See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/270645178

Linguistic Identity and the Role of Ebonics in African American Literary

Experience

Article in International Journal of English Language Teaching · August 2013

DOI: 10.5430/ijelt.v1n1p68

CITATIONS READS
0 1,075

2 authors, including:

Blossom Shimayam Ottoh-Agede

Federal University of Lafia
7 PUBLICATIONS 4 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Blossom Shimayam Ottoh-Agede on 02 December 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

Linguistic Identity and the Role of Ebonics in African American Literary

Experience
Blossom Shimayam Ottoh-Agede1 & Ako Essien-Eyo2
1
Department of English, Federal University Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
2
Department of English and Literary Studies, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
Correspondence: Blossom Shimayam Ottoh-Agede, Department of English, Federal University Lafia, Nasarawa
State, Nigeria. E-mails: [email protected]; [email protected]

Received: September 1, 2013 Accepted: December 5, 2013 Online Published: December 10, 2013
doi:10.5430/ijelt.v1n1p68 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/ijelt.v1n1p68

Abstract
In time past, Ebonics, like other World Pidgins, was not given research consideration by scholars. However, in recent
times there is a plethora of research in the area. Although, research by scholars in the area of its syntax, phonology,
semantics and morphology is diverse, our task in this study is to interrogate the role of Ebonics (Black English) in
the creation of a racist and feminist society like Walker’s and Angelou’s societies in The color purple and I know why
the caged bird sings. This article explores not only the linguistic emancipation of Black English but also its role in
resisting white power and white cultural ascendancy as well as male dominance in American society in general. The
paper analyzes the peculiarities and characteristics of Ebonics in two selected female writings of Alice Walker and
Maya Angelou and concludes that the female artists have recreated a new perspective to the definition of the African
American Vernacular by innovatively invoking it as a tool for reenacting the Black female story. The study also
portends that Walker and Angelou have emphasized their strength as Black people and Black females in a ‘New
World’ rather than looking at the negative side of their dilemma. The focus here is on the language of Walker and
Angelou, and how best they mobilize linguistic tools to convey meaning and portray linguistic identity. Convenience
was found in a somewhat eclectic approach by borrowing tools from two linguistic theories, M.A.K Halliday’s
Systemic Functional Linguistics and Noam Chomsky’s Transformational Generative Grammar, though our main
theoretical orientation is the Systemic Functional Linguistics.
Keywords: White dominance, eccentricity, Black power, stereotype, Black English
1. Introduction
This paper explores the vibrancy and vivacity of Ebonics as the language of Black Americans. Ebonics as an
unintelligent language has been used as an unofficial language in literature and other forms of entertainment. It is
unintelligent because it does not have a pattern or structure in syntax and morphological processes. It was first called
different names like Spoken soul and Black English and so on. Ebonics is an expressive instrument in American
literature, religion, entertainment and everyday life. Spoken soul is a term coined by Claude Brown, author of
Manchild in the Promised Land, for Black talk. This study examines the role of Ebonics vis-à-vis racial and gender
identity representation.
2. Theoretical Considerations and Methodology
As a science, linguistics is concerned with developing theories that account for and explain the phenomena of
language and language use (McGregor, 2009). Linguistic theories aim at offering a complete account of language
structure at all levels. For instance, pragmatics studies the use of language in its social context (p. 3). In fact, for
Fowler (1986), Pragmatics deals with the conventional relationships between linguistic constructions and the user
and uses of language (p. 4).
Liddicoat & Curnow (2004) explain that, linguistics has increasingly separated itself from a prescriptive view of
language which formulates rules for what should be said or written in favour of a descriptive view, which seeks to
record the language which people actually use. They add that, descriptive view has led linguists to new insights
about language and new ways of talking about and defining units of language (pp. 25-26).
Hence, this work, which analyzes texts from the perspective of linguistics, focuses on the linguistic theories

Published by Sciedu Press 68 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

particularly for its analysis. This is because linguistic theories are much more efficient and objective than the terms
of conventional literary criticism. Thus, Fowler claims that, linguistic analysis essentially implies a theory of the
nature of language in the process of describing it. For example, the Transformational Generative Grammar is
dedicated to accounting for what is universal in a language, while the functional model of grammar like the Systemic
Functional Linguistics, allows for individual observations and explanations of the use of language (Fowler, 1986).
The Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG) was propounded by Noam Chomsky as a grammar model, to
account for the native speaker’s ability to produce, identify and interpret correct sentences in his language. This
model makes a clear distinction between a Surface-Structure and Deep-Structure and it is relevant in stylistics
because the grammar model makes use of the terms, ‘ungrammatical’ and ‘unacceptable’. These terms could be used
in stylistics to mean deviance in the use of language.
Acceptability in Chomskyan grammar entails the extent to which a sentence allowed by the rules to be grammatical
is considered permissible by speakers and hearers; grammaticality on the other hand is the extent to which a ‘string’
of language conforms to the set of given rules. It is assumed that a native speaker’s grammar generates grammatical
strings and that the speaker has the ability to judge a certain string to be either acceptable or not in his language.
Both acceptability and grammaticality are considered as gradient properties by Chomsky and are typically expressed
with a combination of ‘?’ for questioning, * for ungrammatical structures, a double ** for strongly ungrammatical
forms and # for an acceptable form. This approach is employed in our analysis of texts in this study not to show
deviance but the non-conformity of the Black vernacular with its standard counterpart, the American Standard
English.
While TGG does not have a social base, its interest is psychological without respect to the sociological context.
Although it is not appropriate for the study, insights are drawn from it for our analysis of texts. It is not apt for the
study because of its emphasis on grammaticality and ungrammaticality which is not what the study looks out for in
the analysis of Black English texts.
The Systemic Functional Grammar, on the other hand, accounts for the sociological issues surrounding the use of
language. The Systemic Functional Grammar was promulgated by M.A.K. Halliday who developed his grammar
model from his teacher, J. R. Firth (1890-1960). According to Butler (1985), Halliday’s work is the most important
modern development of the ideas within the so-called ‘London School of linguistics, whose founding father was
Firth. Firth believes that meanings were ‘intimately interlocking not only with an environment of particular sights
and sounds, but deeply embedded in the living process of persons maintaining themselves in the society’. Thus, Firth
proposed to study language as part of the social process (Firth, 1950, p. 181; 1957a in Butler, 1985, pp. 1-4).
Although Firth’s work was insightful in many ways, it lacked coherence in its theoretical framework of interrelated
categories. However, Halliday who was trained as a sinologist related his earliest work to Chinese. In addition to
setting up the basic framework of what was to become the Scale and Category linguistics, the early work on Chinese
affords pointers to areas later developed by Halliday and published in 1950s and early 1960s. In the early 1961,
Halliday wrote an article which sets out to what he takes to be the necessary characteristics of general linguistic
theory.
So, while TGG accounts for the mentalist context in the use of language, SFG brings out the sociological context in
the use of language in the texts and thus relevant to our study. The data are collected from Walker’s The color purple
and Angelou’s I know why the caged bird sings. Both of which are African American female literatures.
3. Language Situation in The Color Purple and I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings
Various scholars like, Smitherman, Hecht, Collier and Ribeau who have worked on Ebonics language point out that,
the sentence structure and semantics in Black English or Ebonics have been particularly influenced by early African
tribal languages, hence the contact-induced grammaticalization.
Thornborrow & Wareing (1998) point out that, the use of linguistics in approaching the study of literary texts is
useful to stylistics which is interested in the linguistic properties of literary texts. They add that it has become clear
that the kinds of texts which lend themselves to stylistic analysis exceed the boundaries of what is commonly taken
to be ‘literary’ to the explanation of how meaning is created in the text through the writer’s linguistic choices and
realization, and through the processes of interpretation which is undertaken by the reader upon the actual linguistic
structures that are used (p. 5).
Language is the attribute of man that separates him from other animals. This is why Mrs. Flowers in I know why the
caged bird sings tells Marguerite that, ‘language is man’s way of communicating with his fellow man and it is

Published by Sciedu Press 69 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

language alone that separates him from the lower animals’ (p. 95). The African American Vernacular is one attribute
that distinguishes the Blacks from the Whites, apart from their skin colour.
Consequently, we examine the contextual factors such as the cultural and sociolinguistic/historical background of the
writers/characters that are in the novels to show how the Black-female story is recreated. So, as we engage critically
in the micro/macro-linguistic analyses of texts, we also consider the context of use. For instance, the writers and
characters in the novels use linguistic properties in context to reflect other sociological factors which surround their
existence. Our analyses therefore are based on the contexts of language use— what Halliday calls the context of
situation. The analysis is carried out at the various levels of language in relation to the peculiarities of Black English
as pointed out earlier in the study.
4. Data Analysis
4.1 A Lexico-semantic Interpretation of Select Texts
The social approach to the study of texts means that the texts must not just be studied on their own but must also be
studied in relation to their interactive processes of lexis and meaning-making of which they are part. This process of
meaning-making Fairclough (2005) splits into three parts as:
i. The meaning-making process based on the production of the text
ii. The meaning-making process based on the text itself, and
iii. The meaning-making process based on the reception (or interpretation) of text.
An examination of the sentence types and sentence patterns helps in determining their role in foregrounding the
thematic concerns and meaning in The color purple and I know why the caged bird sings. In every language, the verb
plays a prominent role in the meaning and structure of sentences. The verb determines the number of objects and
limits of semantic properties of both its subject and object(s). In the placement of thematic roles, the nominal group
(subject) of a sentence and the constituents of the verb group are semantically related in various ways to the verb. For
example, the verbless sentence below has no meaning outside its context because there is no verb to assign the
thematic role to the subject.
(a) //He/ black//= (Tcp, p.29),
Expands as: He =subject [NG]/black= complement [AdjG],= statement→ imperative.
NG— He (Pronoun)
[-VG]
AdjG. — black
The verbless sentence in (a) above is also summarized as follows:
Subject (pronoun) = He
No Verb (Process)
Cd [complement direct] = black
The subject, He is supposed to be assigned the role of a possessor, but the adjective black cannot perform the
function of the verb which assigns roles and because there is no verb to assign the thematic role, and adjectives do
not assign thematic roles, as they are too weak to do so, there is no thematic role assignment in the structure. Thus,
the structure seems ungrammatical. But this can be viewed as one of the peculiarities of Ebonics. Hence, it is not a
violation but a feature of Black English. We may as well infer that the structure is borne out of spontaneity. Thus, the
context of use makes a big difference to how Ebonics is patterned.
In Standard English, meaning is usually inherent in the combination of all the words in a sentence and any
dislocation would warrant a proper attention to the context of use. The sentence (a) above, following the systemic
grammar analysis of SPCA element, where the verb is an obligatory element in the clause structure, is ungrammatical.
But it is acceptable in Black vernacular even without the verb, although its acceptability does not guaranty its
grammaticality. This is one of the characteristics that make Ebonics unique. Thus the sentence is ‘a transgression of
the norm’ other than an adherence to the strict rules of the English grammar. Other instances are:
(b)*How you? (Tcp, p.32)
*How you? = question → open interrogative

Published by Sciedu Press 70 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

(c)*He sad, he weak (Tcp, p.27)

Subject (pronoun) = He
Cd = sad
Subject (pronoun) = He
Cd = weak
He, as used in the structure (c) above is the subject (theme) and the experiencer that indicates who the adjectives, sad
and weak (rheme) describe. The structures in (b) and (c) above do not follow our earlier explanation on thematic
roles assignment and are only meaningful in their context of use. We have noted that Black English does not adhere
to the strict rules of Standard English grammar, thus we can surmise that ‘He black’ means ‘He is black’, ‘He sad, he
weak’ means ‘He is sad, he is weak’. So, the socially acceptable linguistic habit of the English type is what we
emphasize here. That Black vernacular may not be set out for international intelligibility and international
acceptability, but social-group acceptability which is what its purpose is, as an in-group language used for solidarity,
resistance and creativity.
Moreover, in Hallidayan approach, there are two parallel and interrelated systems of analysis that are concerned with
the structure of the clause. These are the Information units which comprise, Given and New, and the Thematic
structure, which also involve constituents labeled Theme and Rheme. Given information means shared or mutual
information usually found at the beginning of the clause, while the New information is the speaker’s focus or
message that has not been shared with the hearer or the reader. Thematic structure like the information unit operates
at the level of the clause. Thus, theme is the idea represented by the constituent at the starting point of the clause.
That is the point of departure of the message; hence the theme tells the reader what the clause is about. Rheme, on
the other hand, means the rest of the message. So, the following analysis portrays the Given/Theme and New/Rheme
elements and other constituent features in the texts:
(i) ///I /tap /the little ones/on the behind /to make ‘em behave//,but not hard enough /to hurt/// (Tcp, p.47).
m m m m m h q
(ii) ///Those others,/the strange pale creatures/that lived in their alien unlife//weren’t considered folks///

The bold clause in (ii) above is a rankshifted or relative clause which functions as a postmodifier/qualifier,
qualifying the word, creatures, which is the Head of the sentence. The Table 1 below explains the rankshifted clause
in (ii) to show how Angelou uses premodifiers and deictic to describe the Whites in the novel. The clause is a racism
inherent category which tends to describe ‘others’ in an unfriendly or distant manner. The terms those others, the
strange pale creatures suggest some emotional or psychological distance Angelou wants to depict.

Table 1. Racism inherent categorization used by Angelou

Deictic/ premodifier Thing/ head Qualifier/ postmodifier
Those others, the strange pale Creatures that lived in their alien unlife

S P A
(iii) ///They were whitefolks/// (The caged bird, p.25)

I and ones in (i), above are Given elements. The reader already knows who is talking (Celie), and who is talked about
(theme), Albert’s Children. But the New information here is what the speaker does to the theme, ‘little ones’. Thus,
the verb, tap is used as the process which indicates where the action takes place. That is, tapping the little ones’ back
(behind), and then what happens afterwards, ‘not hard enough to hurt’ (rheme).
In (ii), those others is a New information, having the strange pale creatures in apposition with it, thereby making it a
complex NG in addition with the that-clause (a rankshifted clause), which goes on to explain the New information
on those others. This means that, the writer expects the reader to infer from their shared knowledge of the theme that
is, who the focus for the discourse is, for whom those others describes. By doing this, the writer tempts the reader’s
patience before unraveling the rheme in (iii) above as the whitefolks. Moreover, the writer employs New information

Published by Sciedu Press 71 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

first as against the Hallidayan description, but goes on to point out that ‘They were whitefolks’ in (iii) above.
Language is a means of representing the world, real or imaginary. It encodes human experiences and reality. The
language of the novels shows the formative roles in which human experiences are based and at the same time, it
functions as part of the reality which it sets out to represent or encode. Looking more closely at the linguistic
representation in The color purple and The caged bird, we examine texts using the terms Process and Participant to
describe events, things and the characters in the texts. Process in systemic linguistics centres on that part of the
clause that is realized by the Verbal Group, and can also be regarded as the ‘goings-on’ as represented in the clause.
Participants, on the other hand, are the entries involved in the Process. So, in the texts below, we describe the
Participants and the Process in the novels to show how different codes interact.
(iv) My little girl/she/look up and […] sort of frown (Tcp, p.22)
(v) I am sure Albert is still the only one to take mail out of the box (Tcp, p.112)
(vi) We are coming home before the end of another year (Tcp, p.112)
The structure in (iv) uses she as a pronoun in opposition to my little girl, and the conjunctive clause applies an
elliptical subject to avoid the repetition of the pronoun she. The underlined words in (iv) and (v) indicate the
Participants in the discourse. Nettie being the narrator uses the pronoun I, and Albert is the theme for whom one
refers. So, Albert becomes the Actor, the performer of the action, described by the Process to take, a to-infinitive, and
our label for mail in the clause is the Goal in which the Process, to take acts. In (iv), the elliptical subject is the Actor
(the performer), my little girl and she, who performs the action look and frown all of which are Material Process.
The Fig. 2 evaluates the structure of Nettie’s statement in the letter she wrote to her sister, Celie. We in (vi) stands for
Nettie herself, Celie’s children: Olivia and Adam who were adopted by Samuel and Corrine, a husband and wife who
are the Missionaries of the American and African Missionary Society. During their sojourn in Africa, Corrine dies
and Nettie becomes Samuel’s wife. Thus, we as used in the letter refers to Nettie, Olivia, Adam and Samuel.

Table 2. Actor, Participant, Process, and Goal analysis

We Are Coming Home before the end of
another year
S Aux P C A
Actor/Participant Process Goal

S A P C
m m h q
(vii) ///All the Ethiopians/ in the bible (sic)/ were/ colored///(Tcp,p.125)
S –aux C P C
(viii) ///He/Ø/ your husband, I say. […]/Got to stay/ with him///(Tcp, p.67)
NP VP NP
S P C
m h -agr
(ix) ///White folks/ is/ a miracle of affliction///(Tcp, p.103)
The text in (vii) portrays the tensions that emanates from racism. The text is racism inherent and it shows how the
Blacks try to negotiate Black identity by finding solace in the fact that Ethiopians in The Bible are Blacks. Nettie,
who is so nationalistic like Marguerite in The caged bird, is optimistic in her portrayal of the Blacks in The Bible as
she posits that ‘All the Ethiopians in the bible were colored’ which means that the Whites should not just think that
all the characters of The Holy Bible are Whites. Text (ix) also portrays a racism inherent category in the novels. The
text in (viii) has an elliptical Subject, you, the Actor; which is not expressed in the conjunctive clause but it is
understood to be a carry over, as it were, from the first (main) clause. It is a straightforward case of ellipsis as we
know what the referent of the ‘gap’ is, that is you. You, here refers to Sofia for whom Celie addresses.

Published by Sciedu Press 72 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

Sofia is an obstinate Black woman who emancipates from the old order of the patriarchal system as she opts out of
her marriage— that, which the feminists describe as ‘a domestic prison’. She renounces the traditional way of being
a Black woman, who gets married, has children and carters for their needs, and who is beaten by the man when she
transgresses or misbehaves. She becomes brave as she fights for her survival. In the text in (viiib), Celie, who is a
docile and unassertive, urges Sofia to stay with her husband, Harpo. She says, ‘He your husband…. […]Got to stay
with him’. Accordingly, the linguistic properties in (vii) above reveal another racism inherent category of identity.
4.2 Phonological Representation in the Novels
In this section, we consider aspects of sounds in Black English, examining closely their distinctive nature and how
interpretation is derived from the texts in relation to identity. The study explores the phonological representation and
the inventory of phonetic segments in Ebonics and then attempts a phonological description of the various features
discovered, and how they relate to meaning interpretation in the novels. The features below characterize Ebonics.
4.2.1 Reduction of Word-final Consonants
There is a reduction of the voiced velar plosive, /g/ in most utterances in the texts. This is discovered to be a feature of
the spoken language which Walker and Angelou try to portray. Usually, speakers not only in Ebonics, delete this
consonant /g/ when it appears word finally. Labov in 1967 in a sociolinguistic test in New York City, claims that
speakers are not careful to actualize or articulate the voiced velar plosive /g/ if it appears word finally, especially in
informal settings. Thus the examples below portray this deletion:
/g/ deletion in ing word finally
(d) It need somethin? (Tcp, p.28)
(e) She like a queen to me so I say to Kate, Somethin purple (Tcp, p.28)
(f) I hear him mutter somethin to Mr.— sitting on the porch (Tcp, p.29)
As we see above, Celie deletes the voiced velar plosive, /g/ in ing word finally usually when the word precedes a
consonant (not in all cases though), there is inconsistencies in the use of ing and the deletion of /g/. But otherwise, /g/
is mostly used when the word following the ing word starts with a vowel, then the consonant /g/ is realized and
articulated, as in (g):
(g) *Where you all children at while she singing all over the place? (Tcp, p.34)
The example in (g) above explains the non-deletion of /g/ in ing word finally. This (ing), preceding a vowel makes it
realizable, hence, our inference that /g/ appears mostly when it precedes a vowel. Our next section examines the
other phonological aspects of Ebonics and it shows how this variety of English invents sounds in speech to mark its
linguistic distinction and/or linguistic disloyalty to the Standard English forms.
4.2.2 The Use of Aphesis, Syncope and Apocope
(A) Aphesis: This is the deletion of an initial letter of a word, that is to say, the loss of an unstressed vowel or
consonant at the beginning of a word. This deletion or loss of initial letter in a word is characteristic of spoken words
where the speaker rushes over words and thereby deletes some sounds in the initial position. See the examples
below:
(h) I ain’t worried ‘bout this fight. (The caged bird, p.129)
‘I ain’t worried about this fight’
(i) They cuse me of murder. (Tcp, p.21)
‘They accuse me of murder’
(j) He pick up a spool and hold it gainst the cloth. (Tcp, p.23)
‘He picks up a spool and holds it against the cloth’
The loss of an unstressed letter at the beginning of a word, as seen in our examples above, is an attribute in song-texts.
Usually, this occurs in songs as a way of bringing in coherence, melody and rhythm. But in this case, Ebonics exhibits
this as some form of artistry in wording, more so, as a way of relieving the speaker of unnecessary speech sounds.
However, these are inventories in English language (and any other language for that matter) used in informal speech or
discourses. Therefore, Walker and Angelou display informality in their use aphesis as it is illustrated above. Other
examples from the novels are outlined below:
(k) *That look like it bout the right color. (Tcp, p.23)

Published by Sciedu Press 73 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

‘That looks like it about the right color’

(l) *Now I see she stumble, tween the two men. (Tcp, p.50)
‘Now I see she stumbles between the two men’
(m) *You miss ‘em? I ast (Tcp, p.54)
‘You miss them? I ask’
(n) *Cept he don’t never hardly beat them. (Tcp, p.30)
‘Except he doesn’t ever or hardly beat(s) them’
The following section presents analysis of the deletion of medial letters in words, which is technically referred to as
syncope.
(B) Syncope: This is the shortening of a word by the loss of sounds or letters from its middle. Ebonics experiments
consonant clustering in syllables in place of a vowel. This is exemplified in the structures in (o) and (p) below:
(o) *But what I’m sposed to put on? (Tcp, p.11)
‘But what am I supposed to put on?’
(p) *When a woman marry she spose to keep a decent house and a clean family.(Tcp, p.27)
‘When a woman marries she is supposed to keep a decent house and a clean family’.
Using sposed /spәụzd/ for supposed /sә'pәụzd/, Ebonics as used by Celie deletes the /ә/ schwa from the unstressed
syllable [su/pposed] thereby giving the disyllabic word supposed a monosyllabic character. Although, the /ә/ is a lax
vowel, it is mostly deleted in Ebonic syllables with consonant clusters. Unlike most African languages that use
epenthesis, that is the insertion of a vowel where there are consonant clusters, Ebonics deletes the vowel where
possible by creating clusters. Thus, the syllabic structure for the word supposed /sә'pәuzd/= CVCVCC becomes sposed
/'spәuzd/= CCVCC, thereby having the consonant clusters at the initial position of the word.
(C) Apocope: This is the loss or omission of one or more sounds from the end of a word. It involves the shortening
of words by the loss of sounds at the end of the word. As in:
(q) *All needing somethin (Tcp, p.14)
‘All needing something’.
(r) *I may have got somethin in my eye but I didn’t wink. (Tcp, p.15)
‘I may have got something in my eye but I didn’t wink’
These features are typical in the spoken form as we have pointed out before. Thus the authors’ creativity is displayed
here, as they present their narrations as though the characters in the novels are present, talking directly to the reader.
4.2.3 Substitution of /t/ for /k/
Examples: The use of ‘ast’ for ‘ask’ as in:
(s) *I ast him what going on (Tcp, p.25)
‘She asked him what is going on’
(t) *How many he got? I ast (Tcp, p.46)
‘How many has he got? I asked’
(u) *I ast Shug Avery what she want for breakfast (Tcp, p.55)
‘I asked Shug Avery what she wants for breakfast’
The three examples in (s), (t) and (u) above illustrate the characteristic way the past tense form –ed is used in English
when it is added to a verb. Celie feels that the voiceless velar plosive /k/ can assume the status of its voiced counterpart
/g/ such that the ed past form added to the verb gives the phonological output of the voiceless alveolar plosive or stop,
/t/. Another example is as follows:
4.2.4 The Replacement of /t/ for v+ed
Some past verbs in Ebonics are represented by the letter t at the end of the word rather than the usual +ed affix. See the
example below:
(v) *She was kilt by her boyfriend coming home from church. (Tcp, p.14)

Published by Sciedu Press 74 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

‘She was killed by her boyfriend coming home from church’.

4.2.5 Substitution of /І/ for /e/
Ebonics, as we pointed out earlier, is used for creativity, resistance, solidarity, and so on, but environment, kind of
education, commonality, etc also contribute to its use within the Black community. For examples, most Ebonic
speakers use ‘git’ for ‘get’ as we can see in the samples texts from the novels:
(w) *You better git on back to the field (Tcp, p.34)
(x) *Help me git her in the house, Mr.— say. (Tcp, p.49)
(y) *Lynched people don’t git no marker, he say. (Tcp, p.167).
The section below analyzes the morphosyntactic structure of Ebonics by presenting different usages and meanings
derived from them in the novels.
4.3 Morphosyntactic Analysis of Texts
The structure of words and sentences is described as the micro-linguistic level of language because syntactic and
morphological descriptions are the smallest meaningful way of analyzing English structures. Syntactic analysis
involves the structure of the whole sentence as a string, while morphological analysis looks at individual word
structure. Angelou and Walker employ two forms of English in their texts. Although, Angelou’s text is written in her
voice, she uses minimal Black vernacular to illustrate the way other speakers use the language. Walker, on the other
hand, deploys the two forms to demonstrate class difference in her text. Thus, Black English is characterized by the
following morphosyntactic features:
4.3.1 The Absence of the Verb to be [null auxiliary] in Continuous Action
In systemic grammar, the clause other than the marked copular will have an item classified as lexical verb as a
constituent; and if the clause is ‘perfect’, it will have an item ‘have’ as a constituent. Also, the systemic grammar rules
state that, an auxiliary must precede a lexical verb, and a modal auxiliary must precede a non-modal auxiliary, and that
the feature [finite verb] must be conflated with the feature of the first verb (Butler, 1985, p. 114). Thus, in our analysis
of Ebonics, it is discovered that there is a consistent feature of null auxiliary which suggests that the English language
type does not recognize auxiliaries before the lexical verb. See instances below:
(1) *///She/Ø going/ round// trying to sing/// (Tcp,p.20)
S P A P
-aux
‘She is going round trying to sing’
(2) *///She Ø/ coming//with her orchestra/// (Tcp, p.25)
S P C
-aux
‘She is coming with her orchestra’
(3) *What Ø we gone do? (The caged bird, p.107)
‘What are we going to do?’
4.3.2 Deletion of the Verb to be in the Present Indicative
In these examples, lexical verbs are deleted completely and in this case the verb to be is what is deleted. See the
following illustrations:
1. *///She Ø glad to go/// (Tcp, p.18)
‘She is glad to go’
2. *///How Ø you, Sister Flowers?/// (The caged bird, p.91)
‘How are you Sister Flowers?’
3. *///You Ø still a boy,// buddy/// (The caged bird, p.34)
‘You are still a boy, buddy’.
4. *///How Ø you?/// (Tcp, p.32)

Published by Sciedu Press 75 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

‘How are you?’

4.3.3 The Absence of the Auxiliary Verb ‘to have’ in Continuous Tense
Examples:
5. *I been chopping (Tcp, p.27)
‘I have been chopping’.
6. *Us been driving all night, she say (Tcp, p. 133)
‘We have been driving all night, she says’
4.3.4 The Use of Double/Treble Negation
Unlike the Standard English, Ebonics deploys double/treble negation for negative statements. In arithmetic, - + - = -,
- × - = +, + × - = -, and so on. This mathematical logic is applied in our analysis of the English language, and in
Ebonics we find out that the above formulas are not applicable to structures. For example, don’t being a verb (do)
contracted with a negation (not) becomes a negative verb used together with the pronoun nothing (an absolute
negator), and an interjection/adverb no (another absolute negator), the result is a negative statement. See below:
7. *I don’t know nothing bout no others (Tcp, p.73)
‘I don’t know anything about Ø others’.
8. *But he ain’t got no customers (Tcp, p.23)
‘But he ain’t got Ø [any] customers’
Prescriptive manuals are however right to say that the negative concord constructions, as in the structures in (7) and
(8), are not Standard English. But for them to have condemned it as illogical is what we debunk in this study. To
think that the non-standard varieties or dialects that use negative concord are illogical is to confuse logic and
grammar. As we have pointed out before, it is true that two negatives cancel each other out and give a
positive/affirmative statement. And in Standard English I didn’t see nobody (with stress on nobody) implies that I did
see somebody. But this is not the case in non-standard varieties. For instance:
Non-standard: I didn’t see nobody → I didn’t see anybody.
In this illustration, we have two grammatical negatives, but only one semantic negative (not). However, negative
concord as in (7) I don’t know nothing bout no others and (8) But he ain’t got no customers is not illogical, it just
happens to be a feature of Ebonics or other non-standard varieties that is not present in the standard version. See also
the following examples:
9. *Lynched people don’t git no marker, he say. (Tcp, p.167)
‘Lynched people don’t get [have] Ø [any] marker, he says’
10. *I don’t say nothing. (Tcp, p.[220)
‘I don’t say Ø [any] thing’
The deletion symbol (Ø) used in the standard structures below indicates that the second negation has been removed.
For the Standard English, double negatives [- -] cancel each other and become [=] positive or affirmative. As in the
instances in (a) and (b):
(a) ‘I haven’t got no power’.
This indicates or implies (→):
(b) ‘I have got power’.
But the American Standard English portrays the example in (a) as a negative statement which means (c):
(c) ‘I haven’t got power’ or ‘I have not got power’ and/or I have got no power.
In sum, negative makings in English can be verbal or non-verbal. The verbal negation is marked either by a negative
inflection on the verb as in I didn’t tell him or by modification of the verb by the separate word not as in I did not tell
him. The verbal negation requires the insertion of the dummy auxiliary do under certain conditions, whereas the
non-verbal negation never does.
Negators can be absolute, approximate or non-affirmative. Absolute negators are absolutely zero. These are: no, none,
nobody, no-one, nothing, nowhere, neither, nor, never, etc., while approximate negators are close to zero but still

Published by Sciedu Press 76 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

have a number of items. They are: few, rarely, scarcely, hardly, etc. and the non-affirmative items do not specify
whether the number is few or many. These are indicated by the use of some, any and so on.
Moreover, this practice of double/treble negatives for positive or affirmative statement is not just peculiar to Ebonics
alone but also to its host language, the American Standard form. Other forms that employ this strategy are those
spoken in such places as North American, Britain, Australasia, Standard French, Polish and Italian (Huddleston and
Pullum, 2005, p.154-7). The following section describes the character of s reduction in Ebonic verbs.
4.3.5 Reduction of the Third Person Tense by Dropping ‘s’
The reduction of the third person tense by dropping s in Ebonic verbs makes the structures not to conform to the
standard form. There is no inflection in the verb and so there is no case assignment, and the verb which should assign
a thematic role to the subject is too weak. It therefore violates case filter of the generative grammar. And in systemic
grammar also, there is usually a feature checking process that ensures that the feature of the predicator (P)
corresponds with its subject (S). That is, there is a Subject-finite agreement, which defines the agreement between
the subject and its verb.
But Ebonics does not adhere to these strict rules of the English grammar, therefore; there is no violation as such. This
is based on the fact that Ebonics owes no loyalty to any language, although it is influenced by other languages like
the African languages and even the American English, standard and colloquial. See the following illustrations from
the novels:
11. *They tell me the Good Book sayØ, when I was a child I spake like a child (The caged bird, p.34)
‘They tell me the Good Book says, when I was a child I spake like a child’ (Biblical allusion)
12. *Harpo lookØ at his daddy (Tcp, p.33)
‘Harpo looks at his daddy’
13. *Everybody sayØ how good I is to Mr. — children (Tcp, p.31)
‘Everybody says how good I am to Mr.—‘s children’
14. *He knowØ (Tcp, p.32)
‘He knows’
15. *She fightØ, she runØ away (Tcp, p.22)
‘She fights, she runs away’.
Further, Ebonics drops s in singular verbs as a way of portraying the non-agreement that exit between subjects and
their predicators, and/or its non-conformity to the standard variety. The examples above illustrate our assertion. For
instance, Harpo in (12) is a singular subject, a name of a person, which should have a singular verb, but it rather has
a plural verb. Everybody in (13) is a singular quantifier which always goes with a singular verb in Standard English
but Ebonics do not recognize singular quantifiers or do not mark them for singular verbs. He in (14) and she in (15)
are both singular pronouns that should also have singular verbs, but it is the same non-agreement habit that we have
pointed out. However, we cannot say that this non-agreement feature is ungrammatical or an error, but a feature that
is absent in the Standard English.
4.3.6 The Use of Third Person Plural Form of Pronoun (us) at the Subject Position
This might be a contact-induced grammaticalization, which shows that linguistic forms other than the English
language had existed in the speech repertoire of these Blacks before they were deported to the New World, and there
is bound to be influences and motivations from those forms as they meet with the new forms. See examples in (16),
(17), (18) and (19):
16. *Us try, I say (Tcp, p.115)
‘We tried, I say’.
17. *What us got to eat (Tcp, p.113)
‘What have we got to eat’
18. *Us don’t git nowhere much (Tcp, p.115)
‘We don’t get anywhere much’
19. *Us kiss and kiss till us can’t hardly kiss no more (Tcp, p.118)

Published by Sciedu Press 77 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

‘We kissed and kissed until we couldn’t kiss any more’.

4.3.7 No Concord (subject-finite agreement)
In consonance with our analysis in (E) above, where we pointed out that the Ebonic attribute of dropping s in present
tense is not a grammatical illogicality but a characteristic feature that is peculiar to non-standard varieties, Ebonic
subjects most often do not agree with their verbs. In Standard English, verbs must agree in number and tense with
their subjects. Thus, non-adherence becomes a violation of the English language norms. However, since Ebonics is
emancipating by claiming to be a language on its right, we can say that it pays no homage or loyalty to the
prescriptive rules of the traditional grammar. Thus, the structures below explain: (a) the use of plural subject with a
singular verb as in (21) and (23), and (b) the use of first person singular pronoun ‘I’ with the singular verb ‘does’ as
in (22).
20. *I’d call her Mary if I was you (The caged bird, p.104)
‘I’d call her Mary if I were you’
21. *Was you scared? (The caged bird, p.87)
‘Were you scared?’
22. *I try, with the help of the Lord, Sister Flowers, to finish the inside just like I does (The caged bird, p.93)
‘I try, with the help of the Lord, Sister Flowers, to finish the inside just like I do’
23. *You children is the most ungrateful things I ever did see (The caged bird, p.51)
‘You children are the most ungrateful things I ever did see’
24. *She ast me where they is. (Tcp, p.54)
‘She asked me where they were’
Notably, the structures above do not have inflections to case-mark their verbs, and where there is an inflection it is
too weak to assign case to the verb. In English, there are usually irregularities so that not every rule is a complete
package. For example,‘ I does’ in (22) and ‘was’ in (20) and (21) illustrate the inconsistencies in English where a
plural verb ‘were’ can occur with a singular noun/pronoun in one instance and be acceptable, but in another is seen as
ungrammatical. For instance:
(i) If John were a doctor, his people would be happy.
(ii) I was late because of the heavy traffic.
(iii) *I were late because of the heavy traffic.
(iv) If I were a man, I would marry ten wives.
The outcome of these inconsistencies is that, the undereducated users of English find it difficult to grapple with all
the irregularities found in English language and so they are prone to these challenges illustrated in (i)- (iv). Again, in
Ebonics, there are instances of over-generalizing the rules of grammar. One of such is the over-generalization of the
past tense markers.
4.3.8 Overgeneralization of the Past Tense Marker
Ebonics uses +ed suffix in irregular verbs such as, know and throw by simply over-generalizing the +ed rule to
exclude +ed infix and zero morpheme. Thus, for users of this form, the past forms of the verbs know which is knew
and threw for throw become knowed and throwed respectively. See examples as used by Celie in The color purple:
25. *I knowed it was her. (Tcp, p.22)
‘I knew it was her’.
26. *The man us knowed as Pa is dead. (Tcp, p.214)
‘The man we knew as Pa is dead’.
27. *Ah, Harpo, say Mary Agnes, sipping some lemonade, I didn’t know you knowed history. (Tcp, p.250)
Knowed → base + f (suffix) – plural infix= bf.
28. *They throwed out the rest of us, all us who become slaves, for how us act. (Tcp, p.239)
29. *Africans throwed out the white Olinka peoples for how they look. (Tcp, p.239)

Published by Sciedu Press 78 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

This implies that throwed becomes:

Throwed → base + f (suffix) - plural infix = bf
Since in Standard English, most past verbs are indicated by the +ed suffix, Celie uses it on all types of verbs. She
over-generalizes, may be owing to her level of education or probably because of a possible transfer of the linguistic
rule from another language that had existed in her speech repertoire, as one who is an offspring of slave parents.
Other peculiarities are discussed below, for instance, the use of double plural markers in some Ebonic nouns.
4.3.9 The Use of Double Plural Noun Markers
There are instances of overcorrection where the speaker applies both the general plural marker ‘-s’ and the specific
plural markers for irregular nouns at the same time. The morphological breakdown of the noun mens as used by Celie
shows her inability to differentiate between pluralization by a replacive where the vowel [a] is replaced with [e] as in
‘man’ [men]. See examples below:
Grandchildrens, mens and womens
30. *Sister Henderson sure got some smart grandchildrens (The caged bird, p.15)
31. *Pretty soon a bunch of white mens come walking cross the yard. (Tcp, p.19)
32. *Young womens no good these day, he say. (Tcp, p.40)
33. *I don’t even look at mens. (Tcp, p.15)
34. * Most times mens look pretty much alike to me. (Tcp, p.23)
35. *You know how long it take some mens to notice anything, I say. (Tcp, p.241)
See the morphological analysis below:
a. Mens = plural noun + s → base + plural infix + f (suffix) = b(infix)f.
Where the base (root) is represented by b, and f is the suffix -s. Also, using the labeled brackets to represent the
morphological experimentation in Ebonics we have such examples as seen below:
[[Man]]singular N[-s]N-aff]plural N[s]]] double plural= mens.
Instead of:
(1) Men= noun+s (infix, e)- irregular noun → b + infix inflection.
[[Man]]singular N[-s]N-aff]]]plural N = men.
These are double plural noun markings. If Celie had used mans rather than mens, one would have analyzed it as an
error. Coupled with her under-education, she is bound to violate the English language grammatical rules for
irregular plurals. But we can deduce from here that it is not an error rather it is what Ebonics offers her. In Angelou’s
The caged bird, Momma also uses double plural nouns marking like Celie in The color purple as the examples below
testify:
(2) Grandchildrens = plural noun + s → base +suffix +suffix= bff.
[[Grandchild]]singular N[s]N-aff]plural N[s]]]] double plural= grandchildrens
Unlike the Standard English form of:
(3) Grandchildren = noun + s (suffix, ren)- irregular noun →base +suffix = bf.
[[Grandchild]]singular N[s]N-aff]]]plural N =grandchildren
(Also see Booij, 2005; Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002).
4.3.10 The Use of Double Heads
*He your husband, I say. Got to stay with him. (Tcp, p.67)
‘He is your husband, I say, you’ve got to stay with him’
Celie deletes the verb to be, the sentence portrays a unique characteristic of Ebonics. Following the endocentricity
condition of the generative grammar that states that double heads should not be projected in the same governing
category, the structure is thus ‘ungrammatical’.
However, since our focus in this analysis is not in the correctness or grammaticality of Ebonics, we therefore
accentuate its peculiarities rather than it violations. He and your husband being a co-reference to the same person

Published by Sciedu Press 79 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

could make the structure ungrammatical, but it could be seen as creative (and providing an emphatic subject in the
use of double heads). More so, your which is placed alongside the pronoun He is in apposition, and so it is a pronoun
in apposition. As earlier explained, both pronouns refer to the same person. Thus, the subject’s function is realized by
a pronoun ‘he’ in addition with another pronoun ‘your’ as its Head. (Bloor & Bloor, 1995, p. 38)
Also, since there is no verb to assign a thematic role to the subject He, we can say that the structure is anomalous and
has violated the Theta Criterion of the generative grammar which is that process of assigning thematic roles. Theta
Criterion refers to the grammatical activity of spreading information from the verb (V) to its noun phrase (NP) and
the prepositional phrase (PP) satellites (Fromkin et al, 2003, p. 195). However, with our analysis so far, it can be
inferred that Ebonics does not make use of the verb to be as much as the standard variety does so that verblessness
does not mean a violation.
The next sentence, ‘Got to stay with him’ indicates an empty subject category of functional grammar. The sentence is
without a subject and so it is in the empty subject category of systemic linguistics. It is not a violation but a
conscious deletion of the subject (theme) so that the structure becomes a subjectless sentence.
5. Conclusion
This study set out to analyze the linguistic emancipation of Ebonics as an evolving language used in African American
literature. We considered Walker’s The color purple and Angelou’s I know why the caged bird sings, both of which are
African American female literary texts. The paper explored the language of the texts, The color purple and I know why
the caged bird sings in relation to how a world- a just society is recreated and projected by the Black-female writers
through language. The article portrays these two women as responsive writers who sought to address the ills of racial
oppression, gender inequality, class differentiation, and so on of their time and climes by strongly opposing to the
prejudices and biases that set out to define the Black American woman’s reality.
With angry reprimand and denunciation, Walker and Angelou try a redress of the Black female story in the United
States. Using language (Ebonics), they both portray their noble vision of bringing the woman from the margin to the
centre in their novels thereby recreating a new world, a just society, a utopian world for the Black female in Diaspora.
References
Angelou, M. (1970). I know why the caged bird sings. New York: Random House.
Baker, Jr. H. (1971). Black literature in America. New York: McGraw Hill.
Blackwell, J. (1991). The black community: Diversity and unity (3rd ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
Bloor, T., & Bloor, M. (1995). The functional analysis of English: A Hallidayan approach. New York: Arnold.
Booij, G. (2005). The grammar of words: An introduction to linguistic morphology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Butler, C. (1985). Systemic linguistics: Theory and application. London: Batford.
Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. London: Routledge.
Bybee, J. (2001). Phonology of language use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cameron, D. (2005a). Language, gender and sexuality: current issues and new directions. Applied Linguistics, 26,
482-502.
Cameron, D., & Kulick, D. (2003). Language and sexuality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Carstairs-McCarthy, A. (2002). An introduction to English morphology: Words and their structure. Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press.
Chambers, J. K., & Trudgill, P. (2004). Dialectology (2nd ed). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Chigbo, M. A. (2000). The early history of America and inter-group relations among the settlers. Currents in early
American literature. A. A. Akpuda. Ed. 24
Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic structures. The Hague: Mouton.
Carroll, D. W. (2004). Psychology of language (4th ed.). London: Wadsworth/Thomson.
Creswell, M. (2006). Formal semantics. The Blackwell guide to the philosophy of language. M.Davitt & R. Hanley
(Eds.). Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 131-147.
Davis, A. (1981). Women, race and class. New York: Random House.
Eckert, P., & McConnell-Ginet, S. (1995). Constructing meaning, constructing selves: snapshots of language, gender

Published by Sciedu Press 80 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

and class from Belten High, Gender articulated: language and the socially constructed self. K. Hall & M.
Bucholtz (Eds.). New York: Routledge. pp. 469-508.
Eckert, P., & McConnell-Ginet, S. (2003). Language and gender. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ehrlich, S. (2004). Language and gender. The handbook of applied linguistics. A. Davis & C.Elder (Eds.). Oxford:
Blackwell. pp. 323-330.
Eko, E. (2005). Struggle and survival: strategic parallels in African and African American literary experiences.
Calabar: University of Calabar Press.
Epstein, E. L. (1978). Language and style. London: Methuen.
Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical discourse analysis: The critical study of language. London: Longman.
Finegan, E. (1994). Language: its structure and use (2nd ed.). Orlando: Harcourt Brace.
Fowler, R. (1978). Studying literature as language. Linguistics at work: a reader of applications. D. O. Oaks (Ed.).
Orlando: Harcourt Brace. pp. 553-563.
Fowler, R. (1981). Literature as social discourse. London: Batford.
Fowler, R. (1986). Linguistic criticism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Franklin, J. H., & Moss, A. A. (1988). From slavery to freedom: a history of Negroes Americans. New York:
McGraw Hill.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2003). An introduction to language (7th ed.). Boston: Thomson/Wadsworth.
Gardner, R. (2004). Conversation analysis. The handbook of applied linguistics. A. Davis & C. Elder (Eds.). Oxford:
Blackwell. pp. 281-284.
Gilroy, P. (1993). The black Atlantic: Modernity and double consciousness. New York: Verso.
Grier, W. G., & Cobbs, P. (1968). Black rage. New York: Vintage Books.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1973). Explorations in the functions of language. London: Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1994). An introduction to functional grammar (2nd ed.). London: Edward Arnold.
Hartmann, R. R. K., & James, G. (1998). Dictionary of lexicology. New York: Routledge.
Heine, B., & Kuteva, B. (2005). Language contact and grammatical change. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Huddleston, R., & Pullum, G. K. (2005). A student’s introduction to English grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Hyman, L. M. (1975). Phonology: theory and analysis. Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Joseph, J. E. (2004). Language and identity: National, ethnic, religious. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Killam, D., & Rowe, R. (Eds.). (2000). The companion to African literature. Oxford: James Currey Ltd.
Kramsch, C. (2004). Language, thought and culture. The handbook of applied linguistics. A. Davis & C. Elder (Eds.).
Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 254-257.
Leech, G. N., & Short M. H. (1981). Style in fiction. New York: Longman.
Leech, G. N., & Short M. H. (2008). Language and literature: style and foregrounding. London: Longman.
Leith, D. (1983). A social history of English. New York: Routledge.
Liddicoat, A. J., & Curnow, T. J. (2004). Language description. The handbook of applied linguistics. A. Davis & C.
Elder (Eds.). Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 25-50.
Lunsford, A. A., & Ruszkiewicz, J. J. (2004). The presence of others: voices and images that call for response (4th
edition). Boston: Bedford/ St. Martin’s.
Lyons, J. (1985). Language and literature: An introduction. London: Cambridge University Press.
Martin, J. N., & Nakayama, T. K. (2005). Experiencing intercultural communication: an Introduction (2nd ed.).
Boston: McGraw Hill.
McGregor, W. B. (2009). Linguistics: an introduction. New York: Continuum International.

Published by Sciedu Press 81 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

 http://ijelt.sciedupress.com International Journal of English Language Teaching Vol. 1, No. 1; 2014

Mey, J. L. (2001). Pragmatics: an introduction (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.

Meyer, C. F. (2009). Introducing English linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mills, S. (1995). Feminist stylistics. London: Routledge.
Muir, J. (1978). A modern approach to English grammar: An introduction to systemic grammar. London: Batsford.
Ottoh, B. O. (2012). Language and identity in Alice Walker’s The color purple and Maya Angelou’s I know why the
caged bird sings. MA Project Dept of English. University of Ibadan. 6+124pp.
Palmer, F. R. (1996). Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Paltridge, B. (2006). Discourse analysis. London: Continuum.
Parthasarathy, R. (1987). Tradition and creativity: Stylistic innovations in Raja Rao. Discourse across cultures:
strategies in world Englishes. L. E. Smith (Ed.). New York: Prentice Hall. pp. 157-165.
Radford, A. (1997). Transformational grammar: a first course. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Reys, R. E., Suydam, M. N., Lindquist, M. M., & Smith, N. L. (1999). Helping children learn Mathematics (5th ed.).
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Rickford, J. R., & Rickford R. J. (2000). Spoken soul: the story of Black English. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Samovar, L. A., Porter, R. E., & McDaniel, E. R. (2007). Communication between cultures (6th ed.). Belmont:
Thomson/ Wadsworth.
Sampson, E. E. (1971). Social psychology and contemporary society. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Schane, S. A. (1973). Generative phonology. Sydney: Prentice-Hall.
Sommerstein, A. H. (1977). Modern phonology. London: Edward Arnold.
Spender, D. (1984). Defining reality: a powerful tool. Language and power. Kramarae, C. Schulz, M., & O’Barr, W.
(Eds.). London: Sage.
Tannen, D. (1990). You just don’t understand: Women and men in conversation. New York: William Morrow.
Trappes-Lomax, H. (2004). Discourse analysis. The handbook of applied linguistics. A. Davis and C. Elder. Eds.
Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 133-140.
Thornborrow, J., & Wareing, S. (1998). Patterns in language: An introduction to language and style. London:
Routledge.
Walker, A. (1982). The color purple. New York: Pocket Books.
Webelhuth, G. (Ed.). (1995). Government and binding, theory and the minimalist program: Principles and
parameters in syntactic theory. Oxford: Blackwell.
Weinreich, U. (1964). Languages in contact: Findings and problems. London: Mouton and Co.

Published by Sciedu Press 82 ISSN 2329-7913 E-ISSN 2329-7921

View publication stats