrange the existing nodes or add
new ones on the network.
 Reliability: It refers to the degree of trust that can be placed on a network. Like any
other system, a network can also encounter failure. A network failure can occur due to the
following causes:
1. When an individual node stops working.
2. When the entire network fails. This is caused by a more serious fault that stops the
working of an individual node.

8.12 COMMUNICATION MEDIA

Communication media is also known as transmission media through which data or signal
is transferred between two communicating devices, i.e., from one system to another
system, through wires or without wires. If the data is sent across network through wires, it
is called guided media and if the data is sent without wires, it is called unguided media.
Supplement – Computer Science with Python–XII

CTM: Communication media is a transmission media used for sending data or signal across the network.

8.22
Types of Communication/Transmission Media
All communication/transmission media can be divided into two categories:

Communication
Media

Guided Media Unguided Media

Twisted Coaxial Fibre Optic Satellite

Microwaves Radio Waves Infrared
Pair Cable Cable Cable Link

Fig. 8.25: Types of Communication Media

 Guided Media (Wired Media): Guided media are also known as physical or conducted
media. These media use wires for transmitting data. Various wired connections are twisted
pair wire, coaxial cable and fibre optic cable.
 Unguided Media (Wireless Media): A transmission media that does not require the use of
cables for transmission of data is known as unguided media. Wireless transmission is also
known as unguided media or non-physical media as the transmission takes place through
various types of electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves, terrestrial microwave
transmissions, satellite transmissions, cellular radio systems, infrared transmissions, etc.

8.12.1 Guided Media or Wired Networking Technologies

1. Twisted Pair Cable
A twisted pair cable is the oldest, simplest and the most
common type of conducted media. It is made of two plastic
insulated copper wires which are twisted together to form
a single wire. Each wire is 1 mm thick. Out of these two
wires, only one carries the actual signal while the other is
Fig. 8.26: Twisted Pair Cable
used for ground reference. The wires so twisted are helpful
in avoiding interference from the nearby similar pairs, which is known as crosstalk. Twisted
pair can be specified as Category 1–5 and is abbreviated as Cat 1–5. Category 6 twisted pair
can support data transmission as high as 200 mbps for 100 metres while Category 7 twisted
pair can support still higher data rates.
Twisted pair comes in two varieties:
(a) Shielded twisted pair (STP): STP cables are covered in metal foil. This makes them
indifferent to noise and crosstalk.
(b) Unshielded twisted pair (UTP): UTP has seven categories, each suitable for a specific
use. In computer networks, mostly Cat-5, Cat-5E and Cat-6 cables are used. UTP cables
are connected by RJ-45 connectors.

Advantages of Twisted Pair Cable

(a) It is simple to use.
(b) It is inexpensive and does not require skilled personnel.
8.23
 (c) It is less susceptible to electrical interference caused by nearby equipment or wires in a
telephone system. Signals can travel several kilometres without amplification when
twisted pair wires are used.
(d) These media can be used for both analog and digital data transmission. The bandwidth
depends on the thickness of the wire and the distance travelled, but several megabits per
second can be achieved for a few kilometres in many cases.
(e) If a portion of a twisted pair cable is damaged, the entire network is not shut.

Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cable

(a) STP wire is physically larger and more expensive than twisted pair wire.
(b) STP is more difficult to connect to a terminating block.
(c) It easily picks up noise signals which results in higher error rates when the line length
exceeds 100 metres.
(d) Being thin in size, it is likely to break easily.
(e) It can support 19,200 bps up to 50 feet on RS-232 port.

2. Coaxial Cable
A coaxial cable is generally called a coax wire. It consists braided shield foil shield
of insulated copper wires surrounded by a braided centre
metal shield and covered in a plastic jacket. Coax cables conductor
are capable of carrying higher frequency signals than
twisted pair cables. The wrapped structure provides
it a good shield against noise and crosstalk. Coaxial
cables provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps. outer jacket dielectric
Coaxial cable also comes in two primary physical types: Fig. 8.27: Coaxial Cable
thin coaxial cable and thick coaxial cable. There
are three categories of Coax cables, namely RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin Ethernet) and
RG-11 (Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio Guide. Coax cables are widely used for internet
connections and cable televisions.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

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(a) Coaxial cable can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair
cable.
(b) It is useful for transmitting analog as well as digital data across the network. For analog
data transmission, 75 ohm broadband coaxial is used and for digital transmission, 50 ohm
baseband cable is used.
(c) It is widely used for cable television and internet connections.
(d) Coax are used for transmitting several channels simultaneously, i.e., they are helpful in
broadband transmission.
(e) Coaxial cable has excellent noise immunity because of thick covering outside the insulated
wires.
(f) Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away.
(g) It is relatively inexpensive as compared to fibre optic cable.

8.24
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
(a) A thick coaxial cable does not bend easily and thus is difficult to install.
(b) It is expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

3. Fibre Optic Cable

Fibre optic transmits light signals rather than electrical signals. It is the newest form of guided
media. Several glass fibres are bundled together and are encased in an insulated covering. Light
signals travel into the fibre optic cable at one end and are received at the other end. When the
light enters the fibre optic, the light pulse inside the cable hits the outer walls of the wire at
a similar angle, which helps in moving the light wave forward. The outer surface of the glass
wire provides just the right angle reflection to keep the light bouncing back and forth along the
length of cable. The light source used in this process is light emitting diode (LED).
Optical fibres may be single mode or multimode. Single mode optic fibre transmits only single
light width but multimode fibre uses multiple light paths.

Jacket

Cladding

Buffer
Coating Core

Fig. 8.28: Fibre Optic Cable

Advantages of Fibre Optic

(a) Fibre optic typically offers better bandwidth and can carry more information at once.
(b) As the signal travels in the form of light, there is less attenuation and signal degradation.
(c) Optical fibre wires are made of glass, so there is little risk of fire because of absence of spark
hazards.
(d) Fibre optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires.
(e) Lighter weight makes fibre easier to install.
(f) It does not leak signals, so it is immune to eavesdropping.
(g) A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration.
(h) Fibre optic cables are also used in research and development.

Disadvantages of Fibre Optic

(a) A highly skilled labour is required for its installation and maintenance.
(b) It is relatively expensive as compared to other guided media.
(c) As fibre optic is made of glass, it can be easily broken.
(d) As light travels in a straight line, two fibres are needed if we need bidirectional
communication.
8.25
 8.12.2 Unguided Media or Wireless Networking Technologies
Features of Unguided Media:
1. Transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna.
2. Transmission can be either directional or omnidirectional.
(a) Directional
• transmitting antenna puts out focused beam
• transmitter and receiver must be aligned
(b) Omnidirectional
• signal spreads out in all directions
• can be received by many antennas

1. Microwave
Microwave signals are used to transmit data without the use of cable. It is a line-of-sight
transmission as signal travels in a straight line. In microwave communication, two directional
parabolic antennas are mounted on towers, buildings or hills to send and receive signals
through air. However, they must be properly aligned with each other, otherwise the signal will
not be focused well at the receiving antenna.
Secondary
Path
Direct Path

Fig. 8.29: Microwave

Advantages of Microwave Transmission

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(a) It is a cheaper source of communication as it avoids using cables and maintaining repeaters.
(b) Communication through microwave is much easier over difficult terrain.
(c) Microwave system permits data transmission rate of about 16 gigabits per second.

Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission

(a) It is an insecure mode of communication.
(b) Signals can be split and propagated in different directions in air and received by the
receiver antenna with a reduced strength.
(c) Microwave propagation is affected by weather conditions such as rain, thunderstorm, etc.
(d) The cost of implementing towers, antennas is relatively high.

8.26
2. Radio Waves Radio
Tower
Radio waves use radio frequencies which
are allocated to private businesses for direct
voice communication. A radio set-up uses
transmitter and receiver. A transmitter sends
radio waves and encodes them into sine
waves which, when received by a receiver, are
decoded and the message is received. Both
the transmitter and receiver use antennas
to radiate and fetch radio signals. They are
Sender Receiver
not line-of-sight transmission and, hence, can
penetrate buildings easily.

Advantages of Radio Waves

(a) They can be used indoors or outdoors. Sender

(b) They are omnidirectional and can travel Fig. 8.30: Radio Waves
in any direction.
(c) Transmitter and receiver antenna do not need to be physically aligned.
(d) Radio wave transmission offers mobility.
(e) It is cheaper than laying cables and fibres.
(f) It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.

Disadvantages of Radio Waves

(a) Radio wave communication is an insecure mode of communication.
(b) Radio wave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rain, thunderstorm, etc.

3. Satellite Link
Satellite transmission is also a kind of line-of-sight
transmission that is used to transmit signals
throughout the world. When the frequency is
greater than 3 GHz, the transmission is known as Receiving
Transmitting signal
microwave. Satellite is a special type of microwave signal 35000 km
transmission medium.
Up-link Down-link
It provides various types of services such as
transmitting fax, voice data, video, email and other
Transmitting Receiving
internet applications. In satellite communication, Antenna Antenna
an earth station has a satellite dish, which functions
as an antenna to transmit and receive data from
Fig. 8.31: Satellite Link
satellites.
When data is transmitted from an earth station to a satellite, it is known as uplink and when
transmission takes place from a satellite to an earth station, it is known as downlink. In satellite,
there are transponders that send and receive signals from/to the earth station.

8.27
 Advantages of Satellite Link
(a) The area covered is quite large.
(b) No line-of-sight restrictions such as natural mountains, tall buildings, towers, etc.
(c) Earth station which receives the signals can be at a fixed position or can be relatively mobile.

Disadvantages of Satellite Link

(a) It is very expensive as compared to other transmission mediums.
(b) Installation is extremely complex.
(c) Signals sent to the stations can be interrupted by external interference.
(d) Low antenna gains result in overcrowding of available bandwidth.

4. Infrared
The type of transmission that uses infrared light to send data is known as infrared transmission.
The data is transmitted through air and can propagate in the open space; however, it cannot
penetrate the walls of the room. It is an example of short range wireless network. Infrared
speed varies from 2.4 kbps to 16 mbps. A very good example of infrared transmission is a
handheld remote control such as remote control of a TV or AC, etc.

Housing Shield

Transmitter Transmitter
Receiver Receiver
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Lens

Fig. 8.32: Infrared Transmission System

Advantages of Infrared Transmission

(a) It is a secure medium of transmitting data.
(b) It is a cheap mode of transmission.

Disadvantages of Infrared Transmission

(a) It can work only for short distances.
(b) It cannot penetrate walls and is affected by distance, noise and heat.

8.28
 8.13 NETWORK TERMINOLOGIES
1. Data Channel: A channel is a communication medium through which data or message is
transferred from the sender to the receiver.
2. Baud: The number of changes in a signal per second is called a baud. It is the unit of
measurement for the information-carrying capacity of a communication channel.
3. Bits per second: It is the measuring unit of speed at which data transfer takes place.
4. Bandwidth: The bandwidth measures the information-carrying capacity of a line or a
network. It is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies allowed on a
transmission media.
B = fh – fl
where fh and fl are the highest and lowest frequencies.
For example, If the highest frequency is 80 Hz and lowest frequency is 50 Hz, what is the
bandwidth of a signal?
Sol. B = fh – fl
B = 80 – 50
B = 30 Hz.
5. Protocol: A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed. Protocol means a set of rules that governs a network.
A protocol is a formal description of message formats and the rules that two or more
machines must follow to exchange those messages.
For example, using library books.

CTM: Protocol is a set of rules that governs the network.

Types of Protocols
Protocol specifies what is communicated and how. Let us take an example to explain this
concept. In India, different people speak different languages. Now, a person from Tamil
Nadu and a person from Punjab may not be able to communicate with each other because
of the language difference. However, they can exchange their ideas and communicate with
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each other using English as their common language. Similarly, in case of computers, the
hardware, software or even a combination of the two might be required to implement and
carry out the protocol. Thus, the protocol will help in setting up a channel of communication
or a connection between two computers; in other words, a hardware connection between
two computers.
There are multiple protocols defined for computer networks, which are as follows:
(a) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
(b) IP (Internet Protocol)
(c) FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
(d) PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
(e) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
(f) POP3 (Post Office Protocol)
(g) TELNET (Remote Login)
8.30
 (a) TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
TCP is one of the main protocols in TCP/IP networks. The IP protocol deals only with
packets but TCP enables two hosts to establish a connection and exchange streams
of data. TCP works with the Internet Protocol (IP), which defines how computers
send packets of data to each other. The packets are delivered not in a sequential
order; instead, they are delivered randomly. Now, TCP at the receiver side collects
all packets and arranges them in a sequential order. TCP is a reliable stream delivery
service that guarantees that all bytes received will be identical with bytes sent and
in the correct order. Since packets are transferred over many networks and, thus,
not reliable, a technique known as positive acknowledgement with retransmission
is used to guarantee reliability of packet transfers.
(b) IP (Internet Protocol)
IP is the primary protocol present in the internet layer of the internet protocol suite.
It is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the destination host
based on the IP addresses mentioned in the packet headers. IP forwards each packet
based on a four byte destination address (the IP number). The packets are moved
randomly from source to destination, which are then assembled in a sequential
order at the destination computer. IP stores destination addresses in the form of IP
addresses so that the packets will move to the destined address only by following
the shortest route.
(c) FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
FTP is the simplest and most secure way to exchange files over the internet. The main
objectives of FTP are:
• Transmitting and sharing of files (computer programs and/or data).
• Indirect or implicit use of remote computers.
• To shield a user from variations in file storage systems among different hosts.
• To transfer data reliably and efficiently.
• FTP uses the internet’s TCP/IP protocols to enable data transfer.
FTP is most commonly used to download a file from a server using the internet or to
upload a file to a server (e.g., uploading a web page file to a server).
While sharing files from one system to another, we may encounter several problems—
two systems may have different directory structures, two systems may have different
file-naming conventions, or two systems may have different ways to represent text
and data. All these problems are solved by FTP.

CTM: File transfer protocol is used to transfer files from server system to requesting node, primarily for
information sharing.

(d) PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)

PPP is the most commonly used data link protocol. It is a protocol used to establish
a direct connection between two nodes. It can provide connection authentication,
transmission encryption and compression. It is used to connect the Home PC to the
8.31
 server of ISP. The communication takes place through high speed modem. PPP is
used to connect telephone dial-up lines to the internet. Internet service provider
may provide you with a PPP connection so that when you send any request, the
provider’s server can respond to your requests, forward it to the internet server,
and then forward responses back to you. For communicating through PPP, the user
needs to install PPP drivers assigned by the internet to the computer.
The following steps are required to connect to the internet:
• Double click on the dial-up icon.
• Dial the number provided to you by the ISP.
• Enter the login and password.
• Open a browser like Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator.
The various features of PPP are:
• Establishing the link between two devices.
• Maintaining this established link.
• Configuring this link.
• Terminating this link after the transfer.
• PPP provides error detection.
• PPP supports multiple protocols.
• It also defines how two devices can authenticate each other.
(e) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
As the name suggests, SMTP is used for sending email messages to other networks
or computers. It handles only outgoing messages and not incoming messages. SMTP
does not create messages; rather, it helps in forwarding messages between client
servers. It uses TCP to send messages to another host. For receiving messages, another
protocol POP (post office protocol) is used. Thus, email clients require addresses of
both SMTP server and another server that processes incoming messages (usually
POP or IMAP). SMTP uses TCP port number 25 for standard communication.
(f) POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)
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The POP (Post Office Protocol 3) is a simple and standard method to access mailbox
and download messages to the local computers. The user can receive messages with
the help of POP protocol. The advantage is that once the messages are downloaded,
an internet connection is no longer needed to read the mail. A user can read all
emails offline as these are saved on the computer’s hard disk.
Just like with the SMTP protocol, the POP protocol (POP2 and POP3) sends text
commands to the POP server. There are two main versions of this protocol—POP2
and POP3—to which ports 109 and 110 respectively are allocated and which operate
using radically different text commands. To get a mail from POP server, a user must
enter a valid username and password for their email account. The POP3 protocol
thus manages authentication using the user name and password; however, it is not
secure because the passwords, like the email, circulate in plain text over the network.
POP3 protocol blocks inbox during its access which means that simultaneous access
to the same inbox by two users is impossible.
8.32
(g) TELNET (Remote Login)
Telnet is a remote login that helps a user to log on to another user’s terminal without
being its original user. A user who is logging in to their own system can also get
access to log on to another user system and perform various functions such as
accessing files or sharing files to/from the remote system. With TELNET, a user logs
in as a regular user with whatever privileges that may have been granted to the
specific application and data on that computer.
Working of Telnet

(i) A user is logged in to the local system and invokes a TELNET program (the
TELNET client) by typing telnet<host address> or telnet <IP address>
(ii) The TELNET client is started on the local machine (if it isn’t already running).
The client then establishes a TCP connection with the TELNET server on the
destination system.
(iii) Once the connection has been established, the client program accepts characters
from the keyboard feed by the user and passes one character at a time, to the
TELNET server.
(iv) The server on the destination machine accepts the characters sent to it by the
client and passes them to a terminal server.
(v) The terminal server gives outputs back to the TELNET server and displays them
on the user’s screen.
The user can terminate the telnet session by typing LOGOFF or LOGOUT on the
system prompt.
Supplement – Computer Science with Python–XII

8.20 PROTOCOL FOR VoIP

VoIP stands for Voice over Internet Protocol. For transferring of voice, voice over internet
protocol is used. The voice calls are first digitized, compressed and then fragmented into small
packets, which are then relayed by Internet Protocol (IP) cross network. Voice-over-IP (VoIP)
implementation enables users to carry voice traffic (For example, telephone calls and faxes)
over an IP network. So, VoIP can be achieved on any data network that uses IP, like the internet,

8.40
intranets and Local Area Networks (LAN). As the data is transmitted in the form of packets, VoIP
uses packet switching technology where each packet follows best route to reach its destination.
VoIP allows both voice and data communications to be run over a single network, which can
significantly reduce infrastructure costs.
There are 3 main causes for the evolution of the voice-over IP market:
1. Low-cost phone calls
2. Add-on services and unified messaging
3. Merging of data/voice infrastructures
Services provided by VoIP are:
Phone to phone, PC to phone, phone to PC, fax to email, email to fax, fax to fax, voice to email, IP
Phone, transparent CCS (TCCS), toll free number (1-800), class services, call centre applications,
VPN, Unified Messaging, Wireless Connectivity, IN Applications using SS7, IP PABX and soft
switch implementation.
The various protocols used for VoIP are:
1. H.323
2. Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

CTM: VoIP is a protocol that is used for transmitting voice data and multimedia data over internet protocol.
It uses high speed broadband internet connection.

1. H.323 Protocol for VoIP

H.323 is a protocol that provides communication for multimedia services such as audio, video
and data communication over packet-based network. It specifies the standards and protocols
for all these services. As H.323 provides various communication facilities, it can be applied in
a wide variety of areas—consumer, business and entertainment applications. H.323 supports
call set-up, teardown and forwarding/transfer. A key feature of H.323 is Quality of Service
(QoS). QoS technology allows real-time prioritization and traffic management constraints to
be placed on “best-effort” packet delivery systems like TCP/IP over Ethernet. It can be applied
in a variety of mechanisms:
• Audio only
• Audio and data
• Audio and video
• Audio, video and data

2. SIP Protocol for VoIP

The expanded form of SIP is Session Initiation Protocol. SIP is a communication protocol
(more specifically, a signalling protocol) originally developed in 1996. It uses IP protocol that
establishes, modifies and terminates VoIP telephone calls. It provides video conferencing
service to the users, so that a user can communicate with more than one person at a time. Other
SIP applications include streaming multimedia distribution, instant messaging and information,
file transfer, fax over IP and online games. SIP transparently supports name mapping and
redirection services which support personal mobility.

8.41
 8.30 INTRODUCTION TO WEB SERVICES
8.30.1 WWW (World Wide Web)
WWW is an information service that can be used for sending and receiving information
over the internet through interlinked hypertext documents. Web pages may contain text,
images, videos and other multimedia components as well as web navigation features
consisting of hyperlinks. The documents are formatted in a markup language called
HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) that provides links to other documents as well as
graphics, audio and video files. The World Wide Web is based upon client-server
architecture where a client sends a request and the server processes that request and sends
responses. A WWW client is called a web browser and a WWW server is called a web server.
CTM: WWW is a set of programs and protocols that allows the user to create and display multimedia web
pages and is linked to the internet.

8.30.2 Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML)

HTML is a language that is used to create web pages which are then displayed by web browsers.
This language tells the browser how to display text, pictures and links on the screen. HTML is a
language that supports multimedia documents and consists of audio, video, graphics, pictures,
etc. It also helps in creating hyperlinks so that various documents can be linked together.
When a person clicks on a specified link, the document related to that link displays. HTML is a
document layout and hyperlink specification language, i.e., a language that uses various coded
elements known as tags for formatting the document and to specify the hyperlinks.
HTML document can be written using any text editor such as NOTEPAD or NOTEPAD2 and save
a file with extension either .HTM or .HTML.
Any HTML document, in general, contains at least three elements—HTML, HEAD, and BODY.
These elements are specified by the following respective tags:
1. <HTML> . . .</HTML>
2. <HEAD> . . .</HEAD>
3. <BODY> . . .</BODY>
<HTML>
The items in the HTML head element
<HEAD>
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are not shown in the browser except

the title of the document which is
</HEAD> shown in the browser’s title bar.

<BODY> This is the section that holds

everything that is actually displayed.
</BODY> All the text, headers, tables, etc., are
written in the body tag.
</HTML>

The structure of HTML document is as follows:

<HTML>
  <HEAD>
    <TITLE> This is my first page</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY> I am writing my first page using html.
</BODY>
8.50   </HTML>
Now, execute this file using any web browser and it will display a page as below:

CTM: HTML is a Markup language that enables users to create web pages and format them using predefined
tags. Tags are called coded elements.

8.30.3 Extensible Markup Language (XML)

Extensible Markup Language is a text-based Markup Language that allows the user to create
their own tags to store data in a structured format. However, these structured formats can be
represented in different ways. In XML, the tags are not predefined; rather, they are created
by the user for their own purpose. Unlike HTML, in XML, tags are case-sensitive and each tag
must have a corresponding closing tag. It is a general-purpose specification that allows users
to create custom Markup language. XML was designed to carry data and not to display data.
For formatting data, a separate style sheet known as cascading style sheet is used.
XML is recommended by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). It is a free open standard.
The W3C recommendation specifies both the lexical grammar and the requirements for parsing.
Structure of XML document:
<?xml version="1.0">
<Client>
<Clientid>C100</Clientid>
<Clientname>Johnson</Clientname>
<Company>APPLE</Company>
</Client>
<Client>
<Clientid>C101</Clientid>
<Clientname>McGraw</Clientname>
<Company>HCL</Company>
</Client>
</xml>

CTM: XML is a Markup Language for creating documents in a structured format. Users can create their own
tags along with predefined tags already defined by HTML.

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 8.30.4 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HTTP is used to transfer all files and other data (collectively called resources) from one computer
to another on the World Wide Web. This protocol is used to transfer hypertext documents over
the internet. HTTP defines how the data is formatted and transmitted over the network. When
an HTTP client (a browser) sends a request to an HTTP server (web server), the server sends
responses back to the client. This transfer of requests and responses is done following HTTP
protocol.
The main features of an HTTP document are:
1. It is a stateless protocol; this means that several commands are executed simultaneously
without knowing the command which is already executing before another command.
2. It is an object-oriented protocol that uses client server model.
3. The browser (client) sends request to the server, the server processes it and sends responses
to the client.
4. It is used for displaying web pages on the screen.

8.30.5 Domain Names

To communicate over the internet, we can use IP addresses. But it is not possible to remember
the IP address of a particular website or computer every time. Domain names make it easier to
resolve IP addresses into names, for example, cbse.nic.in, google.com, meritnation.com, etc. It is the
system which assigns names to some computers (web servers) and maintains a database of these
names and corresponding IP addresses. Domain names are used in URLs to identify particular
web servers, for example, in the URL https://www.cbse.nic.in/welcome.htm, the domain name is
cbse.nic.in.
A domain name consists of the following parts.
1. Top-level domain name or primary domain name, and
2. Sub-domain name(s).
For example,
In the domain name cbse.nic.in:
Supplement – Computer Science with Python–XII

in is the primary domain name

nic is the sub-domain of in
cbse is the sub-domain of nic.
The top-level domains are categorized into following domain names:
Generic Domain Names
·com - commercial business
·edu - Educational institutions
·gov - Government agencies
·mil - Military
·net - Network organizations
·org - Organizations (non-profit)

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Country Specific Domain Names
.in - India
·au - Australia
·ca - Canada
.ch - China
.nz - New Zealand
.pk - Pakistan
.jp - Japan
.us - United States of America

8.30.6 URL
URL stands for uniform resource locator that helps in locating a particular website or a web
page, for example, http://www.cbse.nic.in/academics.html is a URL for a specific website. In
this URL, ‘http’ stands for hypertext transfer protocol, and ‘www.cbse.nic.in’ indicates the IP
address or the domain name where the source is located. ‘academics.html’ specifies the name
of the specified html document on the website of CBSE.

CTM: URL stands for uniform resource locator that stores the address of a web page.

8.30.7 IP Address
The computers connected to a network also need to follow some rules to communicate with
each other. These sets of rules are known as protocols. Several types of protocols are used for
communication over networks. However, the most common one is the Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol or TCP/IP. A network using TCP/IP is known as a TCP/IP network.
The internet is an example of the TCP/IP network. Therefore, it becomes important that each
device should have a unique address to identify it on a TCP/IP network. This unique address is
known as IP address. IP address is short for Internet Protocol (IP) address. An IP address is an
identifier for a computer or device on a TCP/IP network. Networks using the TCP/IP protocol
route messages based on the IP address of the destination. The format of IP address is a 32-bit
numeric address written as four numbers separated by periods. Each number can be 0 to 255.
Some examples of IP addresses are: 192.168.1.2, 10.324.1.3 and 109.134.2.2.
As seen in the above examples, the numbers in an IP address are in the decimal form. When
an IP address is processed, the computer converts these numbers into binary form internally.
The following is an example of IP address in the decimal form: 192.168.1.10
The preceding IP address in its binary form is: 11000000.10101000.00000001.00001010
The IP address of a computer is assigned by the Internet Service Provider (ISP) whose internet
connection is used on that computer.

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