BASIC TRAINING MODULE 11 TRAINING MANUAL

SECTION 2 - PART 3

AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION
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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION

GENERAL
Safe, economical, and reliable operation of modern aircraft is dependent upon the use of instruments. The first aircraft instruments were fuel
and oil pressure instruments to warn of engine trouble so that the aircraft could be landed before the engine failed. As aircraft that could fly
over considerable distances were developed, weather became a problem. Instruments were developed that helped to fly through bad weather
conditions.

Instrumentation is basically the science of measurement. Speed, distance, altitude, attitude, direction, temperature, pressure, and r.p.m. are
measured and these measurements are displayed on dials in the cockpit.

There are two ways of grouping aircraft instruments. One is according to the job they perform. Within this grouping they can be classed as
flight instruments, engine instruments, and navigation instruments. The other method of grouping aircraft instruments is according to the
principle on which they work. Some operate in relation to, changes in temperature or air pressure and some by fluid pressure. Others are
activated by magnetism and electricity, and others depend on gyroscopic action.

The instruments that aid in controlling the inflight attitude of the aircraft are known as flight instruments. Since these instruments must
provide information instantaneously, they are located on the main instrument panel within ready visual reference of the pilot. Basic flight
instruments in an aircraft are the airspeed indicator, altimeter and the magnetic direction indicator. In addition, some aircraft may have a
rate-of-turn indicator, a bank indicator, and an artificial horizon indicator. Flight instruments are operated by atmospheric, impact,
differential, or static pressure or by a gyroscope.

Engine instruments are designed to measure the quantity and pressure of liquids (fuel and oil) and gases (manifold pressure), r.p.m., and
temperature. The engine instruments usually include a tachometer, fuel and oil pressure gages, oil temperature gage, and a fuel quantity gage.
In addition some aircraft that are powered by reciprocating engines are equipped with manifold pressure gage(s), cylinder head temperature
gage(s), and carburetor airtemperature gage(s). Gas turbine powered aircraft will have a turbine or tailpipe temperature gage(s), and may
have an exhaust pressure ratio indicator (s).

Navigational instruments provide information that enables the pilot to guide the aircraft accurately along definite courses. This group of
instruments includes a clock, compasses (magnetic compass and gyroscopic directional indicator), radios, and other instruments for presenting
navigational information to the pilot.

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION (continued)

INSTRUMENT CASES
A typical instrument can be compared to a clock, in that the instrument has a mechanism, or works; a dial, or face; pointers, or hands; and a
cover glass. The instrument mechanism is protetced by a one; or two-piece case. Various materials, such as aluminum alloy, magnesium alloy,
iron, steel, or plastic are used in the manufacture of instrument cases. Bakelite is the most commonly used plastic. Cases for electrically
operated instruments are made of iron or steel; these materials provide a path for stray magnetic force fields that would otherwise interfere
with radio and electronic devices.

Some instrument mechanisms are housed in airtight cases, while other cases have a vent hole. The vent allows air pressure inside the
instrument case to vary with the aircraft's change in altitude.

DIALS
Numerals, dial markings, and pointers of instruments are frequently coated with luminous paint. Some instruments are coated with luminous
calcium sulphide, a substance that glows for several hours after exposure to light. Other instruments have a phosphor coating that glows only
when excited by a small ultraviolet lamp in the cockpit. Some instruments are marked with a combination of radioactive salts, zinc oxide, and
shellac. In handling these instruments, care should be taken against radium poisoning. The effects of radium are cumulative and can appear
after a long period of continued exposure to small amounts of radiation. Poisoning usually results from touching the mouth or nose after
handling instrument dials or radioactive paint. After handling either, the hands should be kept away from the mouth and nose, and washed
thoroughly with hot water and soap as soon as possible.

RANGE MARKINGS
Instrument range markings indicate, at a glance, whether a particular system or component is operating in a safe and desirable range of
operation or in an unsafe range.

Instruments should be marked and graduated in accordance with the Aircraft Specifications or Type Certificate Data Sheets and the specific
aircraft maintenance or flight manual. Instrument markings usually consist of colored decalcomanias or paint applied to the outer edges of the
cover glass or over the calibrations on the dial face. The colors generally used as range markings are red, yellow, green, blue, or white. The
markings are usually in the form of an arc or a radial line.

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RANGE MARKINGS (continued)
A red radial line may be used to indicate maximum and minimum ranges: operations beyond these markings are dangerous and should be
avoided. A blue arc marking indicates that operation is permitted under certain conditions. A green arc indicates the normal operating range
during continuous operation. Yellow is used to indicate caution.

A white index marker is placed near the bottom of all instruments that have range markings on the cover glass. The index marker is a line
extending from the cover glass onto the instrument case. The marker shows if glass slippage has occurred. Glass slippage would cause the
range markings to be in error.

INSTRUMENT PANELS
With a few exceptions, instruments are mounted on a panel in the cockpit so that the dials are plainly visible to the pilot or copilot. Instrument
panels are usually made of sheet aluminum alloy strong enough to resist flexing. The panels are nonmagnetic and are painted with a nonglare
paint to eliminate glare or reflection.

In aircraft equipped with only a few instruments, only one panel is necessary; in some aircraft, additional panels are required. In such cases the
forward instrument panel is usually referred to as the "main" instrument panel to distinguish it from additional panels on the cockpit overhead
or along the side of the flight compartment. On some aircraft the main instrument panel is also referred to as the pilot's or copilot's panel,
since many of the pilot's instruments on the left side of the panel are duplicated on the right side.

The method of mounting instruments on their respective panels depends on the design of the instrument case. In one design, the bezel is
flanged in such a manner that the instrument can be flushmounted in its cutout from the rear of the panel. Integral self-locking nuts are
provided at the rear faces of the flange corners to receive mounting screws from the front of the panel. The flanged type case can also he
mounted from the front of the panel.

The mounting of instruments that have flangeless cases is a simpler process. The flangeless case is mounted from the front of the panel. A
special expanding type of clamp, shaped and dimensioned to fit the instrument case, is secured to the rear face of the panel. As actuating screw
is connected to the clamp and is accessible from the front of the panel. The screw can be rotated to loosen the clamp, permitting the instrument
to slide freely into the clamp. After the instrument is positioned, the screw is rotated to tighten the clamp around the instrument case.

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INSTRUMENT PANELS (continued)
Instrument panels are usually shock-mounted to absorb low-frequency, high-amplitude shocks. Shock mounts are used in sets of two, each
secured to separate brackets. The two mounts absorb most of the vertical and horizontal vibration, but permit the instruments to operate
under conditions of minor vibration. A cross sectional view of a typical shock mount is shown in figure 12-1.

The type and number of shock mounts to be used for instrument panels are determined by the weight of the unit. The weight of the complete
unit is divided by the number of suspension points. For example, an instrument panel weighing 16 lbs. which is supported at four points would
require eight shock absorbers, each capable of supporting 4 tbs. When the panel is mounted, the weight should deflect the shock absorbers
approximately 1/8 in.

Shock-mounted instrument panels should be free to move in all directions and have sufficient clearance to avoid striking the supporting
structure. When a panel does not have adequate clearance, inspect the shock mounts for looseness, cracks, or deterioration.

REPAIR OF AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS

The repair of aircraft instruments is highly specialized, requiring special tools and equipment. Instrument repairmen must have had
specialized
training or extensive on-the-job training in instrument repair. For these reasons, the repair of instruments must be performed by a properly
certificated instrument repair facility. However, mechanics are responsible for the installation, connection, removal, servicing, and functional
checking of the instruments.

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FIGURE 12-1. Section through instrument panel shock.

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Figure 13-1. Flight instruments were no problem in the early Curtiss airplanes such as this one flown by the pioneer Glenn Cuitiss. There were
no instruments.

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There has been no aspect of the growth of aviation into an effective transportation system more important than the development of efficient
flight instruments.

Prior to World War II, only a few pilots could fly by instruments, and very few airplanes were equipped for flight without reference to the
ground. Navigation was done almost exclusively by pilotage, that is, by flying from one recognizable landmark to another. A low cloud cover,
therefore, required flying at a dangerously low altitude or not flying at all.

On September 24, 1929, the famous engineering pilot Jimmy Doolittle made a flight in which he had absolutely no outside visual reference.
He had, in the Consolidated NY-2 airplane he flew, an artificial horizon to give him an indication of the longitudinal and lateral attitude of the
airplane relative to the earth's surface, and a sensitive altimeter that showed his altitude above the ground to within a few feet. A radio
direction fmder allowed him to determine his position relative to the landing area. With this equipment, Doolittle proved that "blind" flight
was indeed possible.

During the 1940's, instrument flights with zero visibility became common place in civilian aviation. However, these flight instruments would
only keep the airplane straight and level with no outside reference. This is of little use without some method of guiding the airplane once it is
off the ground. However, it is important to realize that flight instruments and navigation equipment often operate in conjunction with each
other. This is especially true with the modern auto-flight systems.

Today integrated circuits and microprocessors have allowed digital electronics to revolutionize all forms of flight instrumentation and control
systems. The new generation of flight instruments display the information on a color cathode ray tube with the information given us in
numbers or letters as well as with an analog display in some cases.

Because this field is developing so fast, in this portion of the Integrated Training Program, we will discuss only the fundamentals of aircraft
instrumentation. We will furnish you the information you need to establish a solid foundation on which to build your knowledge as new
developments continue to be made.

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Figure 13-2. The instrument panel of this 1929 Cessna had only an airspeed indicator and an altimeter in addition to the basic engine
instruments.

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Figure 13-3. The instrument panel of a modern twin-engine corporate airplane provides the pilot with all of the information needed to conduct
a safe flight.

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The instrument panel of a modern twin-engine corporate airplane provides the pilot with all of the information needed to conduct a safe flight.

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Panel Layout
A good look at almost any of the older airplanes will affirm the fact that the arrangement of instruments in the panel has been haphazard at
best. The non-standard size of the older directional gyro and the gyro horizon made it difficult to place these

instruments in the panel in such a way that would allow an efficient scan of the instruments for IFR flying. It was only when the newer 31/8
inch instruments became commonly used that the nowfamiliar T-arrangement of flight instruments became standard for the smaller general
aviation aircraft, as well as for the airliners.

In figure 13-86, we have a well arranged instrument panel for a popular single-engine airplane. The basic T -arrangement of instruments is
located directly in front of the pilot. The top instrument is the attitude indicator, and directly below this is the directional gyro. To the right of
the attitude indicator is the altimeter, and in the left arm of the T is the airspeed indicator. The turn coordinator is below the airspeed
indicator, and the vertical speed indicator is below the altimeter. For partial panel flying, the clock, airspeed indicator and turn coordinator
are all grouped together.

The radio equipment is all located in the center of the panel and in a row of indicators on the right side of the pilot's panel. At the top of the
avionics stack are the three marker beacon indicator lights and the audio panel which allows the pilot to select which piece of radio equipment
goes to the speaker and which is connected to the phones. 'fhe second and third pieces of equipment down from the top

are the two communication transceivers and navigation receivers. The indicators to their left are operated by these receivers. You will notice
that the upper indicator has a glide-slope needle, while the lower indicator does not. Both indicators, however, can be used to display VOR and
localizer information.

Below the VHF nav-comm equipment is the automatic direction fmder receiver, and its indicator is just below the VOR/LOC indicators.

Below the ADF is the control head for the radar beacon transponder.

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Figure 13-86, Well equippesd instrument panel for a single-engine bussiness airplane.

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Panel Layout (continued)
The altimeter in front of the pilot is an encoding altimeter, and the one in the right panel is a three-pointer pneumatic altimeter that does not
have the encoding feature. To the right of the altimeter are the two fuel quantity indicators and the hour meter that records the total time the
engine has run.

The engine instruments are, in general, located below the flight instruments. The exhaust gas temperature indicator is to the left of and below
the turn coordinator, and directly below the turn coordinator is a combination manifold pressure gauge and fuel-flow indicator for the fuel
injection system. To the right of this instrument is the tachometer. The bottom row of instruments, almost hidden in this photograph by the
control wheel, are the small rectangular ammeter, cylinder head temperature indicator, and oil temperature and oil pressure gauges.

The automatic pilot controls are located at the bottom center of the instrument panel.

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Well equippesd instrument panel for a single-engine bussiness airplane.

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The basic T -arrangement of instruments.

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION (continued)

The basic T -arrangement of instruments.

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION (continued)

Instrument Mounting

Most instruments are mounted in a shockmounted sub-panel and are covered with a false panel for appearance. One of the most important

things to check on a routine maintenance inspection is the condition of the instrument panel shock mounts. There are two forms of shock
mounts used to support instrument panels. The larger mount, shown in figure 13-88, bolts between a bracket that is riveted to the instrument
panel and the aircraft structure. The load must be carried by this type of mount in a direction parallel to the bolt.

The smaller shock mount is simply a pair of threaded studs embedded in a rubber spacer. The panel is supported from the sub-structure by
as many of these mounts as are needed to carry the load. Be sure, on each inspection, to ensure that the panel cannot be deflected enough for
any of the instruments to hit against the structure or against any of the other instruments.

The instrument panel must be electrically bonded to the structure through either a braided bonding strap or with a thin strap of aluminum
around the shock mounts. Be sure to check during every inspection that these bonding straps are in good condition.

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION (continued)

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Figure 13-88. Instrument panel shock mounts.

AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION (continued)

Power Requirements

Many instruments found on a modern aircraft require some electrical power for operation or lighting. Instrument lighting is typically
contained within the instrument panel provided by individual post lights. Other instruments, and of course, the radio and autopflot systems
require electrical power for operation. To ensure proper operation, the power ratings of each component must fall within the aircraft's
electrical specifications. Both the voltage and amperage ratings of the instruments must be checked. Whenever installing new or additional
electrical equipment to the aircraft, always perform a load check. This check is done by adding up all the continuous electrical loads found on
the aircraft. The total is then compared to the output ratings of the aircraft's alternator system. The total electrical load must not exceed the
alternator output. If the total load is greater than the alternator output, the new equipment should not be added to the aircraft without
modification to the electrical system or operating procedures manual.

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION (continued)

Range Markings

Most aircraft instruments need to show the pilot both the current operating status and any liniitations set forth by the manufacturer for that
particular piece of equipment. Since equipment limitations can take many different forms' such as never-exceed limits, normal operating
range, etc., a color code system has been devised to mark these limits on the appropriate instruments.

1. Airspeed Indicator
a. White arc - Used to indicate flap operating range. The lower side of the arc indicates stall speed with flaps extended. The upper end
indicates the maximum flap extension speed.
b. Green arc - This indicates the normal operating range of the airspeed. The bottom of the arc is stall speed (flaps up) and the top of the arc
is maximum airspeed in rough air.
c. Yellow arc - This arc indicates a limited flight operations range. The aircraft should be operated in the yellow arc airspeed range only
during flights in smooth air.
d. Red radial line - This is the never-exceed speed for the aircraft. The aircraft should never be operated at speeds at or above this line.
e. Blue radial line - On twin-engine aircraft, the blue radial line indicates the best singleengine rate of climb.

2. Carburetor Air Temperature Indicator

a. Red radial line - This line indicates the maximum carburetor inlet air temperature for proper engine operation.
b. Green arc - The engine inlet air normal operating temperatures are indicated by the green arc. The upper limit meets the red radial line
and the lower limit meets the yellow arc.
c. Yellow arc - This is the range at which carburetor ice is most likely to form.

3. Cylinder Head Temperature Gauges

a. Red radial line - Maximum permissible cylinder head temperature.
b. Green arc - Normal operating range.
c. Yellow arc Maximum continuous operating temperature.

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION (continued)

Range Markings (continued)

4. Manffold Pressure Gauge

a. Red radial line - This line indicates the maximum permissible manifold pressure.
b. Green arc - This is the normal operating range for the manifold pressure. This arc extends from the minimum acceptable pressure to the
bottom of the yellow arc.
c. Yellow arc - This range indicates the maximum manifold pressure for intermittent operations if different from the normal operating
range.

5. Fuel Pressure
a. Red radial line - Both the maximum and minimum acceptable pressures are indicated by a red line.
b. Green arc - Normal operating range.
c. Yellow arc - This is a limited operating range. If the system is operating in the yellow arc the fuel system should be inspected for possible
restrictions as soon as possible.

6. Engine Oil Pressure

a. Red radial line - Both the maximum and minimum acceptable oil pressure.
b. Green arc - This represents the normal operating oil pressure.
c. Yellow arc - This is a caution range and the engine should not be operated in this range for an extended period. The yellow arc often
represents the oil pressure during cold starting or idle conditions.

7. Reciprocating Engine Tachometer

a. Red radial line - Indicates the maximum permissible engine rpm.
b. Green arc - Indicates the normal operating rpm range.
c. Yellow arc - This is the range just above the green arc and below the red radial line. The engine may be operated at this rpm for limited
periods only.
d. Red arc - This is the range in which the engine should not be operated except to pass through in order to achieve a higher or lower rpm.

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION (continued)

Range Markings (continued)

8. Turbine Engine Tachometer

a. Red radial line - Maximum permissible rpm.
b. Green arc - This arc extends from the maximum to the minimum rpm for continuous operation. This is the normal operating range.
c. Yellow arc - From the maximum continuous operating range to the maximum permissible rpm.

9. Exhaust Gas Temperature, Turbine Engine

a. Red radial line - Maximum permissible temperature for wet or dry operations, whichever is greater.
b. Green arc - This range is the normal operating temperature.
c. Yellow arc - This range extends from the top of the green arc to the red radial line.

10. Torquemeter
a. Red radial line - Maximum permissible torque as set for by the aircraft or engine manufacturer.
b. Green arc - Normal continuous operating range.
c. Yellow arc - Caution range extending from the top of the green arc to the red radial line.

11. Dual Torquemeter-Helicopter

a. Red radial line (engine) - Maximum permissible rpm for the engine.
b. Red radial line (rotor) - Maximum and minimum rpm for the power-off operation of the rotor.
c. Green arc (engine) - Normal operating range for the engine rpm.
d. Green arc (rotor) - Normal operating range for the rotor.
e. Yellow arc (engine) - Caution ranges for the engine rpm. These areas of operation are restricted to certain conditions.

12. Gas Producer (N1) Tachometer Turboshaft Helicopter

a. Red radial line - Maximum permissible rpm.
b. Green arc - normal operating rpm

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION (continued)

Electronic Instruments

In recent years, a major change has occurred in the design and construction of aircraft instruments. The older style instruments containing
rotating mass gyros, delicate bearings, hairsprings and other extremely sensitive components have been replaced with electronic solid-state
devices. The new "strap down" systems contain no moving parts and boast of greater reliability and higher time before failure.

Electronic Flight Instruments Systems, known as EFIS, have several advantages over conventional instruments. First and foremost is the
advantage of increased reliability. EFIS reduces instrument panel clutter by combining several instruments into one unit. Pilot work load can
be reduced by removing unnecessary information form the EFIS displays. Weather radar information can be overlapped with the navigational
mapping.

The four displays shown in figure 13-89 are each an interchangeable CRT driven by their associated symbol generator. The center symbol
generator is used as a redundancy check between the left and right systems. If one or more of the units fail, the other(s) will control the
electronic displays. The symbol generator receives signals from the various instrument and navigational sensors located throughout the
aircraft. The weather radar receiver/transmitter receives signals from the aircraft's radar antenna and sends information to both the pilots and
copilots symbol generators. The display controller allows the pilot to select the appropriate system configuration for the current flight
situation.

The use of digital based microprocessor electronics allows us to replace several mechanical instruments with the modem electronic flight
instruments displaying the information on one or more cathode ray tubes (CRT). The signals sent to the various components of the systems are
typically linked through a digital data bus. A data bus is made up of a twisted pair of insulated wires

surrounded by an outer shielding. The electrical signals sent through the data bus consist of short pulses of voltage on or voltage off, binary
ones and zeroes. These pulses are extremely short in duration. A typical system is capable of transmitting signal pulses which last only 10
micro-seconds.

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One common bus system is known as ARINC 429. ARINC stands for Aeronautical Radio Incorporated, and the 429 is a code for the digital
data standard. This system uses a 32-bit word for all information transmitted over the data bus. As seen in figure 13-9 1, the 32-bit word is
made up of one parity bit, a sign status matrix, the data the source destination indicator, and the label or identification of the sending unit.

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Figure 13-89. A two tube EFIS display.

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Electronic Instrument

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Electronic Instrument

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B727 - 200 Instrument Panels

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B727 - 200 Instrument Panels

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B727 - 200 Instrument Panels

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B737 - 200 Instrument Panels

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B737 - 200 Instrument Panels

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B737 - 200 Instrument Panels

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B737 - 200 Instrument Panels

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B737 - 200 Instrument Panels

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B737 - 200 Instrument Panels

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B737 - 400 / 500 Instrument Panels

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B737 - 400 Instrument Panels

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B737 - 400 Instrument Panels

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B737 - 600 / 700 / 800 / 900 Instrument Panels

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B737 - 600 / 700 / 800 / 900 Instrument Panels

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B737 - 600 / 700 / 800 / 900 Instrument Panels

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B737 - 600 / 700 / 800 / 900 Instrument Panels

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B747 - 400 Instrument Panels

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B747 - 400 Instrument Panels

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B767 Instrument Panels

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MD - 90 Instrument Panels

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A310 Instrument Panels

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Airbus A320 Instrument Panels

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