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Heat Transfer

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Heat Transfer

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Nomee Patel

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Heat Transfer

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©This book is protected by law under the Copyright Act of India. This book can only be used by the
student to whom the book was provided by Career Avenues GATE Coaching as a part of its GATE
course. Any other use of the book such as reselling, copying, photocopying, etc is a legal offense.

HEAT TRANSFER
1 INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS …5

2 CONDUCTION …11

Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction, General Conduction Equation Based on Cartesian Coordinates, Heat
Transfer Through a Wall, Composite Wall (Materials in Series), Composite Wall (Materials in Parallel),
Plane Wall With Internal Heat Generated, Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, General Conduction Equation
Based on Polar Cylindrical Coordinates, Heat Transfer From a Circular Duct, Critical Radius of Insulation,
Unsteady State Heat Conduction, Lumped Capacity System

3 CONVECTION …55

Newton’s Law of Cooling, Film Heat Transfer Coefficients, Heat Transfer to a Flowing Fluid, Types of
Convection, Natural Convection, Mechanisms of Natural Convection, Natural Convection Over Surfaces,
Forced Convection, Mechanism of Forced Convection, Velocity Boundary Layer, Thermal Boundary Layer

4 RADIATION …78

Black Body Radiation, Radiation Laws, Planck’s Law, Stefan Boltzmann Law, Wien’s Displacement Law,
Radiation Properties, Emissivity, Receiving Properties, Kirchhoff’s Law, The View Factor, View Factor
Relation, The Reciprocity Rule, The Summation Rule, Radiation Heat Transfer, Net Radiation Between
Two Surfaces,

5 BOILING AND CONDENSATION …100

Heat Transfer to Boiling Liquids, Flow Boiling Regimes, Heat Transfer to Condensation, Film Wise
Condensation, Drop Wise Condensation

6 HEAT EXCHANGERS …112

Classification of Heat Exchangers, Construction of Heat Exchangers, Plate Heat Exchangers, Shell And
Tube Heat Exchangers, Types of Shell And Tube Heat Exchangers Front And Rear Heads, Types of shell
And Tube Heat Exchangers, Description of Internal Parts of Shell And Tube Heat Exchangers, Tubes,
Shells, Nozzles, Front And Rear End Heads, Baffles, Tube Sheets, Double Pipe Heat Exchangers, Fluidized
Bed Heat Exchangers, Heat Exchangers Analysis, Fluid Flow, Balance And Effectiveness, Exchanger
Equation, Fouling

6 EVAPORATION …153

Evaporators, Classification of Evaporators, Batch Pan Evaporators, Natural Circulation Evaporators, Rising
Film Evaporators, Falling Film Tubular Evaporators, Rising / Falling Film Tubular Evaporators, Forced
Circulation Evaporators, Wiped Film Evaporators, Plate Type Evaporators, Evaporators Analysis,
Capacity, Evaporator Economy

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO HEAT TRANSFER
BASIC CONCEPTS –CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND RADIATION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In describing heat transfer problems, students often make the mistake of interchangeably using
the terms heat and temperature. Actually, there is a distinct difference between the two.
Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy possessed by the molecules of a substance. It
is a relative measure of how hot or cold a substance is and can be used to predict the direction of
heat transfer.

Heat is energy in transit. The transfer of energy as heat occurs at the molecular level as a result
of a temperature difference. Heat is capable of being transmitted through solids and fluids by
conduction, through fluids by convection, and through empty space by radiation. The symbol for
heat is Q.

Heat v/s Work

Distinction should also be made between the energy terms heat and work. Both represent energy
in transition. Work is the transfer of energy resulting from a force acting through a distance. Heat
is energy transferred as the result of a temperature difference. Neither heat nor work are
thermodynamic properties of a system. Heat can be transferred into or out of a system and work
can be done on or by a system, but a system cannot contain or store either heat or work. Heat into
a system and work out of a system are considered positive quantities

Thermodynamics provides the following information about a system:

 Energy can be transferred between a system and its surroundings.

 A system interacts with its surroundings by exchanging work and heat
 It deals with equilibrium states (Ideal conditions).

But Thermodynamics does not give information about the rates at which energy is transferred,
mechanisms through with energy is transferred, factors affecting the energy transfer and real
time problems & applications

In this chapter, we will learn: What is heat transfer, how heat is transferred, relevance and
importance of the subject.

Thermodynamics v/s Heat Transfer

Thermodynamics tells about Heat Transfer tells about

 how much heat is transferred(dQ)  how heat(dQ) is transferred
(different modes of heat transfer)
 how much work is done(dW)  At what rate heat(dQ) is transferred
 Final state of the system  Temperature difference inside the body
 It is more like a Test Cricket. Final Scores  It is more like ODI. Run rate is Important.
are Important.  

Definition of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer deals about study of thermal energy transfer that is induced by a temperature
difference (or gradient)

Modes of heat transfer

•Conduction heat transfer: Occurs when a temperature gradient exists through a solid or a
stationary fluid (liquid or gas).

•Convection heat transfer: Occurs within a moving fluid, or between a solid surface and a
moving fluid, when they are at different temperatures

•Thermal radiation: Heat transfer between two surfaces (that are not in contact), often in the
absence of an intervening medium.

1. 2 Conduction

Transfer of energy from the more energetic to less energetic particles of a substance by contact
of particles of matter.

Mechanisms of conduction:

 Lattice Vibration & free electron theory

 Particle collisions

Lattice Vibration (seen in solids):

1) Network of atoms 2) Vibrate “hot” side 3) Whole structure

Particle collision (observed in solids & fluids):

1) Particle from hot side migrates 2) hot particle collides 3) two particles have similar
to the cold side with cold particle energy levels, both are warm

Thus metals(particle collision) are good conductors of heat (Eg: Copper) as they have lot of free
electrons and ceramic materials, inert gases etc., doesn’t exhibit good conducting nature as they
have very less free electrons. These materials are called Insulators.

1. 3 Convection

Energy transfer by random molecular motion (as in conduction) plus bulk (macroscopic) motion
of the fluid. Relative motion between the surfaces is essential for convection.

In a typical convective sequence hot surface heat the surrounding fluid (at the interface) thus the
interfacial fluid gets heated and becomes warmer. A fluid movement gets created which replaces
the warmer fluid (at the interface) with cooler fluid (in the main stream), which can draw more
heat away from the surface.

Based on nature of fluid movement creation, convection is classified as:

Natural (free) convection: flow induced by buoyancy forces, arising from density differences
arising from temperature variations in the fluid

In this case, the fluid movement is created by the warm fluid itself. The density of fluid (at the
interface) decrease as it is heated; thus, hot fluids become lighter than cool fluids. A warm fluid
surrounding a hot objects rises, and is replaced by cooler fluid resulting in the self-induced fluid
movement.

Example: Boiling of water in a kettle

1) hot surface heats 2) warm air rises 3) air is replaced 4) circulation begins
surrounding air by cool air

Forced convection: flow movement caused by external means like fan, blower etc.

Problem: What makes a windy, winter day feel much colder than a calm day with same
temperature?

Solution: Due to high forced convection is the heat loss from your body is increased due to the
constant replenishment of cold air by the wind.

1. 4 Radiation

Heat transfer between two surfaces (that are not in contact), often in the absence of an
intervening medium.

Salient features involved in radiation

 Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter

• Does not require presence of a medium

• Can occur from solid surfaces, liquids and gases.

• Energy is transferred in form of electromagnetic waves

• Anybody with temperature above absolute 0 Kelvin emits radiation

In Radiation we define,

Emissive power E as the rate at which energy is released per unit area (W/m2) (radiation emitted
from the surface)

Irradiation G as the rate of incident radiation per unit area (W/m2) of the surface (radiation
absorbed by the surface), originating from its surroundings

1. 5 Combined modes of heat transfer

Several real time heat transfer situations would involve more than one mode of heat transfer. In
such cases, the most convenient form of expressing the heat flow is in form of overall heat
transfer coefficient which includes all modes of heat transfer.

1. 6 Phase change heat transfer

All the above cases discussed so far involves sensible heat (internal energy) of the media.
However, even the latent heat of the media could be exploited for the heat transfer purposes
which includes.

 Boiling Heat transfer

 Condensation Heat transfer

Such phase change heat transfer is present in evaporators, cooling towers, condensers and
refrigerators.

Problem:

Identify the heat transfer processes that is involved in the figure below

CHAPTER 2
CONDUCTION

Conduction heat transfer is defined as heat transfer in solids and fluids without bulk motion. Heat
conduction generally takes place in solids, though it may occur in fluids without bulk motion. In
fluids, conduction is due to the collusions of the molecules during their random motion. In solids,
it is due to the combination of vibrations of molecules in the lattice and the energy transport by
free electrons.

2. 1 Fourier Law of Conduction:

Rate of heat conduction is proportional to the area measured normal to the direction of heat flow
and to the temperature gradient in that direction.

Thus the rate of heat conduction through a wall (qx) as shown in figure with constant thickness is
proportional to the temperature difference (T2 – T1) between the surfaces and the area normal to
the heat flow direction (A) and is inversely proportional to the thickness of the wall (L).

Fourier’s law,

…………………………. (1)

Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity is defined as the ability of a substance to conduct

heat. It is defined as the amount of heat conducted by a material per unit length per unit
temperature difference. It is a transport property.

 In general, ksolid > kliquid > kgas.

 Thermal conductivity varies with temperature.
 Thermal insulations consist of low conductivity materials

Consider a wall as shown; we know that the rate of heat transfer through the wall increases,
when:

 The temperatures difference between the left and right surfaces increase,
 The wall surface area normal to the direction of heat flow increases,
 The wall thickness reduces,
 The wall is change from brick to aluminum.

If we measure temperatures of the wall from left to right and plot the temperature variation with
the wall thickness, we get:

Relative to the heat flow direction, the slope of the temperature line is negative as the
temperature decrease with the heat flow direction.

Problem

Determine the steady state rate of heat transfer per unit area through a 4. 0 cm thick
homogeneous slab with its two faces maintained at uniform temperatures of 38 C and 21C. The
thermal conductivity of the material is 0. 19 W/m. K.
A) 8. 075 B) 80. 75 C) 807. 5 D) 0. 875

Solution:
L =. 04m; k = 0. 19 W/mk; T1 = (38+273)K; T2 = (21+273)K.
Substituting in equation1 we get qx = 80. 75 W/m2 (per unit area mentioned in question)

Ans. B

2.2 GENERAL CONDUCTION EQUATION BASED ON CARTESIAN COORDINATES

Consider a control volume as shown in figure below

Applying the first law of thermodynamics to the element, we get:

By combining above equations, we get

…………………………. (2)

It is a general three dimensional heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates where, α =

Thermal diffusivity = (k / ρ Cp) – m2/s

Thermal diffusivity is nothing but how fast heat is diffused through a material during changes of
temperature with time. The larger the diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the
material. A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material
and a small amount of heat will be conducted further.

Case 1: No heat generation

…………………………. (3)

This equation is known as diffusion equation (or) Fourier’s equation.

Case 2: Steady-state conditions

In steady state condition, the temperature does not change with time. So, (δT/δt) = 0. The heat
conduction equation 2 reduces to-

…………………………. (4)

This equation is known as Poisson’s equations. In the absence of internal heat generation,
equation 4 becomes-

…………………………. (5)

This equation is known as Laplace equation

Case 3: One dimensional steady state heat conduction

If the temperature varies only in the x direction, the equation 2 reduces to-

…………………………. (6)

In absence of internal heat generation (q/k) term in equation 6 becomes zero and equation gets
further reduced.

Case 4: Two dimensional steady state heat conduction

If the temperature varies only in the x and y directions, the equation 2 becomes-

…………………………. (7)

In absence of internal heat generation (q/k) term in equation 7 becomes zero and equation gets
further reduced.

Case 5: Unsteady state, one dimensional, without internal heat generation

In unsteady state, the temperature changes with time, i. e., (δT/δt) ≠ 0. So, the general conduction
equation 2 reduces to-

…………………………. (8)

GATE Tip

Reduction of general conduction equation based on Cartesian coordinates into different forms should be
completely understood.

2.3 HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH A WALL

For this case, the process is steady-state, no internal heat generated, and one dimensional heat
flow, therefore equation (6) can be used with (q/k) term zero.

…………………………. (9)

By integrating equation (9):

…………………………. (10)

by differentiating equation (10) and applying to a Fourier’s law of heat conduction, the heat
transfer rate through the wall is then obtained from:

…………………………. (11)

Then equation (11) may be written as:

…………………………. (12)

2.4 COMPOSITE WALL (MATERIALS IN SERIES)

Steady State Conduction:

If the rate of heat conduction does not change with time, it is said to be steady state
conduction.

If convection on inner side and outer side of wall is considered than the equation modifies to:

GATE Tip

As the system is steady-state and no internal heat generated, the heat flows enter and exit each
layer are equal. Therefore:
Q1 = (Ta-T1)/R1
Q2 = (T1-T2)/R2
Q3 = (T2-T3)/R3
Q4 = (T3-T4)/R4
Q5 = (T4-Tb)/R5
And, Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q4 = Q5 (due to steady state)

Problems (On conduction through a composite wall)

The wall of a storage room is composed of three layer. The outer layer is stone lined 23 cm thick.
The middle layer is brick 15 cm thick, the inside layer is cement 10 cm thick. The temperatures
of the outside air is 25oC and on the inside air is –10oC. The film co-efficient for outside air and
brick is 50 W/m2K. Film co-efficient for inside air and cement is 15 W/m2K. Find heat flow rate.

Given:
k for stone = 2. 1 W/mK; k for brick = 2. 7 W/mK; k for cement = 0. 24 W/mK;
Thickness of cement, L1 = 10 cm = 0. 10 m
Thickness of cork, L2 = 15 cm = 0. 15 m
Thickness of brick, L3 = 23 cm = 0. 23 m
Inside air temperature, Ta = –10oC + 273 = 263 K
Outside air temperature, Tb = 25oC + 273 = 298 K
Film co-efficient for inner side, ha = 15 W/m2K
Film co-efficient for outside, hb = 50 W/m2K

Q = ΔToverall / R = [Ta–Tb] / [(1/haA) + (L1/k1A) + (L2/k2A) + (L3/k3A) + 1/hbA)]

Find Q/A using the above relation.
The negative sign of the answer indicates that the heat flows from the outside into the storage
room).

Problem:
A heating reactor wall is made up of three layers, inside layer with thermal conductivity 8. 5
W/m K, the middle layer with conductivity 0. 25 W/m K, the outer layer with conductivity 0. 08
W/m K. The respective thickness of the inner, middle and outer layers is 25 cm, 5 cm and 3 cm
respectively. The inside and outside wall temperatures are 600oC and 50oC respectively. Find
interface temperatures.

k1 = 8. 5 W/m K k2 = 0. 25 W/m K k3 = 0. 08 W/m K

L1 = 0. 25 m L2 = 0. 05 m L3 = 0. 03 m
T1 = 600oC + 273 = 873 K T4 = 50oC + 273 = 323 K

  T2  T3  T4
T1
Inner layer middle layer outer layer
K1 K2 K3

L1 L2 L3
As the system is steady-state and no internal heat generated, the heat flows enter and exit each
layer are equal.

Convective heat transfer coefficient ha and hb are not given. So, neglect those terms. Therefore:

Q1 = (T1-T2)/R1…. . (a)
Q2 = (T2-T3)/R2
Q3 = (T3-T4)/R3

And, Q1/A = Q2/A = Q3/A = (Q/A)Overall heat transfer (using below relation)due to steady
state
Q/A = [T1–T4] / [(L1/k1) + (L2/k2) + (L3/k3)]
Q/A = 909. 89 W/m2
Using relation (a)- Q1 = (T1-T2)/R1 = (873-T2)/R1 where R1 = L1/Ak1
R1 = 0. 25/(A*8. 5)
Q1/A = Q/A = 909. 89 W/m2
Thus T2 = 846K
Similarly find T3.

COMPOSITE WALL (MATERIALS IN PARALLEL)

A parallel composite of two materials is shown below.

L L
R2 
K2 A 2

2
T1 T2
T1 T2
1
L
R1 
K1 A1

The heat transfer rate in the network is

T1  T 2 1
qx  where R tot 
R tot 1 R1 1 R 2

Alternately, the heat transfer rate can be calculated as the sum of heat transfer rates in the
individual materials, i. e.

T1  T 2 T1  T 2
qx  q 1x  q 2 x  
R1 R2

Past GATE Questions on Concept of composite walls

1. At steady state, the temperature variation in a plane wall made of two different solids I
and II is shown below.

Then, the thermal conductivity of material I

A) is smaller than that of II

B) is greater than that of II
C) is equal to that of II
D) can be greater than or smaller than that of II

(Note: As temperature drop in material I is higher than II, it has lower thermal
conductivity than II)

2. The variation of thermal conductivity of a metal with temperature is often correlated

using an expression of the form
k = k0 + aT

where k is the thermal conductivity, and T is the temperature (in K). The units of a in the
SI system will be:

A) W/m K B) W / m
C) W/m K2 D) None; a is just a number

(Note: Term aT has same dimensions as that of k i:e. (W/mK)

3. A composite flat wall of a furnace is made of two materials A and B. The thermal
conductivity of A is twice of that of material B, while the thickness of layer of A is half
of that of B. If the temperatures at the two sides of the wall are 400 and 1200 K, then the
temperature drop (in K) across the layer of material A is
A) 125 B) 133 C) 150 D) 160

(Note: Draw the diagram of composite walls and apply basic equations)

4. A composite wall consists of two plates A and B placed in series normal to the flow of
heat. The thermal conductivities are kA and kB and the specific heat capacities are CpA
and CpB, for plates A and B respectively. Plate B has twice the thickness of plate A. At
steady state, the temperature difference across plate A is greater than that across plate B
when
A) CpA > CpB B) CpA < CpB C) kA < 0. 5 kB D) kA > 2 kB

(Note: Draw the diagram of composite walls and apply basic equations)

5. The composite wall of an oven consists of three materials A, B and C. Under steady state
operating conditions, the outer surface temperature Tso is 20 °C, the inner surface
temperature Tsi is 600 °C and the oven air temperature is T∞ = 800 °C. For the following
data thermal conductivities kA = 20 W/(m K) and kC = 50 W/m K), thickness LA = 0. 3 m,
LB = 0. 15 m and LC = 0. 15 m inner-wall heat transfer coefficient h = 25 W/m2 K), the
thermal conductivity kB W/(mK) of the material B, is calculated as

A) 35 B) 1. 53 C) 0. 66 D) 0. 03

6. Two plates of equal thickness (t) and cross-sectional area, are joined together to form a
composite as shown in the figure. If the thermal conductivities of the plates are k and 2k
then, the effective thermal conductivity of the composite is

A) 3k/2 B) 4k/3 C) 3k/4 D) 2k/3

7. For the composite wall shown below (case 1), the steady state interface temperature is
180°C. If the thickness of layer P is doubled (Case 2), then the rate of heat transfer
(assuming 1-D conduction) is reduction by

A) 20% B) 40% C) 50% D) 70%

Answer key

1-A 2-C 3-D 4-C 5-B 6-B 7-B

Explanatory Answers

3. Ans: (D)
Explanation: Let T be the temperature of wall connecting layers A and B.

Given, KA = 2KB
1
 xA =   xB
2
T T T  T2
We have, q= 1 
 x A   x B 
   
 K A A   K BA 
KA K
(T1 – T)  = (T – T2)  B
x A x B
K
(T1 – T)  2K B = (T – T2)  B
1  x B
  x B 
2 
(400 – T)  4 = T – 1200
T = 560 K
 Temperature drop across layer of material A,
 TA = 560 – 400
 TA = 160 K

4. Ans: (C)
Explanation: The heat flux through plate A,
TA
QA = KA
x
QA x
 TA = … (i)
KA
The heat flux through plate B,
TB
QB = KB
2x
Q B 2x
 TB = … (ii)
KB

Since, both plates are in series,

QA = QB = Q
For  TA >  TB,
Q  x Q2x
>
KA KB
1 2
>
K A KB
K
KA < B
2
KA < 0. 5 KB

5. Ans: (B)
Explanation: Equating the heat flux due to conduction and convection,
Tsi  Tso
= h (T  –Tsi)
RA  RB  RC
Tsi  Tso
= h (T  – Tsi)
 L A L B LC 
   
 KA K B KC 
L A L B LC 1  Tsi  Tso 
     … (i)
K A K B K C h  T  Tsi 
Given,
LA = 0. 3 m, LB = 0. 15 m, LC = 0. 15 m
KA = 20 W/ (m – K), KC = 50 W/ (m – K), KB = ?
h = 25 W/ (m2 – K), Tsi = 6000C
Tso = 200C, T  = 8000C
Putting values in Eq. (i),
0.3 0.15 0.15 1  600  20 
    
20 K B 50 25  800  600 
0.15
= 0. 098
KB
KB = 1. 53 W/ (m – K)

6. Ans: (B)
Explanation: Overall heat transfer resistance,
R = R1 + R2
2t t t
 
K eff  A KA  2K  A
2 1 1 3
Or   
Keff K 2K 2K
4K
Keff =
3

7. Ans: (B)
Explanation: Case 1
The rate of heat transfer
q T T
 
A  x / K  R
q1 500  180 180  20
Here,  
A R1 R2
Or R1 = 2R2
q1 160
  …
A R2
(i)
Case 2
If the thickness of layer P is doubled, the
resistance will also be doubled to 2R1.
q 2 500  20
 
A 2R1  R 2
q 2 480 96
  … (ii)
A 5R 2 R 2
Percentage reduction in rate of heat transfer
Q =
 q1 / A    q 2 / A   100
 q1 / A 
160 96

R2 R2
=  100
160
R2
= 40%

2.5 PLANE WALL WITH INTERNAL HEAT GENERATED

A wall in which, there is internal heat generation per unit volume, q``. The heat source is
at the center plane, thus we can expect a temperature profile that is symmetric about the center.
For this case, the process is steady-state and one-dimensional heat flow, therefore, equation (6)
can be simplified as:

 Heat generation at center so max temperature is at center.

 Both side wall temperature is same Tw. (symmetric)

…………………………. (13)

We know that at the surface T = Tw, thus from above equation

at x = L

By combing both equations, we get

As C1 and C2 are already known, the solution of equation (13) is:

…………………………. (14)

Thus temperature at a distance x from centre can be calculated using above equation.

For plane wall (symmetric boundary conditions):

Maximum temperature, Tmax = Tw+ (qL2/2k)

Surface temperature, Tw = T∞+ (qL/h) (If outside convection is involved)

Where T∞-Ambient temperature, K

q -Heat generation, W/m3 L -Thickness, m

h -Heat transfer co-efficient, W/m2 K k -Thermal conductivity, W/m K.

Problem:
A heat generating source is present in a plane wall of thickness 100 mm which generates heat at
the rate of 50, 000 W/m3. The convective heat transfer co-efficient between wall and ambient air
is 60 W/m2K, ambient air temperature is 28oC and the thermal conductivity of the wall material
is 20 W/m K. Calculate
i)Surface temperature
ii)Maximum temperature in the wall
iii)Temperature at a distance of 35 mm from the wall surface

Solution:
Thickness, L = 100/2 = 50mm
Heat generation, q = 50000 W/m3
Convective heat transfer co-efficient, h = 60 W/m2K
Ambient air temperature, T∞ = 28oC + 273 = 301 K
Thermal conductivity, k = 20 W/mK
surface temperature: Tw = T∞+ (qL/h) (If outside convection is involved) = 301 + (50000*. 050/
60) = 342. 6K
Maximum temperature in wall: Tmax = Tw+ (qL2/2k) = 345. 725K
Calculate temperature at a distance of 35mm from the wall using equation-14.

GATE Tip

Derivation and correlation to find temperature at any distance x from center is important.

2. 6 Conduction in a composite cylinder

………………. . (15)

Temperature profile in the composite cylinder

Neglecting interfacial contact resistances, the heat transfer rate may be expressed as

T,1  T, 4
qr 
1

  
ln r 2 r1 ln r 3 r 2 ln r 4 r 3
 

1 
2  r1 L h 1 2  k A L 2  k B L 2  k C L 2  r4 L h 4

Equation (15) may be expressed in terms of an overall heat transfer coefficient as

T,1  T, 4
qr 
R tot

 U A T,1  T, 4 

If U is defined in terms of the inside area A1, from above equations

1
U1 
1 r1 r2 r 3 r1 r1
r 4 r1 1
 ln  ln  ln 
h 1 k A r1 k B r 2 k C r 3 r 4 h 4

2. 6 Conduction in a composite sphere

…………(16)

Problem:

1) A composite sphere consists of 12 cm radius iron ball of 21 mm thickness over which two
layers of insulation 32mm and 37 mm are laid. The conductivities are 24 W/m K, 0. 29 W/m K
and 0. 45 W/m K. The inside is exposed to convection at 315oC with h = 63 W/m2K. The outside
temperature is exposed to air at 29oC with h = 14 W/m2K. Determine the heat loss

(Note: Use equation 16 and as the system is steady-state and no internal heat generated, the heat
flows enter and exit each layer are equal. Therefore:

Q1 = (Ta-T1)/R1

Q2 = (T1-T2)/R2

Q3 = (T2-T3)/R3

Q4 = (T3-T4)/R4

Q5 = (T4-Tb)/R5

And, Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q4 = Q5 (due to steady state) which should be used to calculate interfacial

temperatures)

2) A steel pipe (k = 45. 0 W/m. K) having a 5. 0 cm O. D. is covered with a 4. 2 cm thick layer of

magnesia (k = 0. 07 W/m. K) which is in turn covered with a 2. 4 cm layer of fiberglass
insulation (k = 0. 048 W/m. K). The pipe wall outside temperature is 370 K and the outside
surface temperature of the fiberglass is 305 K. What is the interfacial temperature in K between
the magnesia and the fiberglass?
A) 329. 6 B) 525. 4 C) 602. 75 D) 801. 5

Ans. A

3) Steam at 120 oC flows in an insulated 1% carbon steel pipe. The pipe inner radius is 10cm and
the outer radius is 11cm. This is covered with a 3 cm thick layer of asbestos having a density of
577 kg/m3. The outer asbestos surface is at 45 oC. Using carbon steel thermal conductivity, k =
43 W/m. K and asbestos thermal conductivity k = 0. 192W/m. K, determine the heat transfer
from the steam per meter of pipe length (W/m). Use SI units throughout.

A) 275 B) 175 C) 375 D) 475

Ans. C

Past GATE Questions on

Concept of composite layered cylinder and sphere

1. Rate of heat transfer through a pipe wall is given by For cylinders of very thin wall, q can
be approximated by

T  T 
2 k  i 0 
 2  i Ti  T0 
2 rk
A) q  B) q 
r  (r0  ri )
ln  i 
 r0 
2 k Ti  T0  2 k Ti  T0 
C) q  D) q 
(r0  ri ) (r0  ri )
2

2. A circular tube of outer diameter 5 cm and inner diameter 4 cm is used to convey hot
fluid. The inner surface of the wall of the tube is at a temperature of 800C, while the outer
surface of the wall of the tube is at 250C. What is the rate of heat transport across the tube
wall per meter length of the tube of steady state, if the thermal conductivity of the tube
wall is 10 W/(mK) ?
A) 13823 W/m B) 15487 W/m C) 17279 W/m D) 27646 W/m

Answer Key :

1-D 2-B

Explanatory Answers:
2. Ans: (B)
Explanation: Given, d1 = 4 cm, d2 = 5 cm
T1 = 800C, T2 = 250C
K = 10 W/ (m – K)
Heat transfer through the cylinder,
T1 T2
q= … (i)
R
In  r2 / r1 
Where, R=
2 Lk
In  5 / 4   r2 d 2 
R=  Since,  
2  3.14  L 10  r1 d1 
3.55 10 3
R=
L
From Eq. (i),
80  25
q=
 3.55 103 
 
 L 
q
= 15479 W/m
L

2. 6 CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION

We know that by adding more insulation to a wall always decreases heat transfer. The thicker the
insulation, the lower the heat transfer rate. This is expected, since the heat transfer area A is
constant, and adding insulation always increases the thermal resistance of the wall without
affecting the convection resistance.

Adding insulation to a cylindrical piece or a spherical shell, however, is a different matter. The
additional insulation increases the conduction resistance of the insulation layer but decreases the
convection resistance of the surface because of the increase in the outer surface area for
convection. The heat transfer from the pipe may increase or decrease, depending on which effect
dominates.

Consider a cylindrical pipe of outer radius r1 whose outer surface temperature T1 is maintained
constant as shown in figure below. The pipe is now insulated with a material whose thermal
conductivity is k and outer radius is r2. Heat is lost from the pipe to the surrounding medium at
temperature T , with a convection heat transfer coefficient h. The rate of heat transfer from the
insulated pipe to the surrounding air can be expressed as shown in second figure below.

…………………………. (21)

Insulated Cylindrical Pipe

The variation of heat transfer rate with the outer radius of insulation r2 is plotted in figure given
below. The value of r2 at which heat transfer rate reaches maximum is determined from the
dqr
requirement that (zero slope). Performing the differentiation and solving for r2 yields the
dr
critical radius of insulation for a cylindrical body to be

…………………………. (17)

Note that the critical radius of insulation depends on the thermal conductivity of the insulation k
and the external convection heat transfer coefficient h.

1. The rate of heat transfer from the cylinder increases with the addition of insulation for r 2
< rcr,
2. The rate of heat transfer from the cylinder reaches a maximum when r2 = rcr,
3. The rate of heat transfer from the cylinder starts to decrease for r2>rcr.

Thus, insulating the pipe may actually increase the rate of heat transfer from the pipe instead of
decreasing it when r2 < rcr.

Variation of Heat Transfer Rate with Radius

The important question to answer at this point is to whether we need to be concerned about the
critical radius of insulation when insulating hot water pipes or even hot water tanks. Should we
always check and make sure that the outer radius of insulation exceeds the critical radius before
we install any insulation? Probably not, as explained below.

The value of the critical radius rcr will be the largest when k is large and h is small. Noting that
the lowest value of h encountered in practice is about 5 W/m2K for the case of natural convection
of gases, and that the thermal conductivity of common insulating materials is 0. 05 W/m2K, the
largest value of the critical radius we are likely to encounter is

This value would be even smaller when the radiation effects are considered. The critical
radius would be much less in forced convection, often less than 1 mm, because of much larger h
values associated with forced convection. Therefore, we can insulate hot water or steam pipes
freely without worrying about the possibility of increasing the heat transfer by insulating the
pipes.

The radius of electric wires may be smaller than the critical radius. Therefore, the plastic
electrical insulation may actually enhance the heat transfer from electric wires and thus keep
their steady operating temperatures at lower and thus safer levels.

The discussions above can be repeated for a sphere, and it can be shown in a similar
manner that the critical radius of insulation for a spherical shell is

…………………………. (18)

where k is the thermal conductivity of the insulation and h is the convection heat transfer
coefficient on the outer surface.

Thus,

Past GATE Questions on Critical radius of thickness

1. The critical radius r of insulation on a pipe is given by –

A) r = 2k / h B) r = k / h C) r = k / 2h D) r = h / k

(where k is the thermal conductivity of the insulation and h the heat transfer coefficient
with the ambient).

2. A 10 cm diameter steam pipe, carrying steam at 180 0C, is covered with an insulation
(conductivity = 0. 6 W/m 0C). It loses heat to the surroundings at 30 0C. Assume a heat
transfer coefficient of 8. 0 W/m20C for heat transfer from surface to the surroundings.
Neglect wall resistance of the pipe and film resistance of steam. If the insulation
thickness is 2 cm, the rate of heat loss from this insulated pipe will be
A) greater than that of the un-insulated steam pipe
B) less than that of the un-insulated steam pipe
C) equal to that of the un-insulated steam pipe
D) less than the steam pipe with 5 cm insulation

3. For a given ambient air temperature with increase in the thickness of insulation of a hot
cylindrical pipe, the rate of heat loss from the surface would

A) decrease B) increase
C) first decrease and then increase D) first increase and then decrease

Answer Key:

1-B 2-B 3-D

Explanatory Answers:
3. Ans: (D)

Explanation: With increase in the thickness of insulation of a hot cylindrical pipe, the rate
of heat loss from the surface would first increase and then decrease.

1.12 UNSTEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION

In steady state the temperature of a body does not vary with time. But if there is an abrupt
change in its surface temperature, it attains a steady state after some period. During this period
the temperature varies with time and the body is said to be in an unsteady or transient state. Thus
in transient-conduction problems even in which there is no internal heat generation temperature
will therefore vary with location within the system and with time. Temperature and heat transfer
variation of the system are dependent on its internal resistance and surface resistance.

Internal resistance-If we have a slab with initial temperature of Ti and it is left in fluid stream at
T∝. Heat is transferred by convection at the surface. As the surface temperature decreases, heat is
transfer from the center of the slab to the surface, then to the fluid. Now, if the system itself is
copper or the volume is small, the temperature response within the slab is considerably different
from that if it is glass or the volume is large. The response has to do with what is called the
internal resistance of the material.

Surface resistance-If the convection coefficient is very high, then the surface temperature
almost becomes identical to the fluid temperature quickly. Alternatively, for a low convection
coefficient a large temperature difference exists between the surface and the fluid. The value of
the convection coefficient controls what is known as the surface resistance to heat transfer.

Thus, the temperature variation within the system is dependent on the internal and surface
resistances.

GATE Tip

The larger internal resistance or the smaller surface resistance, the larger temperature variation
within the system, and vice versa.

Transient heat conduction can be divided in to periodic heat flow and non periodic heat flow.

In periodic heat flow, the temperature varies on a regular basis such as cylinder of an IC engine
and surface of earth during a period of 24 hours. In non periodic heat flow, the temperature at
any point within the system varies non-uniformly with time such as heating of an ingot in a
furnace.

We define Biot number as:

Biot number (Bi) =

Bi = hLc/ k…………………………. (19)

Where, k –Thermal conductivity, W/mK

h –Heat transfer co-efficient, W/m2K

Lc–Characteristic length or Significant length

Characteristic length is defined as the ratio of volume to surface area of the body under
consideration.

Body Formula Characteristic Length(Lc)

Slab V/A = (A*L)/2A L/2 (L-thickness of slab)

Cylinder V/A = (πR2L)/(2πRL) R/2 (R-radius of cylinder)

Sphere V/A = [(4/3)πR3] / 4πR2 R/3 (R-radius of sphere)

Cube V/A = L3 / 6L2 L/6 (L-thickness of cube)

Relation between temperature distribution inside a body and Biot Number

Higher value of Biot number indicates high temperature variation inside the body as internal
body conduction is very high and surface body convection is low. Thus we obtain a temperature
profile as shown in the figure below.

2.7 LUMPED HEAT CAPACITY SYSTEM

Lumped system analysis assumes a uniform temperature distribution throughout the

body, which is true only when the thermal resistance of the body to heat conduction is zero. The
smaller the Bi number, the more accurate the lumped system analysis. It is generally accepted
that lumped system analysis is applicable if Bi (Biot Number) < 0. 1.

Thus in a Lumped heat capacity system temperature changes uniformly throughout a body. A
system can be determined lumped heat capacity system using graphical and mathematical
analyze.

A graphical analysis is done by recording the temperature inside an object and at the
surface as the object is heated and cooled. By overlapping the heating and cooling curves of the
inner and outer temperatures it can be determined that the object is a lumped heat capacity
system if the two temperatures are exactly the same at any time.

The mathematical approach uses the heating and cooling curves to approximate a time
constant. This time constant is then related to the density, specific heat and volume.

The first law of thermodynamics states that at any time t, the thermal energy absorbed by the
fluid must be equals the time rate of change of the internal energy of the lumped mass. This can
be expressed mathematically as:

Convective heat loss from the body = Rate of change of internal energy

…………………………. (20)

Integrating both sides and realizing T is the unsteady temperature of the lumped mass at ant time
t and putting initial condition as T(0) = T0 we obtain the following relation.

T  T
 exp    hA / CV   …………………………. (21)
T0  T

where

T0 – Initial temperature of the solid, K

T – Intermediate temperature of the solid, K

Tά–Surface temperature of the solid (or) Final temperature of the solid, K

h – Heat transfer co-efficient, W/m2K

A – Surface area of body, m2

ρ – Density of the body, kg/m3

V – Volume of the body, m3

Cp– Specific heat of the body, J/kg K

t – Time, s

This equation enables us to determine the temperature T(t) of a body at time t, or alternatively,
the time t required for the temperature to reach a specified value T(t). The temperature of a body
approaches the ambient temperature T exponentially. The temperature of the body changes
rapidly at the beginning, but rather slowly later on. A large value of b indicates that the body
approaches the environment temperature in a short time as shown graphically.

Problem:

A 25 x 25 cm2 metal slab of 10 mm thick is at 500o C initially and it is suddenly immersed in a

liquid so that its surface temperature is lowered to 40oC. Determine the time required for the slab
to reach 100oC. Take heat transfer co-efficient between metal and liquid as 90 W/m2. Properties
of metal are ρ = 2601 kg/m3, Specific heat, Cp = 881 J/kg K, Thermal conductivity, k = 190. 2
W/mK.

Solution:

Biot number, Bi = hLc/k = 2. 30 X 10^-3 < 0. 1 (Lc = L/2 = 10/2 = 5mm)

Biot number value is less than 0. 1. So, this is lumped heat analysis type problem.

T  T
 exp    hA / CV  
T0  T
Since V/A = Lc, the formula can be written as follows-
(T -T∞) / (T0–T∞) = exp[-h / LcCpρ] t
T0 = 500+273 = 773 K; T = 100+273 = 373K; A = 25 X 25 X 10^-4 = 0. 0625m2; T∞ =
40+273 = 313K
T = 259. 30 sec

Problem:
An aluminium ball is dropped in the liquid as shown in the figure.

Problem

An aluminium rod (insulated at both ends) of outer diameter 15 mm initially at a temperature of

350 oC is suddenly immersed in a water at 80 oC. Determine the time required for the rod to
reach 200 oC. Take convective heat transfer co-efficient as 95 W/m2K.

(Note: Take properties of aluminium from HMT data book)

2.8 Heat Flow in Semi-Infinite body

A solid which extends itself infinitely in all directions of space is known as infinite solid. If an
infinite solid is split in the middle by a plane, each half is known as semi-infinite solid.

A semi-infinite body is one in which at any instant of time there is always a point where the
effect of heating / cooling at one of its boundaries is not felt at all. At this point the temperature
remains unchanged.

Mathematical formulation

 2T 1 T

x 2  t

Initial and boundary conditions for semi-infinite problems are-

 T = T0 at t = 0 for all x.
 T = Ts at x = 0 for all t>0
 T  T0 as x   for all t  0

GATE Tip
In Semi infinite solid, heat transfer co-efficient or Biot number value is ∞i. e. h = ∞. If a given
transient heat conduction problem does not possess the value of ‘h’ in it, then it is a semi
infinite body problem

Temperature profile distribution inside a body is given as-

Where,

Ti–Initial temperature of the solid, K

T –Intermediate temperature of the solid, K

To–Surrounding (or) Ambient temperature, K

X–Length of heat conduction (m)

α– Thermal diffusivity (m2/s

t–time (sec)

Problem:

A long road is being constructed which is initially at a temperature of 70oC and water is directed
on the road so that the surface temperature is suddenly lowered to 40oC. Determine the time
required to reach 55oC at a depth of 3. 8 cm from the surface. Take
Thermal conductivity, k = 1. 2790 W/mK, Thermal diffusivity, α = k / ρ Cp = 0. 5 * 10-6m2/s

Solution:
(Tx–T0) / (Ti–T0) = erf[ x / ( 2√αt) ] = erf (Z), where Z = x / (2√αt)
Tx = 55oC ;
T0 = 40oC;
Ti = 70oC;
x = 3. 8cm;
α = k / ρ Cp = 0. 5 * 10-6m2/s

Find z from erf function table given below-

Thus z = 0. 51 = x / (2√αt)
Thus t = 3500 sec (approximately)

Problem:

Determine the Biot modulus for a 2. 5 cm diameter, 1%carbon steel sphere at 100"C subjected to
a convective air flow resulting in h = 55 W/m. K.
A) 0. 53 B) 0. 0053 C) 0. 053 D) 5. 3

Ans. B

Problem:

Determine the time in min required for a 1. 25 cm diameter carbon steel (1%C ) sphere to cool
from T, = 500°C to 100°C if exposed to a cooling air flow at T, = 25 "C resulting in h =
110W/m2. K. Data k = 40 W/m. K, ρ of sphere = 2000 Kg/m3, Cp of sphere = 1845 J/Kg. K
A) 2. 16 B) 21. 6 C) 4. 32 D) 43. 2

Ans. A

Problem:

A sphere (1. 0% carbon) 10 cm radius is initially at a temperature of 425°C. It is suddenly

exposed on both sides to a convective environment with h = 285 W/m2. "C, and T, = 65 C.
Determine the centerline temperature in C (DATA: k = 41 W/mK, density of plated = 2500
Kg/m3, Cp of plate is 1400 J/Kg. K)
A) 348. 98 B) 7. 58 C) 75. 83 D) 34. 98

Ans. C

Past GATE Questions on Concept of transient

heating/cooling

1. 1000 kg of liquid at 30 0C in a well-stirred vessel has to be heated to 1200C, using

immersed coils carrying condensing steam at 1500C. The area of the steam coils is 1. 2
m2 and overall heat transfer coefficient to the liquid is 1500 W/m2 0C. Assuming
negligible heat loss to surrounding and specific heat capacity of the liquid to be 4 kJ/kg
0
C, the time taken for the liquid to reach desired temperature will be
A) 15 min B) 22 min C) 44 min D) 51 min

Answer Key:

1-D

Explanatory Answer:

Given,
m = 1000 kg
T  = 300C, T = 1200C, T  = 1500C
A = 1. 2 m2, h = 1500 W/ (m2 – 0C)

Cp = 4 kJ/ (kg – 0C) = 4000 J/ (kg – 0C)

We know that
T  T  hA  
= exp    t 
T  T  mCp  
mCp  T  T 
Or t=  In  
hA  T  T 
Putting values,
1000  4000  120 150 
t=–  In  
1500  1.2  30  150 
t = 3080. 6 s
t = 51 min

Past GATE Questions on Concept of Biot number

classification

1. A metal wire of 0. 01m dia and thermal conductivity 200 W/m K is exposed to a fluid
stream with a convective heat transfer coefficient of 100 W/m2 K. The Biot number is
A) 5. 6 B) 0. 0125 C) 3. 5 D) 0. 0035

2. A long iron rod initially at a temperature of 200C has one end dipped in boiling water
(1000C) at time t = 0. The curved surface of the rod is insulated so that heat conduction is
one-dimensional in the axial direction. The temperature at a distance 100 mm from the
dipped end becomes 400C at t = 200 s. The same temperature is achieved at a distance
200 mm from the dipped end at time.
A) t = 283 s B) t = 356 s C) t = 400 s D) t = 800 s

3. A steel sphere of radius 0. 1 m at 400K is immersed in an oil at 300K. If the centre of the
sphere reaches 350K in 20 minutes, how long will it take for a 0. 05m radius steel sphere
to reach the same temperature (at the centre) under identical conditions? Assume that the
convective heat transfer coefficient is infinitely large.
A) 5 min B) 10 min C) 20 min D) 40 min

4. Three solid objects of the same material and of equal mass – a sphere, a cylinder (length
= diameter) and a cube – are at 5000C initially. These are dropped in a quenching bath
containing a large volume of cooling oil each attaining the bath temperature eventually.
The time required for 90% change of temperature is smallest for
A) cube B) cylinder C) sphere D) equal for all the three

5. A metal ball of radius 0. 1 m at a uniform temperature of 900C is left in air at 300C. The
density and the specific heat of the metal are 3000 kg/m3 and 0. 4 kJ/(kg K), respectively.
The heat transfer coefficient is 50 W/m2 K). Neglecting the temperature gradients inside
the ball, the time taken (in hours) for the ball to cool to 600C is
A) 555 B) 55. 5 C) 0. 55 D) 0. 15

6. A semi-infinite slab occupying the region x = 0 and x = ∞ is at an initial temperature T0.

At time t = 0, the surface of the slab at x = 0 is brought into contact with a heat bath at a
temperature TH. The temperature T (x, t) of the slab rises according to the equation.

where x is position and t is time. The heat flux at the surface x = 0 is proportional to
A) t– 1/2 B) t 1/2 C) t D) t 3/2

7. A liquid of mass 7 kg and specific heat 4 kJ/(kg 0C) is contained in a cylindrical heater of
diameter 0. 15 m and height 0. 40 m. The cylindrical surface of the heater is exposed to
air at 250C while the end caps are insulated, so that heat transfer takes place only through
the cylindrical surface.
The thickness of the wall of the heater = 2 mm
The wall thermal conductivity = 10 W/(m K)
The heat transfer coefficient in the liquid = 100 W/(m2K)
The heat transfer coefficient in air = 10 W/(m2K)
The liquid is initially maintained at a temperature of 750C. AT time l = 0, the heater is
switched off, and the temperature of the liquid in the heater decreases due to heat loss
across the cylindrical surface.

(a) What is the overall heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 K) ?

A) 1 B) 4. 04 C) 9. 07 D) 10

(b) What is the time required for the temperature of the liquid to reduce to 50 0C after
the heater is switched off, assuming lumped system analysis is valid?
A) 7. 874 x 103 s B) 11. 346 x 103 s
3
C) 16. 828 x 10 s D) 23. 213 x 103 s

8. A metallic ball (ρ = 2700 kg/m3 and Cp = 0. 9 kJ/kg °C) of diameter 7. 5 cm is allowed to

cool in air at 25°C. When the temperature of the ball is 125°C, it is found to cool at the
rate of 4°C per minute. If thermal gradients inside the ball are neglected, the heat transfer
coefficient (in W/m2 °C) is
A) 2. 034 B) 20. 34 C) 81. 36 D) 203. 4

9. During the transient convective cooling of a solid object, Biot number → 0 indicates
A. Uniform temperature throughout the object
B. Negligible convection at the surface of the object
C. Significant thermal resistance within the object
D. Significant temperature gradient within the object

Answer Key:

1-B 2-D 3-A 4-A 5-D 6-A 7(a)-C 7(b)-B 8-B 9-A

Explanatory Answer:

3. Ans: (A)
Explanation: Let t be the time for second sphere’s centre to reach 350 K.
t 4    0.05
2


20 4   0.12
2

t = 20   
1
2
t = 5 min

4. Ans: (A)
Explanation: Given, the material and mass of all the three objects are same.
Surface area of sphere =  d2
Surface area of cylinder =  d  =  d2 (Since, d =  )
Surface area of cube = 6d2
Thus, surface area of cube is highest amongst the three objects.
Therefore, time required for 90% change of temperature will be smallest for cube.

5. Ans: (D)
Explanation: We know that,
T  T
= e – (hA/mCp)t
Tb  T
hA T  T
Or t = In
pVC p Tb  T
pVC p  Tb  T 
t= In   … (i)
hA  T  T 
Here, r = 0. 1 m, Tb = 900C, T  = 300C
p = 3000 kg/m3, Cp = 0. 4 kJ/ (kg – K) = 400 J/ (kg – K)
h = 50 W/ (m2 – K)
T = 600C
4 3
r
V 3 r
 
A 4 r 2
3
V 0.1

A 3
Putting values in Eq. (i),

3000 0.1  90  30 
t=   400  In  
50 3  60  30 
t = 554. 52 s
t = 0. 15 h

6. Ans: (A)
Explanation: Given,
TH  T  x, t  2  2
 0
 e d … (i)
TH  T0
x
Where  … (ii)
4t
dT
dx
= – (TH –T0) 
2 d
 dx
  e d


0
2

dT
dx
=
2  TH  T0  d
 d   e d  ddx


0
2

dT 2  TH  T0  2 d
= e … (iii)
dx  dx
From Equation. (ii),
d 1 1
= 
dx 4t 2 t
Putting this value in Equation. (iii),
dT 2  TH  T0  2 1
= e 
dx  2 t
dT T  T  2
= H 0  e
dx t
dT  TH  T0 
=
dx x 0 t
(Since, at x = 0,  = 0 and e  = 1)
2

Now, heat flux at the surface,

q dT
= K
A dx x 0
q K  TH  T0 
=
A t
q –½
t
A

7(a). Ans: (C)

Explanation: Given, di = 0. 15 m
Thickness of wall = 2 mm
 do = 0. 15 + 2  0. 002 = 0. 154 m
K = 10 W/ (m – K)
h  = 100 W/ (m2 – K)
hair = 10 W/ (m2 – K)

The overall heat transfer coefficient can be written as

1 1  ro  ri   d o  d o 1
  In    
U h air K  di  di h
Putting values,
1 1 0.002  0.154  0.154 1
   In   
U 10 10  0.15  0.15 100
U = 9. 07 W/ (m2 – K)

7(b). Ans: (B)

Explanation: We know that,
T  T
= e – (UA/mCp)t … (i)
To  T
Here, T = 500C, T  = 250C
To = 750C, U = 9. 07 W/ (m2 – K)
m = 7 kg, Cp = 4 kJ/ (kg – 0C) = 4000 J/ (kg – 0C),
L = 0. 4 m
Area, A =  diL
Or A = 3. 14  0. 15  0. 4
A = 0. 1884 m2
Putting values in Eq. (i),
50  25
= e – (9. 07  0. 1884/7  4000)t
75  25
Or 0. 6932 = 6. 1028  10– 5  t
t = 11. 359  103 s

8. Ans: (B)
Explanation: Given,
p = 2700 kg/m3, Cp = 0. 9 kJ/ (kg – 0C) = 900 J/(kg – 0C)
d = 7. 5 cm = 0. 075 m, Tb = 1250C, Tair = 250C
dT 1
= 40C/min = 0C/s
dt 15
Applying the energy balance,
dT
hA (Tb – Tair) = VpCp
dt
d 3 dT
h  d2(Tb – Tair) = p Cp
6 dt
d pCp dT
h= 
6  Tb  Tair  dt
Putting values,
0.075 2700  900 1
h=  
6 125  25 15
h = 20. 25 W/ (m2 – 0C)

3. 9 Fins / Extended Surfaces

It is possible to increase the heat transfer rate by increasing the surface area of heat transfer. The
surfaces used for increasing heat transfer are called extended surfaces or fins.

Fin efficiency
The efficiency of a fin is defined as the ratio of actual heat transferred fin to the maximum
possible heat transferred by the fin if the entire fin surface was maintained at base temperature
ηfin = Q fin / Q max
For insulated end, ηfin = 1/ mL
For insulated end, ηfin = tan h (mL)/ mL

Fin effectiveness- Fin effectiveness is defined as the ratio of heat transferred with fin to heat
transferred without fin.
Fin effectiveness, E = Q with fin / Q without fin
For infinitely long fin end, Fin effectiveness, E = 1 / [ (hA / kP)]0. 5
For insulated end, Fin effectiveness, E = tan h (mL) / [ (hA / kP)]0. 5

GATE Tip

 Since fin effectiveness is inversely proportional to heat transfer coefficient “h” so fins
are generally more effective in places where h values are very low such as free
convection cases. Thus in equipment using free convection for cooling, presence of fins
is a must to increase heat transfer rate.
 Difference between fin efficiency and fin effectiveness should be very clear.

Note: Fin problems are not included in this book due to their relatively very less importance for GATE
but important description, as is required, is given above.

CHAPTER 3
CONVECTION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid that is in
motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The faster the fluid
motion, the greater the convection heat transfer. In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat
transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction. The presence of
bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat transfer between the solid surface and the fluid.

Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by external
means such as a fan, pump, or the wind.

In contrast, convection is called natural or free convection if the fluid motion is caused by
buoyancy force that is induced by density difference due to the variation of temperature in the
fluid.

Consider a fluid flowing over a solid surface. The solid and the bulk fluid are at different
temperatures. Than the heat transfer from solid surface to the fluid or vice-versa can be obtained
from:

………………………. (1)

The general definition for convection may be summarized as "energy transfer between
the surface and fluid due to temperature difference when there is a relative motion between the
two" and this energy transfer may be by either forced (external, internal flow) or natural
convection.

Heat transfer coefficient h is known as the heat transfer coefficient or film coefficient. It is a
complex function of the fluid composition and properties, the geometry of the solid surface, and
the hydrodynamics of the fluid motion.

Thus, the rate of heat transfer by convection is given by Newton's law of cooling:

Qconv = h A ∆T

Boundary layer with forced convection flow systems

All experimental observations indicate that a fluid in motion comes to a complete stop at the
surface and assumes a zero velocity relative to the surface. This is called as No-slip condition.
The no-slip condition is responsible for the development of the velocity profile. The flow region
adjacent to the wall in which the viscous effects (and thus the velocity gradients) are significant
is called the boundary layer. Due to no-slip condition it is generally assumed that the heat
transfer from the surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the surface is purely by conduction.

Velocity Boundary Layer

Assuming no‐slip condition at the wall, the velocity of the fluid layer at the wall is zero. The
motionless layer slows down the particles of the neighboring fluid layers as a result of friction
between the two adjacent layers. The presence of the plate is felt up to some distance from the
plate beyond which the fluid velocity U∞ remains unchanged. This region is called velocity
boundary layer.

Boundary layer region is the region where the viscous effects and the velocity changes are
significant and the in viscid region is the region in which the frictional effects are negligible and
the velocity remains essentially constant.

The friction between two adjacent layers between two layers acts similar to a drag force (friction
force). The drag force per unit area is called the shear stress:

………………………. (8)

Viscosity is a measure of fluid resistance to flow, and is a strong function of temperature. The
surface shear stress can also be determined from:

………………………. (9)

Where Cf is the friction coefficient or the drag coefficient which is determined

experimentally in most cases.

The drag force is calculated from:

………………………. (10)

The flow in boundary layer starts as smooth and streamlined which is called laminar flow. At
some distance from the leading edge, the flow turns chaotic, which is called turbulent and it is
characterized by velocity fluctuations and highly disordered motion.

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs over some region which is called transition
region.

The velocity profile in the laminar region is approximately parabolic, and becomes flatter in
turbulent flow.

The turbulent region can be considered of three regions: laminar sub-layer (where viscous effects
are dominant), buffer layer (where both laminar and turbulent effects exist), and turbulent layer.

The intense mixing of the fluid in turbulent flow enhances heat and momentum transfer between
fluid particles, which in turn increases the friction force and the convection heat transfer
coefficient.

Consider flow of fluid over a plate-

A thin fluid layer (boundary layer) in which velocity gradients and shear stresses are large. Its
thickness δ is defined as the value of y for which u = 0. 99 U. An outer region in which velocity
gradients and shear stresses are negligible

Thermal Boundary layer

Consider flow of fluid over an isothermal plate

The thermal boundary layer is the region of the fluid in which temperature gradients exist.
Thermal and velocity boundary layer relative thickness depends on Prandtl number as shown in
figure below.

3. 2 Dimensionless Numbers

 Reynolds number: It may be interpreted as the ratio of inertia to viscous forces in a region
of characteristic dimension L with characteristic velocity V. It is expressed as

V L
Re L 

At large Re numbers, the inertia forces, which are proportional to the density and the velocity of
the fluid, are large relative to the viscous forces; thus the viscous forces /cannot prevent the
random and rapid fluctuations of the fluid (turbulent regime).

The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called the critical Reynolds
number. For flat plate the critical Re is experimentally determined to be approximately Re
critical = 5 x105.

 Nusselt number: It may be interpreted as the ratio of convection to pure conduction heat
transfer. In other words it isthe ratio of conductive resistance to convective resistance for a
heat flow process under unit temperature gradient. Nusselt number represents the
enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid as a result of convection relative to
conduction across the same fluid layer.
It provides a measure of the convection heat transfer occurring at the surface. Nusselt
number signifies that heat transfer coefficient is directly proportional to the thermal
conductivity of the fluid and inversely proportional to significant length.

hL
It is expressed as Nu 
kf
Where, L is the characteristic dimension and kf is the thermal conductivity of the fluid.

GATE Tip

Know the difference between the Nusselt number and Biot number.

 Prandtl number: It is the ratio of the momentum diffusivity to the thermal diffusivity, i. e.

 Grashof Number(Gr) –It is defined as the ratio of the product of inertia force and buoyancy
force to the square of the viscous force. It plays the same role in free convection as Reynolds
number do in case of forced convection.

3.2 Heat transfer correlations

3. 2. 1 Heat transfer by Forced Convection on Plate

Laminar Flow over an Isothermal Plate

The correlations for local Nusselt number and friction coefficient for laminar flow over an
isothermal flat plate is obtained analytically. The results are

h x 12
Nu x  x  0.332 Re x Pr1 3 Pr  0.6
k ………………. . (1)

 s, x 1 2
C f ,x   0.664 Re x
2
 U 2

The average heat transfer coefficient for laminar flow is

1 x

k 12 13
hx  hx  0.664 Re x Pr
x 0 x

h x 12
 Nu x  x  0.664 Re x Pr1 3 Pr  0.6
k ……………………. (4)

GATE Tip

From equations 1 and 4, we see that for laminar flow, h x  2 hx . The same relation holds for friction
coefficient.

Turbulent Flow over an Isothermal Plate

The correlation for local Nusselt number and friction coefficient are obtained from experiment.
The result for Nusselt number is as follows:

Nu x  0.0296 Re4x 5 Pr1 3 0.6  Pr  60

3. 2. 2 Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes: Convection Correlations

For laminar fully developed flow in circular tubes, the Nusselt number is obtained theoretically
as
hD 4.36 qs  cons tan t
Nu D   
k 3.66 Ts  cons tan t
Note: To use these Nusselt number correlations, properties, except those referred to the surface,

should be evaluated at the average mean temperature T m  Tm, i  Tm, o 2. 
Where,

Tm, i- inlet temperature of fluid

Tm, o-outlet temperature of fluid

Convection Correlations: Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes

Many correlations for local Nusselt number are available in the literature. One of such
correlations is as follows:

45
Nu D  0.023 Re D Pr n Dittus-Boelter correlation

Where, n = 0. 4 for heating (Ts>Tm) and 0. 3 for cooling (Ts < Tm).

Equation applies under these conditions: 0.7  Pr  160 ; Re D  10, 000 ; L D 10 .

Problem:

For turbulent flow in a tube, the heat transfer coefficient is obtained from the Dittus-Boelter
correlation. Assuming this relation, heat transfer coefficient varied with tube diameter as ___

Solution:
Using the Dittus-Boelter correlation-

Nu x  0.0296 Re4x 5 Pr1 3

Since Re = (ρvd)/µ
Nu = hd/k is proportional to Re^0. 8
hd/k is proportional to [ (ρvd)/µ]^0. 8
h is proportional to d^-0. 2

Problem:
In forced convection, the Nusselt number Nu is a function of
A) Re and Pr B) Re and Gr C) Pr and Gr D) Re and Sc
(Use dittus-bolter equation)

GATE Tip

Dittus-Bolter equation should be remembered and heat transfer coefficient variation with tube diameter
should be noted.

3. 2. 3 Convection Correlations: Noncircular Tubes and the Concentric Tube Annulus

NON-CIRCULAR TUBES

For noncircular tubes, an effective diameter, termed the hydraulic diameter, is used as the
characteristic length.

The hydraulic diameter is defined as

4 Ac
Dh 
P
Where, Ac is the cross-sectional area and P is the wetted perimeter. It is the hydraulic diameter
that should be used in calculating parameters such as ReD and NuD.

For turbulent flow in noncircular tubes, the convection correlations of circular tubes may be used
using hydraulic diameter.

Annulus

Many internal flow problems involve heat transfer in a concentric tube annulus (as shown
below). Here, fluid passes through the space (annulus) formed by the concentric tubes.

The ReD and NuD for the annulus are calculated using the hydraulic diameter, Dh, where Dh is

4 4 Do2  Di2 

Dh 
4 Ac
    D D
o i
P  Do   Di

3. 4 NATURAL CONVECTION

In natural convection, the fluid motion occurs by natural means such as buoyancy. Since the
fluid velocity associated with natural convection is relatively low, the heat transfer coefficient
encountered in natural convection is also low.

3. 4. 1 MECHANISMS OF NATURAL CONVECTION

Consider a hot object exposed to cold air. The temperature of the outside of the object
will drop (as a result of heat transfer with cold air), and the temperature of adjacent air to the
object will rise. Consequently, the object is surrounded with a thin layer of warmer air and heat
will be transferred from this layer to the outer layers of air.

The temperature of the air adjacent to the hot object is higher, thus its density is lower. As a
result, the heated air rises. This movement is called the natural convection current. Note that in
the absence of this movement, heat transfer would be by conduction only and its rate would be
much lower.

In a gravitational field, there is a net force that pushes a light fluid placed in a heavier fluid
upwards. This force is called the buoyancy force.

The magnitude of the buoyancy force is the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

Where,

Vbody is the volume of the portion of the body immersed in the fluid. The net force is:

Note that the net force is proportional to the difference in the densities of the fluid and the body.
This is known as Archimedes’ principle.

Density is a function of temperature, the variation of density of a fluid with temperature at

constant pressure can be expressed in terms of the volume expansion coefficient β, defined as:

 Where T is the absolute temperature. Note that the parameter β. ΔT represents

the/fraction of volume change of a fluid that corresponds to a temperature change ΔT at
constant pressure.
 Since the buoyancy force is proportional to the density difference, the larger the
temperature difference between the fluid and the body, the larger the buoyancy force
will be.
 Whenever two bodies in contact move relative to each other, a friction force develops at
the contact surface in the direction opposite to that of the motion. Under steady
conditions, the air flow rate driven by buoyancy is established by balancing the buoyancy
force with the frictional force.

 GRASHOF NUMBER

Grashof number is a dimensionless group.

It represents the ratio of the buoyancy force to the viscous force acting on the fluid:

………………………. (5)

………………………. (6)

The role played by Reynolds number in forced convection is played by the Grashof
number in natural convection. The critical Grashof number is observed to be about 109 for
vertical plates.

Thus, the flow regime on a vertical plate becomes turbulent at Grashof number greater than 109.
The heat transfer rate in natural convection is expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as:

Q’conv = h A (Ts – T∞)

3. 4. 2 NATURAL CONVECTION OVER SURFACES

Natural convection on a surface depends on the geometry of the surface as well as its orientation.
It also depends on the variation of temperature on the surface and the thermo – physical
properties of the fluid.

Figure below shows the natural convective process for a hot and cold vertical surface.

Figure : Free convection boundary layer for vertical (a) hot surface and (b) cold surface

Consider a vertical flat plate with contact of a fluid (say liquid) on one side of the plate. Now
assume that we raise the temperature of the plate to Ts, a natural convective boundary layer
forms as shown in fig. The velocity profile in this boundary layer is slightly different as
compared to forced convection boundary layer. At the wall the velocity is zero because of no slip
condition. The velocity increases to maximum and then reduces to zero at the end of the

boundary layer because the fluid is at rest in the bulk. Initially the laminar flow is achieved in the
boundary layer, but at some distance from the leading edge, depending on the fluid properties
and the temperature difference between plate and bulk fluid, turbulent eddies are found thus
laminar to transition region comes. On further away from the leading edge the boundary layer
may become turbulent and the boundary layer instability comes in to picture. Instability of the
boundary layer is quite complex and does not fall into the scope of this study material.

Figure : Boundary layer on a hot vertical flat plate (Ts: surface temperature; Tb: bulk fluid
temperature)

The velocity and temperature distribution for natural convection over a hot vertical plate are also
shown in figure given below:

Note that the velocity at the edge of the boundary layer becomes zero. It is expected since the
fluid beyond the boundary layer is stationary. The shape of the velocity and temperature profiles,
in the cold plate case, remains the same but their direction is reversed.

 NATURAL CONVECTION CORRELATIONS

The complexities of the fluid flow make it very difficult to obtain simple
analytical/relations for natural convection. Thus, most of the relationships in natural convection
are based on experimental correlations.

The Rayleigh number is defined as the product of the Grashof and Prandtl numbers:

………………………. (7)

where the constants C and n depend on the geometry of the surface and the flow. These
relationships are for isothermal surfaces, but could be used approximately for the case of
non‐isothermal surfaces by assuming surface temperature to be constant at some average value.

Past GATE Questions on Concept of convection

1. For a laminar flow of fluid in a circular tube, hi is the convective heat transfer coefficient
at a velocity V1. If the velocity is reduced by half and assuming the fluid properties are
constant, the new convective heat transfer coefficient is
A) 1. 26 hi B) 0. 794 hi C) 0. 574 hi D) 1. 741 hi

2. For turbulent flow in a tube, the heat transfer coefficient is obtained from the Dittus-
Boelter correlation. If the tube diameter is halved and the flow rate is doubled, then the
heat transfer coefficient will change by a factor of
A) 1 B) 1. 74 C) 6. 1 D) 37

3. The Sieder-Tate correlation for heat transfer in turbulent flow in a pipe gives Nu Re0. 8,
where Nu is the Nusselt number and Re is the Reynolds number for the flow. Assuming
that this relation is valid, the heat transfer coefficient varies with pipe diameter (D) as
A) D– 1. 8 B) D– 0. 2 C) D0. 2 D) D1. 8

4. A fluid is flowing inside the inner tube of a double pipe heat exchanger with diameter‘d’.
For a fixed mass flow rate, the tube side heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow
conditions is proportional to
A) d0. 8 B) d– 0. 2 C) d– 1 D) d– 1. 8

5. In forced convection, the Nusselt number Nu is a function of

A) Re and Pr B) Re and Gr C) Pr and Gr D) Re and Sc

6. Consider the flow of a gas with density 1 kg/m3, viscosity 1. 5 x 10– 5 kg/(ms), specific
heat Cp = 846 J/kg K) and thermal conductivity k = 0. 01665 W/(mK), in a pipe of
diameter D = 0. 01 m and length L = 1 m, and assume the viscosity does not change with
temperature. The Nusselt number for a pipe with (L/D) ratio greater than 10 and
Reynolds number greater than 20000 is given by Nu = 0. 026 Re0. 8 Pr1/3
While the Nusselt number for a laminar flow for Reynolds number less than 2100 and
(Re Pr D/L) < 10 is Nu = 1. 86 [Re Pr (D/L) ]1/3. If the gas flows through the pipe with
an average velocity of 0. 1 m/s, the heat transfer coefficient is

A) 0. 68 W/(m2 K) B) 1. 14 W/(m2 K)
C) 2. 47 W/(m2 K) D) 24. 7 W/(m2 K)

7. Fluid flows in an annulus of inner diameter 0. 8 m and outer diameter 1 m. Heat is

transferred to the fluid from, inner tube surface of the annulus. What is the equivalent
diameter for heat transfer in m?
A) 0. 45 B) 0. 20 C) 1. 64 D) 0. 90

8. Water enters a thin walled tube (L = 1 m, D = 3 mm) at an inlet temperature of 97°C and
mass flow rate 0. 015 kg/s. The tube wall is maintained at a constant temperature of
27°C. Given the following data for water.
Density, ρ = 1000 kg/m3

Viscosity, μ = 489 10-6 Ns/m2

Specific heat Cp = 4184 J/kg/k

Inside heat transfer coefficient h = 12978 W/(m2 K),

The outlet temperature of water in °C is,

A) 28 B) 37 C) 62 D) 96

9. Hot liquid is flowing at a velocity of 2 m/s through a metallic pipe having an inner
diameter of 3. 5 cm and length 20 m. The temperature at the inlet of the pipe is 90°C.
Following data is given for liquid at 90°C.
Density = 950 kg/m3;
Specific heat = 4. 23 kJ/kg °C
Viscosity = 2. 55 x 10– 4 kg/m. s;
Thermal conductivity = 0. 685 W/m °C
The heat transfer coefficient (in W/m2 °C) inside the tube is
A) 222. 22 B) 111. 11 C) 22. 22 D) 11. 11

Answer Key:

1-B 2-C 3-B 4-B 5-A 6-C 7-B 8-B 9-D

Explanatory Answer:

2. Ans: (C)

Explanation: Given, Q2 = 2Q1

1
d2 = d1
2
Reynolds number,
pvd p Q
Re =   d
  A
Q
Re 
d
Re2 Q2 d1
  = 22
Re1 Q1 d 2
Re2
=4 … (i)
Re1
For turbulent flow in a tube,
hd
Nu = = 0. 023 Re0. 8 Pr0. 4
K
Re 0.8
h
d
0.8
h 2  Re 2  d1
  
h1  Re1  d2
0. 8
= (4)  2
h2
= 6. 1
h1
3. Ans: (B)

Explanation: Given, Nu  Re0. 8

0.8
hD  pvD 
Or  
K   
Or hD  D0. 8
1
h D0. 8
D
h  D–0. 2
4. Ans: (B)

Explanation: The tube side heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow condition, h  D 0.2

5. Ans: (A)

Explanation: In forced convection,

Nusselt number (Nu) = f (Re, Pr)

6. Ans: (C)

Explanation: Given, p = 1 kg/m3,  = 1. 5  10– 5 kg/(m – s)

Cp = 846 J/ (kg – K), K = 0. 01665 W/ (m – K)
D = 0. 01 m, L = 1 m, v = 0. 1 m/s
Reynolds number
pvD
Re =

1  0.1  0.01
Re =
1.5  10 5
Re = 66. 67
Prandtl number
C p
Pr =
K
846  1.5 10 5
Pr =
0.01665
Pr = 0. 762
Re  Pr   = 66. 67  0. 762 
D 0.01
L 1
= 0. 51 < 10
Therefore, the relation applicable in this case is
1/3
 D 
Nu = 1. 86  Re Pr   
  L 
Nu = 1. 8  (0. 51)1/3
Nu = 1. 487
hD
Also, Nu =
K
NuK
 h=
D
1.487  0.01665
h=
0.01
h = 2. 47 W/ (m2 – K)
7. Ans: (B)

Explanation: Given, di = 0. 8 m, d0 = 1 m
Equivalent diameter for heat transfer,
 d 2  d 2 
4  o    i  
 2   2  
deq = 
 do  di 

d 2o  d i2
deq =
do  di
deq = do – di
deq = 1 – 0. 8
deq = 0. 2 m

8. Ans: (B)

Explanation: Given, L = 1 m, D = 3 mm = 3  10– 3 m

m = 0. 015 kg/s
p = 1000 kg/m3,
–6 2
 = 489  10 N – s /m
Cp = 4184 J/ (kg – K)
h = 12978 W/ (m2 – K)

Let T be the outlet temperature of water.

Applying the energy balance,
mCp  T = hA(  T)LMTD
mCp  T = h  DL (  T)LMTD
Putting values,
0. 015  4184  (97 – T)
 
–3
  97  27    T  27  
= 12978  3. 14  3  10 1   
  97  27  
In  
  T  27  
 97  T 
(97 – T) = 1. 948 
 70 
In  
 T  27 

In 
70 
 = 1. 948
 T  27 
70
= 7. 07
T  27
T  370C

9. Ans: (D)

Explanation: Given,
v = 2 m/s, d = 3. 5 cm = 0. 035 m, L = 20 m
p = 950 kg/m3
Cp = 4. 23 kJ/ (kg – 0C) = 4230 J/ (kg – 0C)
–4
 = 2. 55  10 kg/ (m – s)
K = 0. 685 W/ (m – 0C)
The Reynolds number
pvd
Re =

950  2  0.035
Re =
2.55 10 4
Re = 260784
This implies the turbulent conditions.
Now, Prandtl number
C p
Pr =
K
4230  2.55 10 4
Pr =
0.685
Pr = 1. 57
For turbulent condition,
Nu = 0. 023 (Re) 0. 8 (Pr) 0. 33
hd
Or = 0. 023  (260784)0. 8  (1. 57)0. 33
K
h = 11256 W/ (m2 – 0C)
= 11. 256 KW/ (m2 – 0C)

Past GATE Questions on Concept of natural circulation

1. In natural convection heat transfer the correlating parameter is:

A) Graetz number B) Eckert number
C) Grashof number D) Bond number

2. The non-dimensional temperature gradient in a liquid at the wall of a pipe is –

A) the heat flux B) the Nusselt number
C) thePrandtl number D) the Schmidt number

3. As the difference between the wall temperature and the bulk temperature increases, the
boiling heat transfer coefficient
A) continues to increase B) continues to decrease
C) goes through a minimum D) goes through a maximum

4. Heat transfer occurs by natural convection because change in temperature causes

differences in
A) viscosity B) density
C) thermal conductivity D) heat capacity

5. Heat transfer by natural convection is enhanced in systems with

A) high viscosity
B) high coefficient of thermal expansion
C) low temperature gradients
D) low density change with temperature

Answer Key:

1-C 2-A 3-C 4-B 5-B

Explanatory Answer:

5. Ans: (B)

Explanation: The heat transfer by natural convection is enhanced in systems with high
coefficient of thermal expansion.

CHAPTER 4
RADIATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Radiation differs from Conduction and Convection heat transfer mechanisms, in the sense that it
does not require the presence of a material medium to occur.

Energy transfer by radiation occurs at the speed of light and suffers no attenuation in vacuum.

Radiation can occur between two bodies separated by a medium colder than both bodies.

According to Maxwell theory, energy transfer takes place via electromagnetic waves in radiation.
Electromagnetic waves transport energy like other waves and travel at the speed of light.

Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their frequency ν(Hz) and wavelength λ(µm), where:

λ=c/ν

where c is the speed of light in that medium; in a vacuum c0 = 2. 99 x 108 m / s. Note that the
frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional.

The speed of light in a medium is related to the speed of light in a vacuum,

c = c0 / n

where n is the index of refraction of the medium, n = 1 for air and n = 1. 5 for water.

Note that the frequency of an electromagnetic wave depends only on the source and is
independent of the medium.

The frequency of an electromagnetic wave can range from a few cycles to millions of cycles and
higher per second.

Einstein postulated another theory for electromagnetic radiation. Based on this theory,
electromagnetic radiation is the propagation of a collection of discrete packets of energy called
photons. In this view, each photon of frequency ν is considered to have energy of

e = hν = hc / λ

where h = 6. 625 x 10-34 J. s, is the Planck’s constant.

Note that in Einstein’s theory h and c are constants, thus the energy of a photon is inversely
proportional to its wavelength. Therefore, shorter wavelength radiation possesses more powerful
photon energies (X-ray and gamma rays are highly destructive).

Electromagnetic radiation covers a wide range of wavelength, from 10-10 µm for cosmic rays to
1010 µm for electrical power waves.

As shown in above figure, thermal radiation wave is a narrow band on the electromagnetic wave
spectrum.

Thermal radiation emission is a direct result of vibration and rotational motions of molecules,
atoms, and electrons of a substance. Temperature is a measure of these activities. Thus, the rate
of thermal radiation emission increases with increasing temperature.

What we call light is the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum which lies within the
thermal radiation band.

Thermal radiation is a volumetric phenomenon. However, for opaque solids such as metals,
radiation is considered to be a surface phenomenon, since the radiation emitted by the interior
region never reach the surface.

The radiation characteristics of surfaces can be changed completely by applying thin layers of
coatings on them.

3.2 BLACK BODY RADIATION

A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. At a specified temperature

and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a blackbody.

A blackbody is a diffuse emitter which means it emits radiation uniformly in all direction. Also a
blackbody absorbs all incident radiation regardless of wavelength and direction.

A blackbody is a hypothetical body that:

(1) Emits radiation at the maximum intensity possible for every wavelength.

(2) Completely absorbs all incident radiation (hence the term “black”).

3.3 RADIATION LAWS

There are many laws used to describe the radiation heat transfer, some of them are as follows:

3.3.1 PLANCK’S LAW

Planck’s law describes the amount of radiation emitted by a blackbody at each wavelength as a
function of temperature,

Monochromatic irradiance

…………………. … (1)

Where, the asterisk (*) to refer to blackbody radiation.

= is the wavelength in meters

T = is the absolute temperature in Kelvin (K)

C1 = 3. 74 x 10-16 W m2

C2 = 1. 44 x 10-2m K

Planck’s law shows the spectral dependence of energy emitted by a blackbody at different
absolute temperatures.

3.3.2 STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW

It states that, the total amount of radiant energy emitted by a blackbody is proportional to the
fourth power of the absolute temperature such that,

…………………. … (2)

where  = 5. 67 x 10-8 W m-2K-4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

E* is the area under the Eλ * curve, i. e.

…………………. … (3)

3.3.3 WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW

The wavelength of the peak in the spectral curve is given by

…………………. … (4)

where T is the temperature in Kelvin.

The Wien displacement law shows that there is a wide separation between solar radiation (short
wave) and terrestrial radiation (long wave):

Solar (T = 6000 K)

Terrestrial (T = 300 K)

3.4 RADIATION PROPERTIES

A blackbody can serve as a convenient reference in describing the emission and absorption
characteristics of real surfaces.

3.4.1 EMISSIVITY

The emissivity of a surface is defined as the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface to the
radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. Thus,

0 ≤ ε ≤ 1

Emissivity is a measure of how closely a surface approximate a blackbody, εblackbody = 1.

The emissivity of a surface is not a constant; it is a function of temperature of the surface and
wavelength and the direction of the emitted radiation, ε = ε(T, λ, θ)

Where, θ is the angle between the direction and the normal of the surface.

The total emissivity of a surface is the average emissivity of a surface over all direction and
wavelengths:

…………………. … (5)

Spectral emissivity is defined in a similar manner:

Where Eλ(T) is the spectral emissive power of the real surface. As shown, the radiation emission
from a real surface differs from the Planck’s distribution.

To make the radiation calculations easier, we define the following approximations:

Diffuse surface: is a surface which its properties are independent of direction.

Gray surface: is a surface which its properties are independent from wavelength.

Therefore, the emissivity of a gray, diffuse surface is the total hemispherical (or simply the total)
emissivity of that surface.

A gray surface should emit as much as radiation as the real surface it represents at the same
temperature:

…………………. … (6)

Emissivity is a strong function of temperature,

3.4.2 RECEIVING PROPERTIES

These are the properties of the surface which receive the radiation energy such as Absorptivity,
Reflectivity and Transmissivity.

The radiation energy incident on a surface per unit area per unit time is called irradiation, G.

Absorptivity α: is the fraction of irradiation absorbed by the surface.

Reflectivity ρ: is the fraction of irradiation reflected by the surface.

Transmissivity τ: is the fraction of irradiation transmitted through the surface.

Radiosity J: total radiation energy streaming from a surface, per unit area per unit time. It is the
summation of the reflected and the emitted radiation.

Applying the first law of thermodynamics, the sum of the absorbed, reflected, and the
transmitted radiation radiations must be equal to the incident radiation:

Divide by G:

…………………. … (7)

For opaque surfaces τ = 0 and thus: α + ρ = 1. The above definitions are for total hemi-spherical
properties (overall direction and all frequencies). We can also define these properties in terms of
their spectral counterparts:

…………………. … (8)

Note that the Absorptivity α is almost independent of surface temperature and it strongly
depends on the temperature of the source at which the incident radiation is originating.

3. 5KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

Consider an isothermal cavity and a surface at the same temperature T. At the steady state
(equilibrium) thermal condition

…………………. … (9)

The total hemispherical emissivity of a surface at temperature T is equal to its total hemi-
spherical absorptivity for radiation coming from a blackbody at the same temperature T. This is
called the Kirchhoff’s law.

The Kirchhoff’s law makes the radiation analysis easier (ε = α), especially for opaque surfaces
where ρ = 1 – α.

Note that Kirchhoff’s law cannot be used when there is a large temperature difference (more than
100 K) between the surface and the source temperature.

3.5 THE VIEW FACTOR

Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on the orientation of the surfaces relative to
each other as well as their radiation properties and temperatures. View factor (or shape factor) is

a purely geometrical parameter that accounts for the effects of orientation on radiation between
surfaces.

In view factor calculations, we assume uniform radiation in all directions throughout the surface,
i. e., surfaces are isothermal and diffuse. Also the medium between two surfaces does not absorb,
emit, or scatter radiation.

GATE Tip

Fi→j or Fij = the fraction of the radiation leaving surface i that strikes surface j directly

Key Points for gate:

 The view factor ranges between zero and one.

 Fij = 0 indicates that two surfaces do not see each other directly. Fij = 1 indicates that the
surface j completely surrounds surface i.
 The radiation that strikes a surface does not need to be absorbed by that surface.
 Fii is the fraction of radiation leaving surface i that strikes itself directly. Fii = 0 for plane
or convex surfaces, and Fii ≠ 0 for concave surfaces.

Problem:

Find Fii for plane, convex and concave surface?

Solution:

3.6 VIEW FACTOR RELATIONS

Radiation analysis of an enclosure consisting of N surfaces requires the calculations of N2 view

factors. However, all of these calculations are not necessary. Once a sufficient number of view
factors are available, the rest of them can be found using the following relations for view factors.

3.6.1 THE RECIPROCITY RULE

The view factor Fijis not equal to Fji unless the areas of the two surfaces are equal. It can be
shown that:

…………………………. (10)

3.6.2 THE SUMMATION RULE

In radiation analysis, we usually form an enclosure. The conservation of energy principle

requires that the entire radiation leaving any surface I of an enclosure be intercepted by the
surfaces of enclosure. Therefore,

…………………………. (11)

The summation rule can be applied to each surface of an enclosure by varying i from 1 to N
(number of surfaces). Thus the summation rule gives N equations. Also reciprocity rule gives 0.
5 N (N-1) additional equations. Therefore, the total number of view factors that need to be
evaluated directly for an N-surface enclosure becomes

3.7 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER

The analysis of radiation exchange between surfaces is complicated because of reflection. This
can be simplified when surfaces are assumed to be black surfaces.

The net radiation between two surfaces can be expressed as

Consider an enclosure consisting of N black surfaces maintained at specified temperatures. For

each surface i, we can write

Using the sign convention, a negative heat transfer rate indicates that the radiation heat transfer is
to surface i (heat gain).

3.8 NET RADIATION BETWEEN TWO SURFACES

Heat exchange between 2 large parallel plates is given by

Where;

σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5. 67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4

ε1 = Emissivity of surface 1

ε2 = Emissivity of surface 2

T1 = Temperature of surface 1 – in K

T2 = Temperature of surface 2 – in K

Heat exchange between 2 large concentric cylinder (or) sphere is given by

For cylinder, Area, A = 2 π r L

For sphere, Area, A = 4 π r2

Problem:
Calculate the net radiant interchange per meter square for two large planes at a temperature of
1000 K and 500 K respectively. Assume that the emissivity of hot plane is 0. 8 and that of cold
plane is 0. 6.

Solution:
Hot plane temperature, T1 = 1000 K
Cold plane temperature, T2 = 500 K
Emissivity of hot plane, ε1 = 0. 8
Emissivity of cold plane, ε2 = 0. 6
Using;

Find Q/A =. . ??

Problem:

Calculate the heat exchange by radiation between the surfaces of two long cylinders having radii
100 mm and 50 mm respectively. The axis of the cylinders is parallel to each other. The inner
cylinder is maintained at a temperature of 120o C and emissivity of 0. 5. Outer cylinder is
maintained at a temperature of 350 C and emissivity of 04.

Solution:
r1 = 50 mm = 0. 050 m
r2 = 100 mm = 0. 10 m
T1 = 120 + 273 = 413 K
T2 = 35 + 273 = 308 K
ε1 = 0. 5
ε2 = 0. 4
εnet = 1 / ((1/ ε1) + (A1/A2)((1/ ε2) – 1))
= ……
[since A = π D L and L1 / L2 = 1]
Thus find Q12.

Problem:
Calculate the heat loss by radiation from an unlagged horizontal steam pipe, 50 mm o. d. at 377
K to air at 283 K.

Data: Emissivity, ε = 0. 90

Solution: Heat loss by radiation is given by

Qr
A

  . . T14  T24 
where   0.90
  5.67  108 W/(m 2.K)
T1  377 K and T2  283 K

 0.90  5.67  108  377 4  2834 

Qr
A
Qr
 704 W / m 2
A

Problem:

Calculate the net radiant interchange per square meter for very large planes at temperature of 703
K and 513 K respectively. Assume that the emissivity of the hot and cold planes is 0. 85 and 0.
75 respectively.

Solution: We know that

Q  
 . T14  T24 
 A  1 1
 r  1
1 2
where 1  0.85 and  2  0.75
  5.67  10 W/(m2 .K)
8

T1  703 K and T2  513 K

Q  5.67  108  7034  5134  

 A 
 r 1

1
1
0.85 0.75
Qr
 6571 W / m 2
A

3. 10 Radiation Shields

Low emissivity materials placed between the two surfaces (which are exchanging radiation) in
order to reduce the net radiation heat transfer between the surfaces.

Heat transfer with n shield is given by:

Where ; n = Number of shields.

εs = Emissivity of shield.

Problem:

Two long planes A and B are maintained at 600 K and 300 K and their surface emissivities are 0.
8 and 0. 5 respectively. Two thin radiation shield C and D having emissivities 0. 5 and 0. 4 are
introduced between the given planes. The given planes are in order A, C, D and B. Assuming all
the planes to be infinitely long, find the rate of heat exchange per unit area and steady state
temperature attained by the planes C and D.

Solution:
In steady state, we can write

QCD  QDB
 . TC4  TD4   . TD4  TB4 

1 1 1 1
 1  1
C D D B
 C  0.5,  D  0.4,  B  0.5
T C
4
 TD4  
T D
4
 TB4 
1 1 1 1
 1  1
0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5
  
TC4  TD4  TD4  TB4 
TB  300 K

TD4 
2

1 4 1

TC  TB4  TC4  3004
2
 

Now,

QAC  QCD
 . TA4  TC4   . TC4  TD4 

1 1 1 1
 1  1
A C C D
 C  0.5,  D  0.4,  A  0.8
TA  600 K
 600 4
 TC4  
T C
4
 TD4 
1 1 1 1
 1  1
0.8 0.5 0.5 0.4
6004  TC4 TC4  TD4

2.25 3.5
Putting value of TD in terms of TC, and solving, we get
TC = 556. 78 K
1

TD4  TC4  3004
2

1

TD4  550.784  3004
2

TD = 458. 00 K



Q  . TA  TC
4

4



5.67  108  6004  556.784 
A 1 1 1 1
 1  1
 A C 0.8 0.5
Q
 844.13 W / m 2
A

Past GATE Questions on Concept of Radiation

1. In thermal radiation, for a black body,

A)   1 and   1 B)   1 and   1
C)   1 and   1 D)   1 and   1
where ε is emissivity and α is the absorptivity.

2. The thermal radiative flux from a surface of emissivity = 0. 4 is 22. 68 kW/m2. The
approximate surface temperature (K) is
A) 1000 B) 727 C) 800 D) 1200
Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant = 5. 67 x 10– 8 W/m2 k4

3. The radiation heat flux from a heating element at a temperature of 8000C, in a furnace
maintained at 3000C is 8 kW/m2. The flux when the element temperature is increased to
10000C for the same furnace temperature is
A) 11. 2 kW/m2 B) 12. 0 kW/m2 C) 14. 6 kW/m2 D) 16. 5 kW/m2

4. A sphere of radius, R1 is enclosed in a sphere of radius, R2. The view (or shape) factor for
radiative heat transfer of the outer sphere with respect to the inner sphere is

2
R2 R 
A) zero B) C) 1 D)  1 
R1  R 2  R2 

5. The heat transfer by radiation from a mild steel surface is to be reduced by reducing the
emissivity of the surface. This can be best achieved by
A) painting the surface black
B) painting the surface white
C) giving the surface a mirror finish
D) roughening the surface

6. For an ideal black body

A) absorptivity = 1 B) reflectivity = 1
C) emissivity = 0 D) transmissivity = 1

7. A black body at a higher temperature TH transfers energy by radiation to a black body at a

lower temperature TL, Initially, TH = 18500C, TL = 5000C and the net rate of energy
transfer is 25W. After some time, when TH = 15000C and TL = 7500C, what is the net rate
of energy transfer?
A) 8. 73 W B) 9. 60 W C) 13. 89 W D) 11. 01 W

8. An insulated cylindrical pipe of 0. 2 m diameter has a surface temperature of 450C. It is

exposed to black body surroundings at 250C. The emissivity and absorptivity of the
insulation surface are 0. 96 and 0. 93, respectively. The convective heat transfer
coefficient outside the insulation surface is 3. 25 W/(m2K). The Stefan-Boltzmann
constant is 5. 67 x 10-8 W/m2K4). The surrounding fluid may be assumed to be
transparent. Find the percentage contribution from, radiation to the total heat transfer rate
to the surroundings.
A) 30. 9 B) 50. 0 C) 57. 6 D) 68. 4

9. For the two long concentric cylinders with surface areas A1 and A2, the view factor F22 is
given by

A) 0 B) 1 C) 1 – A1/A2 D) A1/A2

10. A well-insulated hemispherical furnace (radius = 1 m) is shown below:

The self-view factor of radiation for the curved surface 2 is

A) 1/4 B) 1/2 C) 2/3 D) 3/4

11. The view factor matrix for two infinitely long co-axial cylinders, shown in the figure
below, is

0 1  0 1  1 0   0.5 0.5 
A)   B)  C)  D) 
 0.5 0.5 

1 0 

0 1  0 1 

Answer Key:

1-D 2-A 3-D 4-D 5-C 6-A 7-D 8-D 9-C 10-B

11-A

Explanatory Answer:

4. Ans: (D)

Explanation: Here, F12 = 1

A1
F21 =  F12
A2
4 R 12
F21 = 1
4 R 22
2
R 
F21 =  1 
 R2 

5. Ans: (C)

Explanation: The heat transfer by radiation

Q = A   T14  T24 
The emissivity (  ) can be reduced by giving the surface a mirror finish.

6. Ans: (A)

Explanation: For an ideal black body,

Absorptivity = 1
7. Ans: (D)

Explanation: Initially q =  A  TH4  TL4 

Here, q = 25 W
0
TH = 1850 C = 2123 K
TL = 5000C = 773 K
Putting values,
25 =  A [(2123)4 – (773)4]
– 12
 A = 1. 253  10 W/K4
After some time,
TH = 15000C = 1773 K
TL = 7500C = 1023 K
q =  A  TH4  TL4 
q = 1. 253  10 – 12  [(1773)4 – (1023)4]
q = 11. 01 W
8. Ans: (D)

Explanation: Heat transfer due to radiation

q1 =  A  T14  T24 
Given,  = 5. 67  10– 8 W/ (m2 – K4),
h = 3. 25 W/ (m2 – K)
 = 0. 96,  = 0. 93
T1 = 450C = 318 K
T2 = 250C = 298 K
Putting values,
q1 = 5. 67  10– 8  A  [0. 96  (318)4 – 0. 93  (298)4]
q1 = 140. 78  A
Heat transfer due to convection,
q2 = hA  T
q2 = 3. 25  A  (318 – 298)
q2 = 65  A
q1
Per cent contribution from radiation to total heat transfer rate =  100
q1  q 2
140.78A
=  100
140.78A  65A
= 68. 41%
9. Ans: (C)

Explanation: We know that

F12 A
= 2
F21 A1

A1
F21 = F12 … (i)
A2
For given problem,
F11 = 0
We also have,
F11 + F12 = 1
 F12 = 1
From Eq. (i)
A1
F21 =
A2
And, F21 + F22 = 1
F22 = 1 – F21
A1
F22 = 1 –
A2
10. Ans: (B)

Explanation: Here,
We know that,
F12 A
= 2
F21 A1
1 2 r 2
Or = 2
F21 r
1
F21 =
2
11. Ans: (A)

Explanation:

The view factor matrix is

 F11 F12 
F F 
 21 22 
Here, F11 = 0
Radiation emitted by surface 1 and falling on surface 2,
F12 = 1
And, we have
F12 Area of surface 2
=
F21 Area of surface 1
Putting values,

1 2  2R  h

F21 2  R  h
1
F21 = = 0. 5
2
And, F21 + F22 = 1
 F22 = 1 – 0. 5 = 0. 5
0 1
 The view factor matrix is  
0.5 0.5

CHAPTER 5
BOILING AND CONDENSATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The heat transfer processes accompanied by phase change (liquid to vapor or vapor to liquid)are
more complex than the process of heat transfer between fluids without phase change. A phase
change vapor to liquid or liquid to vapor involves removal or addition of considerable amount of
thermal energy at nearly constant temperature.

Change of phase from liquid to vapour state is possible only when the temperature of heating
surface (Tw) exceeds the saturation temperature of liquid (Tsat) at given pressure. According to
convection law,

Q = h A (Tw–Tsat) = h A (ΔT)

Where

ΔT –is known as excess temperature

4.2 HEAT TRANSFER TO BOILING LIQUIDS

When a heated surface exceeds the saturation temperature of the surrounding coolant,
boiling on the surface becomes possible. This is true whether the bulk fluid temperature is at or
below the local saturation temperature. If the bulk fluid temperature is below the saturation
temperature, boiling is referred to as "local" or "sub-cooled" boiling. If the bulk fluid
temperature is equal to the saturation temperature, then "bulk" boiling is said to occur. Bubbles
formed on the heated surface depart the surface and are transported by the bulk fluid, such that a
condition of two-phase flow is said to exist. Depending on the degree of sub-cooling and the
length of the heated channel, the bubbles may or may not condense and collapse prior to exiting
the channel. In sub-cooled boiling this process results in further heating of the fluid toward the
saturation temperature. In saturated or bulk boiling, bubbles can be transported along the entire
length of the heated channel without collapsing.

4.3 TYPES OF BOILING

Pool Boiling
If heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface, the boiling process is referred as
pool boiling. The liquid above the hot surface is essentially stagnant and its motion (as well
as heat transfer) near the surface is due to i) Free convection ii) Mixing induced by bubble
growth & detachment.

© CAREER AVENUES/2015/HT 100

Heat Transfer

Vapour

Vapour Liquid
bubbles

Solid surface
Fig 3.1 Pool Boiling

Problem:

Consider a liquid stored in a container exposed to its saturated vapor at constant temperature
Tsat. The bottom surface of the container is maintained at a constant temperature Ts <
Tsatwhile its side walls are insulated. The thermal conductivity k1 of the liquid, its latent heat
of vaporization λ and density ρ1are known. Assuming a linear temperature distribution in the
liquid, the expression for the growth of the liquid layer δ as a function of time t is given by

 4K  T  Ts  
1/2

A)   t    l sat t
 l  
 K  T  Ts  
1/2

B)   t    l sat t
 2l  
 2K  T  Ts  
1/2

C)   t    l sat t
 l  
 K  T  Ts  
1/2

D)   t    l sat t
 l  

© CAREER AVENUES/2015/HT 101

Heat Transfer

Solutions:
Ans: (D)
Applying the energy balance,
Heat transferred through conduction in time t
= Heat transferred to condense liquid in time t
 Tsat  Ts  t = m
KlA 

Here, m = A P
Therefore,
K  At
(Tsat – Ts) = A  P  

 K  T  Ts  
1/2

 (t) =   sat t
 p 

Flow or Forced convection boiling: Flow boiling or forced convection boiling may occur
when a fluid is forced through a pipe or over a surface which is maintained at a temperature
higher than the saturation temperature of the fluid. It occurs in water tube boilers involving
forced convection.

4.4 FLOW BOILING REGIMES

Pool Boiling:

Consider a pool of fluid being heated from below, e. g., by a submerged wire. For low rate of
heat addition, vapor will be formed at the free surface. As the heat flux increases, bubbles form
at the heater surface and change in size while rising through the fluid, in addition to the free-
surface vaporization. This bubble formation, with its attendant agitation, is called boiling, or
ebuffition. The behavior of the fluid during boiling is highly dependent upon the excess
temperature, ∆T = T - TSat, measured from the boiling point of the fluid. Figure below
indicates six different regimes for typical pool boiling; the heat flux curve is commonly called
the boiling curve.

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Horizontal Chromen1 C 0. 10 cm diameter heating wire in water at 1 atm.

 Regime I: Heat is transferred by free convection.

 Regime II: Bubbles begin to appear at the heating surface and rise to the free surface
individually.

 Regime III: The boiling action becomes so vigorous that individual bubbles combine with
others very rapidly to form a vapor bubble column reaching to the free surface.

 Regime IV: Bubbles form so rapidly that they blanket the heating surface, preventing fresh
fluid from moving in to take their place. The increased resistance of this film reduces the heat
flux, and the heat transfer decreases with increasing temperature differential. Because the
film intermittently collapses and reappears, this regime is very unstable.

 Regime V: The film on the heater surface becomes stable. As ∆T reaches about 1000oF,
radiant heat transfer comes into play-in fact, becomes predominant-and the heat flux again
rises with increasing ∆T.
 Regime VI: Radiation from the heater surface becomes significant

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The peak heat flux, point B, is called the burnout point. It is the condition at which the increased
heat flux produced by a rise in ∆T is offset by the increased resistance of the vapor blanket
around the heater. The two effects balance, producing what is sometimes called the boiling crisis,
burnout, or departure from nucleate boiling (DNB). For many common fluids, the temperature at
D is above the melting point of most heater materials, and failure of the heater occurs before
reaching it. If the heater does not melt, the boiling curve continues to rise beyond point D.

GATE Tip

Concept and occurrence of DNB should be understood completely.

As boiling is predominantly a local phenomenon, the heat transfer coefficient h is normally

defined as local. Most applications, however, require an average heat flux. Since burnout of
heating elements is a common problem in boiling, and since the largest heat flux is a local
quantity for a given regime, the local value is the one that should be used in design, being the
conservative value.

Past GATE Questions on Concept of pool boiling regime

1. An electrically heated element is submerged in a pool of water at its saturation

temperature. As the temperature of the element increases, the maximum heat transfer
coefficient is observed
A) in the free convection regime
B) between the nucleate boiling and partial nucleate boiling mixed with unstable film
boiling regimes
C) in the incipient nucleate boiling regime
D) in the stable film boiling regime without significant radiation effects.
Ans: (B)
Explanation: With the increase in the temperature of the element, the maximum heat transfer
coefficient is observed between the nucleate boiling and partial nucleate boiling mixed with
unstable film boiling regimes.

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Flow or Forced convection boiling

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As illustrated in above figure, a number of different heat transfer regimes can occur
simultaneously within a boiling channel. This is further illustrated in Figure below.

The position zn is called the Incipient Boiling Point or the Nucleation Point and is the position
where the wall superheat is sufficient to support bubble growth. The position zB denotes the
onset of fully developed nucleate boiling. Prior to boiling z ∈ [0, zn], heat transfer is by single
phase forced convection. The heat flux is linear with wall temperature and given by Newton’s
Law of cooling

Where the convective heat transfer coefficient hc is generally correlated in the form

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Correlations of this type include the Dittus – Boelter Correlation for flow in conduits and annuli,
and the Weisman correlation for flow parallel to rod bundles.

4.5 CONDENSATION

Condensation is defined as the physical process by which a gas or vapor changes into a liquid. If
the temperature of an object (e. g. grass, metal, glass) falls below what is known as the ‘Dew
Point’ temperature for a given relative humidity of the surrounding air, water vapor from the
atmosphere condenses into water droplets on its surface. This "dew point" varies according to the
amount of water in the atmosphere (known as humidity). In humid conditions condensation
occurs at higher temperatures. In cold conditions condensation occurs despite relatively low
humidity.

There are two modes of condensation:

Filmwise condensation: The liquid condensate wets the solid surface, spreads out and forms a
continuous film over the entire surface is known as film wise condensation

GATE Tip

Film condensation occurs when a vapour is free from impurities.

Dropwise condensation: In drop wise condensation, the vapour condenses into small liquid
droplets of various sizes which fall down the surface in a random fashion.

GATE Tip

Heat transfer rates in drop wise condensation may be as much as 10 times higher
than in film wise condensation.

4.5.1 FILM WISE CONDENSATION

Most heat transfer surfaces on a heat exchanger are made of ‘wettable’ materials. During
condensation, a film of condensate spreads over these surfaces. As more vapor condenses on the
outside of the film, its thickness increases and the film will start flowing downwards due to its
weight. Heat transfer occurs through this film of condensate to the surface material beneath, then

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to the cooling medium. The liquid film is generally a poor conductor of heat, contributing much
to the thermal resistance and inefficiency of this mode of condensation.

Nusselt’s provides a theory for film condensation along with certain co-relations. The
mathematical solution given by Nusselt is described below:

The following assumptions are made for derivation.

1. The plate is maintained at a uniform temperature Tw, which is less than the saturation
temperature Tsat, of the vapour.

2. Fluid properties are constant.

3. The shear stress at the liquid vapour interface is negligible.

4. The heat transfer across the condensate layer is by pure conduction and the temperature
distribution is linear.

5. The condensing vapour is entirely clean and free from gases, air and non-condensing
impurities.

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Where;
δx-Boundary layer thickness, m
μ-Dynamic viscosity of fluid, Ns/m2
k-Thermal conductivity of the liquid, W / mK
x -Distance along the surface, m
Tsat-Saturation temperature, oC
Tw-Surface temperature, oC
g-Acceleration due to gravity, 9. 81 m/s2
hfg-Enthalpy of evaporation, J/kg
ρ-Density of fluid, kg/m3

GATE Tip
Local heat transfer coefficient varies inversely with film thickness for film condensation over
vertical plate.

Problem:

In laminar flow conditions saturated steam condenses on the surface of a vertical surface of
height 0. 8 m. The tube surface temperature is kept at 100oC. Calculate the following at a
distance of 0. 25 m. Tsat = 133oC ;hfg = 2163. 2 kJ/kg = 2163. 2 x 103J/kg; ρ = 945 kg/m3; γ = 0.
247 x 10-6m2/sk = 0. 685 W /mK; μ = ρxγ = 2. 33 x 10-4Ns/m2
1. Thickness of the condensate film
2. Local heat transfer co-efficient
Solution:

Using - Thickness, δx = [(4 μkx (Tsat-Tw)) / (g hfgρ2)]0. 25

δx = 1x 10-4m

Local heat transfer coefficient, hx = k / δx

hx = 5770 W/m2K

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4. 4. 2 DROP WISE CONDENSATION

If the heat transfer surfaces are treated to become ‘non-wettable’, the condensate that forms on
the surface will be shaped like spherical beads. These beads adheres together to become larger as
condensation proceeds. The bigger beads will then start to flow downwards due to their weight,
thus collecting all other static beads along the way. As the beads increase in size, the velocity
increases, finally leaving a trail of bare surface free from liquid film. This bare surface offers
very little resistance to the transfer of heat. Therefore, very high heat fluxes are possible.

The advantages of drop wise over film wise condensation are apparent, resulting in a smaller
heat transfer area, smaller temperature difference or larger heat transfer rate for a fixed set of
conditions

Problem:
Heat transfer rate is higher in which type of condensation process?

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Past GATE Questions on Concept of condensation

1. Saturated steam is condensed as a film on a vertical plate of height 50 cm. If the local
heat transfer coefficient at a distance of 50 cm from the top is 7200 W/m2 oC, the average
heat transfer coefficient over the entire plate in W/m2 oC is,
A) 5400 B) 9600 C) 7200 D) 14400

2. For condensation of pure vapours, if the heat transfer coefficients in film wise and drop
wise condensation are respectively hf and hd, then
A) hf = hd B) hf>hd C) hf < hd
D) hf could be greater or smaller than hd

3. Gibbs phase rule finds application when heat transfer occurs by

A) conduction B) convection C) condensation D) radiation

4. In film type condensation of liquid along a vertical tube, the thickness of the condensate
layer increases towards the bottom This implies that the local heat transfer coefficient.
A) increases from top to bottom

B) decreases from top to bottom

C) remains constant from top to bottom

D) first increases and then decreases from top to bottom

Answer Key:

1-B 2-C 3-C 4-B

Explanatory Answer:

4. Ans: (B)

Explanation: In film type condensation of liquid along a vertical tube, the local heat transfer
coefficient decreases from top to bottom.

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CHAPTER 5
HEAT EXCHANGERS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

A heat exchanger is a device that is used to transfer thermal energy (enthalpy) between two or
more fluids, between a solid surface and a fluid, or between solid particulates and a fluid, at
different temperatures and in thermal contact. In heat exchangers, there are usually no external
heat and work interactions. Typical applications involve heating or cooling of a fluid stream of
concern and evaporation or condensation of single- or multi-component fluid streams.

In a few heat exchangers, the fluids exchanging heat are in direct contact. In most heat
exchangers, heat transfer between fluids takes place through a separating wall or into and out of
a wall in a transient manner. In many heat exchangers, the fluids are separated by a heat transfer
surface, and ideally they do not mix or leak. Such exchangers are referred to as direct transfer
type, or simply recuperators. In contrast, exchangers in which there is intermittent heat exchange
between the hot and cold fluids—via thermal energy storage and release through the exchanger
surface or matrix— are referred to as indirect transfer type, or simply regenerators.

Such exchangers usually have fluid leakage from one fluid stream to the other, due to pressure
differences and matrix rotation/valve switching. Common examples of heat exchangers are shell-
and-tube exchangers, automobile radiators, condensers, evaporators, air pre-heaters, and cooling
towers. If no phase change occurs in any of the fluids in the exchanger, it is sometimes referred
to as a sensible heat exchanger.

5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

The heat exchangers can be classified on the following basses:

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Types of heat exchangers:

Criteria for classification of heat exchangers:

(i)Nature of heat exchange process

(ii)Relative direction of fluid motion

(iii)Design and constructional features

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(iv)Physical state of fluids

1) Nature of heat exchange process:

a) Direct contact heat exchangers or Open heat exchangers (example: Cooling tower)

b) Indirect contact heat exchangers (example: Air pre-heaters)

2) Relative direction of fluid motion:

a. Parallel flow heat exchanger –Fluids move in same direction

b. Counter flow heat exchanger –Fluids move in opposite direction

c. Cross flow heat exchanger –Fluids make right angle to each other

3) Design and constructional features:

a. Concentric tubes

b. Shell and tube (most widely used)

c. Multiple shell and tube passes

d. Compact heat exchangers

4) Physical state of fluids:

a. Condensers

b. Evaporators.

5. 3 Basic Heat Exchanger Flow Arrangements

Two basic flow arrangements are as shown in Figure below. Parallel and counter flows provide
alternative arrangements for certain specialized applications. In parallel flow both the hot and
cold streams enter the heat exchanger at the same end and travel to the opposite end in parallel
streams. Energy is transferred along the length from the hot to the cold fluid so the outlet
temperatures asymptotically approach each other. In a counter flow arrangement, the two streams
enter at opposite ends of the heat exchanger and flow in parallel but opposite directions.
Temperatures within the two streams tend to approach one another in a nearly linearly fashion
resulting in a much more uniform heating pattern. Shown below the heat exchangers are
representations of the axial temperature profiles for each. Parallel flow results in rapid initial
rates of heat exchange near the entrance, but heat transfer rates rapidly decrease as the
temperatures of the two streams approach one another. This leads to higher energy loss during

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heat exchange. Counter flow provides for relatively uniform temperature differences and,
consequently, lead toward relatively uniform heat rates throughout the length of the unit.

t1 t2 t2 t1

T1 T2 T1 T2
Parallel Flow Counter Flow
Temperature T T1
Temperature
1
T2 T2

t1 t2
t2 t1

Position Position

Basic Flow Arrangements for Tubular Heat Exchangers.

Logarithmic mean temperature difference

Temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids in a heat exchanger varies from point to
point. In addition to this various modes of heat transfer are involved and hence, based on the
concept of appropriate mean temperature difference, also called logarithmic mean temperature
difference, the total heat transfer rate in the heat exchanger is expressed as:

The total heat transfer rate in the heat exchanger is expressed as

Q = UA ∆Tlm…………………………. . (1)
Where; U –Overall heat transfer co-efficient, W/m2K

A –Area, m2

(ΔT)lm–Logarithmic mean temperature difference.

Heat flows between the hot and cold streams due to the temperature difference across the tube
acting as a driving force. As seen in the Figure below, the temperature difference will vary along
the length of the heat exchanger, and this must be taken into account in the analysis.

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Counter Flow Parallel Flow

T1 T1

θ1
T2 T2
θ2 θ1 θ2
t2 t1 t1 t2

Position Position

Temperature Differences between Hot and Cold Process Streams

From the heat exchanger equations shown earlier, it can be shown that the integrated average
temperature difference for either parallel or counter flow may be written as ∆θ or ∆Tlm

1   2
  LMTD 
 
ln 1 
 2 

The effective temperature difference calculated from this equation is known as the log mean
temperature difference, frequently abbreviated as LMTD, based on the type of mathematical
average that it describes. While the equation applies to either parallel or counter flow, it can be
shown that eff will always be greater in the counter flow arrangement.

Another interesting observation from the above Figure is that counter flow is more appropriate
for maximum energy recovery. In a number of industrial applications there will be considerable
energy available within a hot waste stream which may be recovered before the stream is
discharged. This is done by recovering energy into a fresh cold stream. Note in the Figures
shown above that the hot stream may be cooled to t1 for counter flow, but may only be cooled to
t2 for parallel flow. Counter flow allows for a greater degree of energy recovery. Similar
arguments may be made to show the advantage of counter flow for energy recovery from
refrigerated cold streams.

Heat Transfer

Applications for Counter and Parallel Flows

We have seen two advantages for counter flow, (a) larger effective LMTD and (b) greater
potential energy recovery. The advantage of the larger LMTD, as seen from the heat exchanger
equation, is that a larger LMTD permits a smaller heat exchanger area, Ao, for a given heat
transfer, Q. This would normally be expected to result in smaller, less expensive equipment for a
given application.

Sometimes, however, parallel flows are desirable (a) where the high initial heating rate may be
used to advantage and (b) where it is required the temperatures developed at the tube walls are
moderate. In heating very viscous fluids, parallel flow provides for rapid initial heating and
consequent decrease in fluid viscosity and reduction in pumping requirement. In applications
where moderation of tube wall temperatures is required, parallel flow results in cooler walls.
This is especially beneficial in cases where the tubes are sensitive to fouling effects which are
aggravated by high temperature.

Formulae for problems:

Heat Transfer

Note: Surface area for cylindrical tube isA = π Di L where Di is the inner diameter of the
tube and L is the length of the tube.

Problem:
In a double pipe heat exchanger, hot fluid with a specific heat of 2300 J/kg enters at 380 oC and
leaves at 300 oC. Cold fluid enters at 25 oC and leaves at 210 oC. Calculate the heat exchanger
area required for (i)Counter flow (ii)Parallel flow. Take overall heat transfer coefficient as 750
W/m2 K and mass flow rate of hot fluid is 1 kg/s.

Solution:
Hot fluid is denoted by(T1, T2) and cold fluid is denoted by(t1, t2).
Mass flow rate of hot fluid), mh = 1 kg/sec
Entry temperature of cold fluid, t1 = 25oC
Exit temperature of cold fluid, t2 = 210oC
Specific heat of oil (Hot fluid), Cph = 2300 J/kg K
Entry temperature of hot fluid, T1 = 380oC
Exit temperature of hot fluid, T2 = 300oC
Overall heat transfer co-efficient, U = 750 W/m2K
Heat transfer, Q = mcCpc (t2–t1) = mhCph(T1–T2) = 184 x 103W
Heat transfer, Q = UA (ΔT)lm
For counter flow(ΔT)lm = [(T1–t2) –(T2–t1)] / ln ((T1–t2) / (T2–t1)) = 218o C
Q ( = 184 x 10^3) = UA (ΔT)lmA = Q/U (ΔT)lm = 1. 119 m2
Similarly for parallel flow Area required is 1. 269 m2.

5.4 CONSTRUCTION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

A heat exchanger consists of heat transfer elements such as a core or matrix containing the heat
transfer surface, and fluid distribution elements such as headers, manifolds, tanks, inlet and
outlet nozzles or pipes, or seals. Usually, there are no moving parts in a heat exchanger;
however, there are exceptions, such as a rotary regenerative exchanger (in which the matrix is
mechanically driven to rotate at some design speed) or a scraped surface heat exchanger.

The heat transfer surface is a surface of the exchanger core that is in direct contact with fluids
and through which heat is transferred by conduction. That portion of the surface that is in direct
contact with both the hot and cold fluids and transfers heat between them is referred to as the
primary or direct surface. To increase the heat transfer area, appendages may be intimately
connected to the primary surface to provide an extended, secondary, or indirect surface. These
extended surface elements are referred to as fins. Thus, heat is conducted through the fin and
convicted (and/or radiated) from the fin (through the surface area) to the surrounding fluid, or
vice versa, depending on whether the fin is being cooled or heated. As a result, the addition of
fins to the primary surface reduces the thermal resistance on that side and thereby increases the
total heat transfer from the surface for the same temperature difference. Fins may form flow

Heat Transfer

passages for the individual fluids but do not separate the two (or more) fluids of the exchanger.
These secondary surfaces or fins may also be introduced primarily for structural strength
purposes or to provide thorough mixing of a highly viscous liquid.

5.5 PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER

A plate heat exchanger, PHE, is a compact heat exchanger where thin corrugated plates (some 0.
5 mm thick, bended 1 or 2 mm) are stacked in contact with each other, and the two fluids made
to flow separately along adjacent channels in the corrugation as shown in figure.

The closure of the staked plates may be by clamped gaskets, brazing (usually copper-brazed
stainless steel), or welding (stainless steel, copper, titanium), the most common type being the
first, for ease of inspection and cleaning. Additionally, a frame (end-plates and fixing rods)
secures together the plate stack and connectors (sometimes PFHE, standing for plate-and-frame
heat exchanger, is used instead of PHE).

Plate assembly is sketched in figure below. Suitable channels, sometimes helped by the gaskets,
control the flow of the two fluids, and allow parallel flow or cross flow, in any desired number of
passes, one pass being most used. They have large conductance coefficients (up to K = 6000
W/(m2·K) for liquid-to-liquid use), are ideally suited for low-viscosity fluids, the number of
plates can be adjusted to the needs, and the transfer surface accessible to cleaning (the latter two
advantages only for gasket assemblies; in any case, the gaskets should be changed if
dismounted). The projected area of plates is usually taken as nominal heat transfer area, in spite
of the real curved surfaces and lost space in gaskets and ports.

Heat Transfer

Fig: Plate heat exchanger: from single plates, to exploded assembly, and a picture.

Major limitations in PHEs are: maximum allowed pressure (usually below 1 MPa, although there
are designs with 4 MPa), temperature range (usually limited to 150 ºC by the gasket material,
although there are designs allowing 400 ºC), and prize (but brazed PHEs are about half prize of
serviceable PHEs). Although typical PHE application is in liquid-to-liquid heat-transfer, special
plate designs have been developed for phase-change applications. Higher working pressures and
still good thermal performance can be achieved with hybrid plate-shell heat exchangers, where a
plate stack is welded inside a shell (i. e. a kind of STHE with plates instead of tubes).

The PHE was developed in the 1920s in the food industry (for the pasteurization of milk), but
they are taking over all markets now because of its compactness and efficiency (3 to 10 times
more than STHE). They are used for process heating, cooling, in all cryogenic applications, and
as an intermediate step in domestic water heaters, where consumable hot water (hot tap water) is
produced in an intermediate heat exchanger from closed-loop fuel-fired hot water, to minimise

Heat Transfer

solid depositions. PHE are often named CHE (compact heat exchangers), although the word
compact can be added to any type of heat or mass transfer unit with specific area >103 m2 / m3.

5.6 SHELL-AND-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

This exchanger, shown in figure given below, is generally built of a bundle of round tubes
mounted in a cylindrical shell with the tube axis parallel to that of the shell. One fluid flows
inside the tubes, the other flows across and along the tubes. The major components of this
exchanger are tubes (or tube bundle), shell, front-end head, rear-end head, baffles, and tube
sheets, and are described briefly later in this subsection.

In shell and tube heat exchanger cross-flow (one fluid perpendicular to the other) takes places
and the rate of heat transfer is given as:

Heat Transfer

The F factor can be obtained from the graph below:

Heat Transfer

5.6.1 TYPES OF SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS FRONT AND REAR HEADS

A variety of different internal constructions are used in shell-and-tube exchangers, depending on

the desired heat transfer and pressure drop performance and the methods employed to reduce
thermal stresses, to prevent leakages, to provide for ease of cleaning, to contain operating
pressures and temperatures, to control corrosion, to accommodate highly asymmetric flows, and
so on. Shell-and-tube exchangers are classified and constructed in accordance with the widely
used TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association) standards (TEMA, 1999), DIN and
other standards in Europe and else-where, and ASME (American Society of Mechanical
Engineers) boiler and pressure vessel codes. TEMA has developed a notation system to designate
major types of shell-and-tube exchangers. In this system, each exchanger is designated by a
three-letter combination, the first letter indicating the front-end head type, the second the shell
type, and the third the rear-end head type. These are identified in figure given below. Some
common shell-and-tube exchangers are AES, BEM, AEP, CFU, AKT, and AJW. It should be
emphasized that there are other special types of shell-and-tube exchangers commercially
available that have front- and rear-end heads different from those in figure given below. Those
exchangers may not be identifiable by the TEMA letter designation.

Heat Transfer

5.6.2 TYPES OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

The three most common types of shell-and-tube exchangers are (1) fixed tube sheet design, (2)
U-tube design, and (3) floating-head type. In all three types, the front-end head is stationary
while the rear-end head can be either stationary or floating, depending on the thermal stresses in
the shell, tube, or tube sheet, due to temperature differences as a result of heat transfer.

The exchangers are built in accordance with three mechanical standards that specify design,
fabrication, and materials of unfired shell-and-tube heat exchangers. Class R is for the generally
severe requirements of petroleum and related processing applications. Class C is for generally
moderate requirements for commercial and general process applications. Class B is for chemical
process service. The exchangers are built to comply with the applicable ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII (1998), and other pertinent codes and/or standards. The
TEMA standards supplement and define the ASME code for heat exchanger applications. In
addition, state and local codes applicable to the plant location must also be met.

The TEMA standards specify the manufacturing tolerances for various mechanical classes, the
range of tube sizes and pitches, baffling and support plates, pressure classification, tube sheet
thickness formulas, and so on, and must be consulted for all these details. In this book, we
consider only the TEMA standards where appropriate, but there are other standards, such as DIN
28 008.

Tubular exchangers are widely used in industry for the following reasons. They are custom
designed for virtually any capacity and operating conditions, such as from high vacuum to
ultrahigh pressure [over 100 MPa (15, 000 psig)], from cryogenics to high temperatures [about
11008C (20008F)] and any temperature and pressure differences between the fluids, limited only
by the materials of construction. They can be designed for special operating conditions:
vibration, heavy fouling, highly viscous fluids, erosion, corrosion, toxicity, radioactivity, multi
component mixtures, and so on. They are the most versatile exchangers, made from a variety of
metal and nonmetal materials (such as graphite, glass, and Teflon) and range in size from small
[0. 1m2 (1 ft2)] to supergiant [over 105 m2 (106 ft2)] surface area. They are used extensively as
process heat exchangers in the petroleum-refining and chemical industries; as steam generators,
condensers, boiler feed water heaters, and oil coolers in power plants; as condensers and
evaporators in some air-conditioning and refrigeration applications; in waste heat recovery
applications with heat recovery from liquids and condensing fluids; and in environmental
control.

Heat Transfer

5.6.3 DESCRIPTION OF INTERNAL PARTS OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT

EXCHANGERS

5.6.3.1 TUBES

Round tubes in various shapes are used in shell-and-tube exchangers. Most common are the tube
bundles (A tube bundle is an assembly of tubes, baffles, tube sheets and tie rods, and support
plates and longitudinal baffles, if any) with straight and U tubes (figure of shell and tube heat
exchangers above) used in process and power industry exchangers. However, sine-wave bend, J-
shape, L-shape or hockey sticks, and inverted hockey sticks are used in advanced nuclear
exchangers to accommodate large thermal expansion of the tubes. Serpentine, helical, and
bayonet are other tube shapes (shown in figure given below) that are used in shell-and-tube
exchangers. In most applications, tubes have single walls, but when working with radioactive,

reactive, or toxic fluids and potable water, double-wall tubing is used. In most applications, tubes
are bare, but when gas or low-heat-transfer coefficient liquid is used on the shell side, low-height
fins (low fins) are used on the shell side. Also, special high-flux-boiling surfaces employ
modified low-fin tubing. These are usually integral fins made from a thick-walled tube, shown in
figure given below. Tubes are drawn, extruded, or welded, and they are made from metals,
plastics, and ceramics, depending on the applications

Heat Transfer

5.6.3.2 SHELLS

The shell is a container for the shell fluid. Usually, it is cylindrical in shape with a circular cross
section, although shells of different shapes are used in specific applications and in nuclear heat
exchangers to conform to the tube bundle shape. The shell is made from a circular pipe if the
shell diameter is less than about 0. 6m (2 ft) and is made from a metal plate rolled and welded
longitudinally for shell diameters greater than 0. 6m (2 ft). Seven types of shell configurations,
standardized by TEMA (1999), are E, F, G, H, J, K, and X, shown in Fig. 1. 6. The E shell is the
most common, due to its low cost and simplicity, and has the highest log-mean temperature-
difference correction factor F. Although the tubes may have single or multiple passes, there is
one pass on the shell side. To increase the mean temperature difference and hence exchanger
effectiveness, a pure counter flow arrangement is desirable for a two-tube-pass exchanger. This
is achieved by use of an F shell having a longitudinal baffle and resulting in two shell passes.
Split- and divided-flow shells, such as G, H, and J (see figure given for front and rear type heat
exchangers), are used for specific applications, such as thermosyphon boiler, condenser, and
shell-side low pressure drops. The K shell is a kettle reboiler used for pool boiling applications.
The X shell is a cross flow exchanger and is used for low pressure drop on the shell side and/or
to eliminate the possibility of flow-induced vibrations.

5.6.3.3 NOZZLES

The entrance and exit ports for the shell and tube fluids, referred to as nozzles, are pipes of
constant cross section welded to the shell and channels. They are used to distribute or collect the
fluid uniformly on the shell and tube sides. Note that they differ from the nozzle used as a fluid
metering device or in jet engines, which has a variable flow area along the flow length.

5.6.3.4 FRONT AND REAR END HEADS

These are used for entrance and exit of the tube fluid; in many rear-end heads, a provision has
been made to take care of tube thermal expansion. The front-end head is stationary, while the
rear-end head could be either stationary (allowing for no tube thermal expansion) or floating,
depending on the thermal stresses between the tubes and shell. The major criteria for selection of
the front-end head are cost, maintenance and inspection, hazard due to mixing of shell and tube
fluids, and leakage to ambient and operating pressures. The major criteria for selection of the
rear-end head are the allowance for thermal stresses, a provision to remove the tube bundle for
cleaning the shell side, prevention of mixing of tube and shell fluids, and sealing any leakage
path for the shell fluid to ambient.

Heat Transfer

5.6.3.5 BAFFLES

Baffles may be classified as transverse and longitudinal types. The purpose of longitudinal
baffles is to control the overall flow direction of the shell fluid such that a desired overall flow
arrangement of the two fluid streams is achieved. For example, F, G, and H shells have
longitudinal baffles. Transverse baffles may be classified as plate baffles and grid (rod, strip, and
other axial-flow) baffles. Plate baffles are used to support the tubes during assembly and
operation and to direct the fluid in the tube bundle approximately at right angles to the tubes to
achieve higher heat transfer coefficients. Plate baffles increase the turbulence of the shell fluid
and minimize tube-to-tube temperature differences and thermal stresses due to the cross flow.
Shown in Fig. are single- and multi segmental baffles and disk and doughnut baffles.

Single- and double-segmental baffles are used most frequently due to their ability to assist
maximum heat transfer (due to a high-shell-side heat transfer coefficient) for a given pressure
drop in a minimum amount of space. Triple and no-tubes-in-window segmental baffles are used
for low-pressure-drop applications. The choice of baffle type, spacing, and cut is determined
largely by flow rate, desired heat transfer rate, allowable pressure drop, tube support, and flow-
induced vibrations. Disk and doughnut baffles / support plates are used primarily in nuclear heat
exchangers. These baffles for nuclear exchangers have small perforations between tube holes to

Heat Transfer

allow a combination of cross flow and longitudinal flow for lower shell-side pressure drop. The
combined flow results in a slightly higher heat transfer coefficient than that for pure longitudinal
flow and minimizes tube-to-tube temperature differences. Rod (or bar) baffles, the most common
type of grid baffle, used to support the tubes and increase the turbulence of the shell fluid, are
shown in figure given below.

The flow in a rod baffle heat exchanger is parallel to the tubes, and flow-induced vibrations are
virtually eliminated by the baffle support of the tubes. One alternative to a rod baffle heat
exchanger is the use of twisted tubes (after flattening the circular tubes, they are twisted).
Twisted tubes pro-vide rigidity and eliminate flow-induced tube vibrations, can be cleaned easily
on the shell side with hydro jets, and can be cleaned easily inside the tubes, but cannot be re-
tubed. Low-finned tubes are also available in a twisted-tube configuration. A helical baffle shell-
and-tube exchanger with baffles as shown in figure given below, also has the following
advantages: a lower shell-side pressure drop while maintaining the high heat transfer coefficient

Heat Transfer

of a segmental exchanger, reduced leakage streams, and elimination of dead spots and
recirculation zones (thus reducing fouling). Every shell-and-tube exchanger has transverse
baffles except for X and K shells, which have support plates because the sole purpose of these
transverse baffles is to support the tubes.

5.6.3.6 TUBE SHEETS

These are used to hold tubes at the ends. A tube sheet is generally a round metal plate with holes
drilled through for the desired tube pattern, holes for the tie rods (which are used to space and
hold plate baffles), grooves for the gaskets, and bolt holes for flanging to the shell and channel.
To prevent leakage of the shell fluid at the tube sheet through a clearance between the tube hole
and tube, the tube-to-tube sheet joints are made by many methods, such as expanding the tubes,
rolling the tubes, hydraulic expansion of tubes, explosive welding of tubes, stuffing of the joints,
or welding or brazing of tubes to the tube sheet.

The leak-free tube-to-tube sheet joint made by the conventional rolling process is shown in
below figure.

Heat Transfer

Past GATE Questions on

Concept of Basics of Heat Exchangers

1. Indirect contact heat exchangers are preferred over direct heat exchanges because,
A) Heat transfer coefficient is high.
B) There is no risk of contamination.
C) There is no mist formation.
D) Cost of equipment is lower.

2. In a heat exchanger, floating head is provided to –

A) facilitate cleaning of the exchanger,
B) increase the heat transfer area,
C) relieve stresses caused by thermal expansion,
 T  T  
2 k  i n 
q  2 
r 
ln  i 
 rn 
D) increase the log mean temperature gradient,

3. The overall heat transfer coefficient for a shell and tube heat exchanger for clean surfaces
is U0 = 400 W/m2K. The fouling factor after one year of operation is found to be hdo =
2000 W/m2K. The overall heat transfer coefficient at this time is
A) 1200 W/m2K B) 894 W/m2K C) 333 W/m2K D) 287 W/m2K

Heat Transfer

4. Air is to be heated by condensing steam. Two heat exchangers are available : (i) a shell
and tube heat exchanger, and (ii) a finned tube heat exchanger. Tube side heat transfer
area is equal in both cases. The recommended arrangement is
A) finned tube heat exchanger with air inside and steam outside.
B) finned tube heat exchanger with air outside and steam inside.
C) shell and tube heat exchanger with air inside tubes and steam shell side.
D) shell and tube heat exchanger with air on shell side and steam inside tubes.

5. Baffles are used in heat exchangers in order to

A) increase the tube side fluid’s heat transfer coefficient
B) promote vibration in the heat exchanger
C) promote cross flow and turbulence in the shell side fluid
D) prevent shell expansion due to thermal effects.

Answer Key:

1-B 2-B 3-C 4-B 5-C

Explanatory Answer:

3. Ans: (C)

Explanation: Given, Uo = 400 W/(m2 – K)

hdo = 2000 W/(m2 – K)
The overall heat transfer coefficient with fouling factor can be written as
1 1 1
 
U U o h do
1 1 1
 
U 400 2000
2000
U=
6
U = 333 W/ (m2 – K)
4. Ans: (B)

Explanation: Two heat exchanger are given i. e. shell and tube heat exchanger, finned tube heat
exchanger. The recommended arrangement would be to use finned tube heat exchanger with air
outside and steam inside.

5. Ans: (C)

Explanation: Baffles are used in the heat exchanger in order to promote cross flow and
turbulence in the shell side fluid.

Heat Transfer

5. 7 Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

 Known as concentric tube heat exchanger

 Types of flow
1) Counter flow: two fluids in double pipe flow in opposite direction.

2) parallel flow: two fluids in double pipe flow in parallel direction

In general heat transfer in heat exchanger usually expressed with overall heat transfer
coefficient Uo (dimension: W/m2. K), based on outside surface area Ao.

The heat transfer from heat exchanger

the temperature difference ∆t in eqn. 7. 3 is referred to as

log mean temperature difference(LMTD), defined as

Here uppercase T signifies the warmer fluid and 1 subcript denotes inlet condition. Lower
case t refers to the cooler fluid, and "2" subscript denotes exit condition. LMTD means
log mean temperature difference.

Comparison of Counterflow and Parallel flow Configuration

Problem :
If T1 = 100 ℃, t1 = 25℃, T2 = 100℃, t2 = 25oC. Calculated LMTD for counter flow and for
LMTD parallel flow in oC?
A)54. 8 and 52. 5 B) 54. 8 and 0 C) 0 and 52. 5 D) 75 and 75
Ans. A

Heat Transfer

Problem:

In a food processing plant a brine solution is heated from 6°C to 12°C in a double-pipe heat
exchanger by water entering at 50 ⁰C and leaving at 40 ⁰C at the rate of 0. 166 kgh. If the overall
heat transfer coefficient is 850 W/m2⁰C, what heat exchanger area is required for parallel flow
DATA: cp of water = 4. 180 kJ/kg. K,
A) 2. 31 B) 23. 1 C) 231 D) 0. 231
Ans. D

Problem:

Hot oil is used to heat water, flowing at the rate of 0. 1 kg/s, from 40 ⁰C to 80 ⁰C in a counter
flow double-pipe heat exchanger. For an overall heat transfer coefficient of 300 W/m2. K, find
the heat transfer area if the oil enters at 105Cand leaves at 70 C. DATA: cp of water = 4. 184
kJ/kg. K,

A) 2. 03 B) 2. 83 C) 2. 58 D) 1. 82

Ans. A

Problem:

Hot oil (cp, = 2. 09 kJ/kg. K) flows through a counter flow heat exchanger at the rate of 0. 63
kg/s. It enters at 193 ⁰C and leaves at 65 ⁰C. Cold oil (cp = 1. 67kJ1kg. K) exits at 149 "C at the
rate of 1. 0kg/s. What area is required to handle the load if the overall heat transfer coefficient
based on the inside area is 0. 7 kW/m2. K?
A) 6. 2 B) 8. 5 C) 5. 2 D) 4. 5

Ans. B

Heat Transfer

Past GATE Questions on

Concept of Heat Exchangers

1. For a counter-current heat exchanger with Tih = 80C, Toc = 60C, Toh = 50C, and Tic =
30C, and the temperature difference between the two streams being the same everywhere
along z, the direction of flow of the hot fluid, the temperature profile should satisfy
d 2T d 2T d 2T dT
A) 0 B) 0 C) 0 D) 0
dz 2 dz 2 dz 2 dz

2. A countercurrent flow double pipe heat exchanger is used to heat water flowing at 1 kg/s
from 400C to 800C. Oil is used for heating and its temperature changes from 1000C to
700C. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 300 W/(m20C). . If it is replaced by a 1-2
shell and tube heat exchanger with countercurrent flow configuration with water flowing
in shell and oil flowing in the tube, what is the excess area required with respect to the
double pipe heat exchanger ?

The correction factor, Ft for LMTD (log mean temperature difference) based on the
above double pipe heat exchanger is 0. 5. The heat transfer coefficient remains
unchanged, and the same inlet and outlet conditions are maintained.
CP, water = 4180 J/kg0C, CP, oil = 2000 J/kg 0C,

A) 0 m2 B) – 20. 15 m2 C) 22. 6 m2 D) 9. 69 m2

3. A double-pipe heat exchanger is to be designed to heat 4 kg/s of a cold feed from 20 to

40°C using a hot stream available at 160°C and a flow rate of 1 kg/s. The two streams
have equal specific heat capacities and the overall heat transfer coefficient of the heat
exchanger is 640 W/m2. K. Then the ratio of the heat transfer areas require for the co-
current to counter-current modes of operations is
A) 0. 73 B) 0. 92 C) 1. 085 D) 1. 25

Heat Transfer

Answer Key:

1-B 2-C 3-C

Explanatory Answer:

2. Ans: (C)

Explanation: Case I

(  T)LMTD =
100  80   70  40 
 100  80 
In  
 70  40 
(  T)LMTD = 24. 660C
Applying the energy balance,
Q = UA (  T)LMTD = mw Cpw  Tw … (i)
Here, U = 300 W/ (m2 – 0C)
mw = 1 kg/s, Cpw = 4180 J/ (kg – 0C)
0
 Tw = 80 – 40 = 40 C
Putting values,
300  A  24. 66 = 1  4180  40
A = 22. 59 m2
Case II
Given, Ft = 0. 5
 (  T)LMTD = 0. 5  24. 66
= 12. 330C
From Eq. (i),
m w Cpw Tw
A’ =
U   T LMTD
1  4180  40
A’ =
300  12.33
A’ = 45. 19 m2
Excess area required = A’ – A
= 45. 19 – 22. 59
= 22. 6 m2
3. Ans: (C)

Explanation: Let T be the outlet temperature of hot fluid.

Applying the energy balance,
4  Cp1  (40 – 20) = 1  Cp2  (160 – 7)
Given, Cp1 = Cp2
 4  20 = 160 – T

Heat Transfer

T = 800C
(  T)co – current =  T1 =
160  20   80  40 
 160  20 
In  
 80  40 

0
 T1 = 79. 82 C
160  40   80  20 
(  T)counter – current =  T2 =
 160  40 
In  
 80  20 
 T2 = 86. 560C

Now, Q = US  T
Since, Q and U are same for both co – current and counter – current conditions.
Aco current T
  counter current
A counter current Tco current
86.56
=
79.82
= 1. 085

5. 8 Multipass Flow Arrangements In Shell And Tube Heat Exchangers

In order to increase the surface area for convection relative to the fluid volume, it is common to
design for multiple tubes within a single heat exchanger. With multiple tubes it is possible to
arrange to flow so that one region will be in parallel and another portion in counter flow. An
arrangement where the tube side fluid passes through once in parallel and once in counter flow is
shown in the Figure 7. 4. Normal terminology would refer to this arrangement as a 1-2 pass heat
exchanger, indicating that the shell side fluid passes through the unit once, the tube side twice.
By convention the number of shell side passes is always listed first.

Multipass flow arrangement

Heat Transfer

The primary reason for using multipass designs is to increase the average tube side fluid velocity
in a given arrangement. In a two pass arrangement the fluid flows through only half the tubes and
any one point, so that the Reynold’s number is effectively doubled. Increasing the Reynolds’s
number results in increased turbulence, increased Nusselt numbers and, finally, in increased
convection coefficients. Even though the parallel portion of the flow results in a lower effective
T, the increase in overall heat transfer coefficient will frequently compensate so that the overall
heat exchanger size will be smaller for a specific service. The improvement achievable with
multipass heat exchangers is substantially large. Accordingly, it is a more accepted practice in
modern industries compared to conventional true parallel or counter flow designs.

The LMTD formulas developed earlier are no longer adequate for multipass heat exchangers.
Normal practice is to calculate the LMTD for counter flow, LMTDcf, and to apply a correction
factor, FT as used in equation 1 in shell and tube heat exchanger description such that:

 eff  FT  LMTDCF

The correction factors, FT, can be found theoretically and presented in analytical form. The
equation given below has been shown to be accurate for any arrangement having 2, 4, 6, . . . . .,
2n tube passes per shell pass to within 2%.

 1 P 
Z 2  1 ln 
FT  1  Z  P 

 2  P Z 1 Z 2 1
 Z  1 ln 
 
 
2  P Z 1 Z 2 1  
where the capacity ratio, R, is defined as:

T1  T2
Z
t2  t1

The effectiveness may be given by the equation:

1  X 1/ N shell
P
R  X 1/ N shell

Provided that R  1. In the case that R = 1, the effectiveness is given by:

Heat Transfer

H
P
N shell   H   N shell  1

where

t2  t1
H 
T1  t1

and

Po  R  1
X
Po  1

Temperature length curves a) 1-2 exchanger b) 2-4 heat exchanger

Heat Transfer

Past GATE Questions on

Concept of multiple pass

1. The advantage of using a 1-2 shell and tube heat exchanger over a 1-1 shell and tube heat
exchanger is –
A. Lower tube side pressure drop,
B. Lower shell side pressure drop,
C. Higher tube side heat transfer coefficient,
D. Higher shell side heat transfer coefficient,

2. A process fluid has to be cooled from 220C to 20C using brine in a 2-4 shell and tube heat
exchanger shown below. The brine enters at –30C and leaves at 70C. The overall heat
transfer coefficient is 500 W/m2 K). The design heat load is 30 kW. The brine flows on
the tube side and the process fluid on the shell side. The heat transfer area in m2 is

A) 1. 1 B) 5. 77 C) 6. 59 D) 7. 53

Heat Transfer

Answer Key:
1-C 2-D

Explanatory Answer:
2. Ans: (D)
Explanation: Given, T1 = 2200C, T2 = 200C
t1 = – 300C, t2 = 700C
t 2  t1
p=
T1  t1
7   3 
p=
22   3
p = 0. 4
T1  T2
And R=
t 2  t1
22  2
R= =2
7   3 
For these values of P = 0. 4 and R = 2, it can be seen
from the graph that, F = 0. 87
 22  7   2   3
Now, (  T)LMTD =
 22  7 
In  
 2   3 
= 9. 1
And true LMTD,
(  T’)LMTD = F  (  T)LMTD
= 0. 87  9. 1
= 7. 92
Heat transfer,
Q = UA (  T’)LMTD
Here, Q = 30 kW = 30000 W
U = 500 W/ (m2 – K)
Putting values,
30000 = 500  A  7. 92
A  7. 53 m2

Heat Transfer

Problem:

A brine solution is heated from 6 C to 30 C in a one-shell-pass (hot water)-two-tube pass (brine)

heat exchanger. The hot water enters at 55 C and exits at 40 C. The water flow rate is 0. 25 kg/s,
and the overall heat transfer coefficient is U = 900 W/m2-K. What heat exchanger area is
required?
A) 0. 647 B) 0. 852 C) 6. 47 D) 8. 52

Ans. A

Problem:

A crossflow heat exchanger with both fluids unmixed is used to heat water (c,, = 4. 181 kJ/kg. K)
from 40 C to 80 C, flowing at the rate of 1. 0kg/s. What is the overall heat transfer coefficient if
hot engine oil (c,, = 1. 9 kJ/kg-K), flowing at the rate of 2. 6 kg/s, enters at l00 C? The heat
transfer area is 20 m2.
A) 0. 45 B) 0. 65 C) 0. 85 D) 0. 25

Ans. A

Heat Transfer

5. 9 Design Consideration of Condensers

Shell And Tube Heat Exchangers

 Generally in Shell side : steam, tube side: coolant

 Equipment in horizontal

 Provision for Thermal expansion by construction of floating head

 Operating at vacuum

Dehumidifying Condensers

 For mixture of vapor

 Equipment is vertical

 Shell-side: coolant, Tube-side: Vapor

Past GATE Questions on

Concept of design consideration of condensers

1. In a heat exchanger with steam outside the tubes, a liquid gets heated to 45⁰C when it is
flow velocity in the tubes is 2 m /s. If the flow velocity is reduced to 1 m /s, other things
remaining the same, the temperature of the exit liquid will be,
A) Less than 45°C B) Equal to 45°C C) Greater than 45°C
D) Initially decreases and remains constant thereafter.

2. For shell-and-tube heat exchanger, with increasing heat transfer area, the purchased cost
per unit heat transfer area
A) increases B) decreases C) remains constant
D) passes through a maxima

3. If the baffle spacing in a shell and tube heat exchanger increases, then the Reynolds
number of the shell side fluid
A) Remains unchanged
B) Increases
C) Increases or decreases depending on No. of shell passes
D) Decreases

Heat Transfer

4. A process stream of dilute aqueous solution flowing at the rate of 10 kg s– 1 is to be

heated. Steam condensate at 950C is available for heating purpose, also at a rate of 10 kg
s– 1. A 1 – 1 shell and tube heat exchanger is available. The best arrangement is
A) counter flow with process stream on shell side
B) counter flow with process stream on tube side
C) parallel flow with process stream on shell side
D) parallel flow with process stream on tube side

5. Steam is to be condensed in a shell and tube heat exchanger, 5 m long with a

shell diameter of 1 m. Cooling water is to be used for removing the hat. Heat transfer
coefficient for the cooling water, whether on shell side or tube side, is made. The best
arrangement is
A) vertical heat exchanger with steam on tube side
B) vertical heat exchanger with steam on shell side
C) horizontal heat exchanger with steam on tube side
D) horizontal heat exchanger with steam on shell side

6. Hot water (0. 01 m3 /min) enters the tube side of a co-current shell and tube heat
exchanger at 800C and leaves at 500C. Cold oil (0. 05 m3/min) of density 800 kg/m3 and
specific heat of 2 kJ/(kg K) enters at 200C. The log mean temperature difference in 0C is
approximately.
A) 32 B) 37 C) 45 D) 50

7. The following list of options P, Q, R and S are some of the important considerations in
the design of a shell and tube heat exchanger. Square pitch permits the use of more tubes
in a given shell diameter the tube side clearance should not be less than one fourth of the
tube diameter baffle spacing is not greater than the diameter of the shell or less than one-
fifth of the shell diameter. The pressure drop on the tube side is less than 10 psi. Pick out
the correct combination of ‘TRUE’ statements from the following.
A) P, Q and R B) Q, R and S
C) R, S and P D) P, Q, S and S

8. Which ONE of the following statements about baffles in a shell and tube heat exchanger
is FALSE? Baffles
A) act as a support to the tube bundle
B) reduce the pressure drop on the shell-side
C) alter the shell-side flow pattern
D) help in increasing the shell-side heat transfer coefficient

Heat Transfer

9. Hot oil at 150°C is used to preheat a cold fluid at 30°C in a 1 : 1 shell and tube heat
exchanger. The exit temperature of the hot oil is 110°C. Heat capacities (product of mass
flow rate and specific heat capacity) of both the streams are equal. The heat duty is 2 kW.
(a) Under co-current flow conditions, the overall heat transfer resistance (1/UA) is
A) 0. 4°C/W B) 0. 04°C/W C) 0. 36°C/W D) 0. 036°C/W

(b) Under counter-current flow conditions, the overall heat transfer resistance (1/UA) is
A) 0. 4°C/W B) 0. 04°C/W C) 0. 36°C/W D) 0. 036°C/W

Answer Key:

1-A 2-D 3-D 4-A 5-B 6-A 7-B 8-B 9(a)-D 9(b)-B

Explanatory Answer:

3. Ans: (D)

Explanation: If the baffle spacing in a shell and tube heat exchanger increases, the Reynolds
number of the shell – side fluid decreases.

4. Ans: (A)
Explanation:
The best arrangement applicable in this case would be counter flow with process stream on shell
side

5. Ans: (B)
Explanation: The best arrangement in this case would be to use vertical heat exchanger with
steam on shell side

6. Ans: (A)
Explanation: Given, Vw = 0. 01 m3/min, Ti, w = 800C, To, w = 500C
Voil = 0. 05 m3/min, poil = 800 kg/m3,
Cp, oil = 2 kJ/(kg – K), Ti, oil – 200C, To, oil = ?
Applying the energy balance,
mw Cp, w  Tw = moil Cp, oil  Toil
pw Vw Cp, w  Tw = poil Voil Cp, oil  Toil
1000  0. 01  4. 18  (80 – 50)
= 800  0. 05  2  (To, oil – 20)
To, oil = 35. 6750C

Heat Transfer

Now, log mean temperature difference,

(  T)LMTD =
80  20   50  35.675 
 80  20 
In  
 50  35.675 
(  T)LMTD = 31. 90C

7. Ans: (B)
Explanation: All options are correct except option P because triangular pitch is preferable for
more tubes in a given shell diameter

8. Ans: (B)
Explanation: The pressure drop does not decrease on the shell – side due to the presence of
battles.

9(a). Ans: (D)

Explanation: Applying the energy balance,
m1Cp1  (150 – 110) = m2Cp2  (T – 30)
But, it is given that
m1Cp1 = m2Cp2
 150 – 110 = T – 30
T = 700C
Now,
LMTD, (  T)co – current =
150  30   110  70 
 150  30 
In  
 110  70 
T = 72. 820C
Now, Q = UA  T
Or 2000 = UA  72. 82
1
= 0. 0360C/W
UA

9(b). Ans: (B)

Explanation: For counter – current flow,
0
 T = 150 – 70 = 80 C
 Q = UA  T
2000 = UA  80
1
= 0. 040 C/W
UA

Heat Transfer

5. 9 Design Consideration of Boilers and Calandrias

Kettle type boilers

 Flash vaporization

 Equipment in horizontal

 Tube-side: steam, Shell: Boiling liquid

Calandrias

 Natural circulation or thermosiphon

 Vertical equipment

 Tube: boiling liquid, shell: steam

At atm pressures liquid head does not affect heat transfer coefficients, but at vaccum the liquid
head affects the heat transfer coefficients

Air-cooled exchangers

 Finned tubes

 Shell: air, tube: processed fuels

 Tubes are inclined

This exchanger usually consists of two con-centric pipes with the inner pipe plain or finned, as
shown in below figure. One fluid flows in the inner pipe and the other fluid flows in the annulus
between pipes in a counter flow direction for the ideal highest performance for the given surface
area. However, if the application requires an almost constant wall temperature, the fluids may
flow in a parallel flow direction. This is perhaps the simplest heat exchanger. Flow distribution is
no problem, and cleaning is done very easily by disassembly. This con-figuration is also suitable
where one or both of the fluids is at very high pressure, because containment in the small-
diameter pipe or tubing is less costly than containment in a large-diameter shell.

Heat Transfer

Double-pipe exchangers are generally used for small-capacity applications where the total heat
transfer surface area required is 50m2 (500 ft2) or less because it is expensive on a cost per unit
surface area basis.

Stacks of double-pipe or multi-tube heat exchangers are also used in some process applications
with radial or longitudinal fins. The exchanger with a bundle of U tubes in a pipe (shell) of
150mm (6 in. ) diameter and above uses segmental baffles and is referred to variously as a hair
pin or jacketed U-tube exchanger.

5.10 FLUIDIZED BED HEAT EXCHANGERS

In a fluidized-bed heat exchanger, one side of a two-fluid exchanger is immersed in a bed of

finely divided solid material, such as a tube bundle immersed in a bed of sand or coal particles,
as shown in figure below. If the upward fluid velocity on the bed side is low, the solid particles
will remain fixed in position in the bed and the fluid will flow through the interstices of the bed.
If the upward fluid velocity is high, the solid particles will be carried away with the fluid. At a
‘‘proper’’ value of the fluid velocity, the upward drag force is slightly higher than the weight of
the bed particles. As a result, the solid particles will float with an increase in bed volume, and the
bed behaves as a liquid. This characteristic of the bed is referred to as a fluidized condition.
Under this condition, the fluid pressure drop through the bed remains almost constant,
independent of the flow rate, and a strong mixing of the solid particles occurs. This results in a
uniform temperature for the total bed (gas and particles) with an apparent thermal conductivity of
the solid particles as infinity. Very high heat transfer coefficients are achieved on the fluidized
side compared to particle-free or dilute-phase particle gas flows. Chemical reaction is common
on the fluidized side in many process applications, and combustion takes place in coal
combustion fluidized beds. The common applications of the fluidized-bed heat exchanger are
drying, mixing, adsorption, reactor engineering, coal combustion, and waste heat recovery. Since
the initial temperature difference (Th, i – Tf, i) is reduced due to fluidization, the exchanger

Heat Transfer

effectiveness is lower, and hence"-NTU theory for a fluidized-bed exchanger needs to be

modified.

5.11 FOULING

One generic problem of heat transfer is the effect of surface contamination on heat-transfer
rates, that may be due for instance to chemical attack at the interface between solids in heat
conduction, crust build-up at walls in heat convection flows, or dust deposition in heat radiation
surfaces. Fouling (i. e. dirt and depositions) is detrimental within heat exchangers because it adds
a thermal resistance to heat, it adds a fluid-dynamic resistance to flow, and it is difficult
(sometimes impossible) to clean.

Typical fouling factors used in heat transfer analysis are Rf = 0. 002 m2·K/W for fuel oil, Rf = 0.
001 m2·K/W for flue gases, Rf = 0. 0004 m2·K/W for air and refrigerant vapors, Rf = 0. 0002
m2·K/W for normal liquids, and Rf = 0. 0001 m2·K/W for steam and for water (or sea water)
below 50 ºC. If one fluid is a gas, fouling has a negligible effect on transfer rates.

Fouling is typically due to algae growth on cold surfaces, to salt deposition on hot surfaces, and
to unfiltered dirt clogging. All industrial circuits cooled with natural fresh or sea water, are
subjected to biological fouling (a bio-film settlements of living organisms). Although physical
screening, physical cleaning and chemical dosing can manage to get a long trouble-free
operation, nowadays environmental restrictions may impinge on that; e. g. chemical dosing with

Heat Transfer

chlorine concentrations up to 10 mg/L were common in the past, but now chlorine discharge to
the water environment have been severely restricted.

5.12Heat Exchangers Effectiveness & NTU Definition

Usually, a heat exchanger can be designed by the LMTD method when the inlet and outlet
temperatures of both fluids are known.

Heat Transfer

Problem

A parallel flow heat exchanger is used to cool 4. 2 kg/min of hot liquid of specific heat 3. 5 kJ/kg
K at 130 oC. A cooling water of specific heat 4. 18 kJ/kg K is used for cooling purpose at a
temperature of 15 oC. The mass flow rate of cooling water is 17 kg/min. Take Overall heat
transfer co-efficient as 1100 W/m2K. Heat exchanger area is 0. 30 m2.
Calculate the following.
a. Outlet temperature of hot liquid
b. Outlet temperature of water
c. Effectiveness of heat exchanger.

Solution:

Capacity rate of hot liquid, Ch = mh x Cph = 245 W/K

Capacity rate of water, Cc = mc x Cpc = 1170. 4 W/K
Cmin = 245 W/K
Cmax = 1170. 4 W/K
Cmin / Cmax = 0. 209

Number of transfer units, NTU = UA / Cmin

= >NTU = 1. 34

To find effectiveness ε, refer HMT data book and find the graph as shown below:

Effectiveness, ε = 0. 64 (from the graph)

Maximum possible heat transfer Q max = C min (T1–t1) = 28175 W
Actual heat transfer rate Q = ε x Q max = 18032 W

Heat Transfer

We know that,
Heat transfer, Q = mc Cpc (t2–t1)
= >18032 = 1170. 4 t2 -17556
= >t2 = 30. 40 oC
Outlet temperature of cold water, t2 = 30. 40 oC

We also know that,

Heat transfer, Q = mhCph (T1–T2)
= >18032 = 31850 –245 T2
= >T2 = 56. 4 oC
Outlet temperature of hot liquid, T2 = 56. 4 oC

Heat Transfer

CHAPTER 6
EVAPORATION

6. 1 Evaporator Concepts

Evaporation is a special case of heat transfer to a boiling liquid. This particular heat transfer
application is so common and important that it is treated as a separate unit operation.

The intent is to concentrate a non-volatile solute from a solvent, usually water. This is done by
boiling off the solvent. Concentration by evaporation is normally stopped before the solute
begins to precipitate; if not, the operation is better considered as crystallization.

Evaporation is usually treated as the separation of a liquid mixture into a liquid product
(concentrate or thick liquor) and a vapor byproduct, although in special cases such as water
treating and desalination, the vapor is the product instead of the thick liquor.

Evaporation is similar to drying in that both drives off volatiles, but is different in that the
product is a liquid. Evaporation differs from distillation because both components in a distillation
system are volatile. Evaporation normally produces a single vapor fraction, distillation several.

An evaporator consists of a heat exchanger for boiling the solution and a means to separate the
vapor from the boiling liquid. Different types are categorized by the length and alignment
(horizontal or vertical) of the evaporator tubes. The evaporation tubes may be located inside or
outside of the main vessel where the vapor is driven off.

Because many materials cannot tolerate high temperatures, evaporators often operate at reduced
pressure so that the boiling point will also be reduced.

In many cases, evaporators operate under a vacuum. This means that a vacuum pump or jet
ejector vacuum system is required on the last effect.

Heat Transfer

Evaporators are commonly used in the inorganic and organic chemical, pulp and paper, and food
industries (especially sugar). Examples are the concentration of fruit juices and of NaOH.

6. 2 Performance Measures of evaporators

There are three main measures of evaporator performance:

The performance of a steam heated tubular evaporator is evaluated by the capacity and the
economy.

 Capacity (kg vaporized / time)

Capacity is defined as the no of kilograms of water vaporized per hour. Economy is the number
of kg of water vaporized per kg of steam fed to the unit. Steam consumption is very important to
know, and can be estimated by the ratio of capacity divided by the economy. That is the steam
consumption (in kg/h) is
Steam Consumption = Capacity / Economy
 Economy (kg vaporized / kg steam input)

 Steam Consumption (kg / hr)

Factors affecting Evaporator performance

1) Concentration of the liquid

2) Foaming nature

3) Temperature sensitivity

4) Scale

5) Materials of construction

Economy calculations are determined using enthalpy balances.

The key factor in determining the economy of an evaporator is the number of effects. The
economy of a single effect evaporator is always less than 1. 0. Multiple effect evaporators have
higher economy but lower capacity than single effect.

The thermal condition of the evaporator feed has an important impact on economy and
performance. If the feed is not already at its boiling point, heat effects must be considered. If the
feed is cold (below boiling) some of the heat going into the evaporator must be used to raise the

Heat Transfer

feed to boiling before evaporation can begin; this reduces the capacity. If the feed is above the
boiling point, some flash evaporation occurs on entry.

BOILING POINT ELEVATION

Since evaporators dealing with boiling solutions, and in particular with solutions with non-
volatile solutes, any calculations must account for the effect of boiling point elevation.

The vapor pressure of an aqueous solution is less than that of pure water at the same temperature;
so the boiling point of the solution will be higher than that of the water. This is called Boiling
Point Elevation (BPE) or vapor pressure lowering.

The boiling point of a solution is a colligative property -- it depends on the concentration of

solute in the solution, but not on what the solute and solvent are. When working problems
involving heat transfer to or from boiling solutions, it is necessary to adjust the temperature
difference driving force for the boiling point elevation.

Note that the equilibrium vapor rising from a solution exhibiting boiling point elevation will
exist at a temperature and pressure such that it is superheated with respect to pure vapor. The
vapor rises at the solution boiling point, elevated with respect to the pure component boiling
point. The vapor, however, is solute free, so it won't condense until the extra heat corresponding
to the elevation is removed, thus it is superheated.

At equilibrium, we can write Partial pressure of solvent as 1, then P1 = γ1P1satx1

Where γ1 is activity coefficient of solvent, x1 is solvent mole-fraction, P1sat is vapor pressure of

solvent. If we are dealing with ideal solutions, the activity coefficient is 1. 0, Raoult's Law
applies, and P1 = P1satx1

If the solute is non-volatile, the vapor will be pure solvent, and the total pressure is to be partial
pressure P = P1satx1. If the liquid phase is binary, then x1 = 1-x2 where 2 is solute. So as the solute
fraction gets larger, the vapor pressure of the solvent must be higher to produce the same total
pressure. The only way this can be true is if the boiling point of the solution increases to produce
the needed pressure.

Determination of boiling point of solution

For strong solutions, one can take advantage of Duhring's Rule. The boiling point of a given
solution is a linear function of the boiling point of water at the same temperature. This lets us
plot TBPsolution against TBPwater and get a straight line for each concentration. Another way of
thinking of these plots -- they plot the temperature where the vapor pressure of the solution is

Heat Transfer

equal to some fixed value against the temperature where the vapor pressure of water equals the
same value.

For Duhring Plots to be valid, the range of boiling points must be relatively narrow and the
solution must obey Raoult's Law. A Duhring Plot for the NaOH/Water system is

To use a Duhring plot:

 For a particular system pressure, determine the boiling temperature of pure water. This can
be done from a vapor pressure equation or steam table.

 Enter the plot from the bottom (the water boiling point), trace up to the diagonal line
representing the NaOH fraction, and then trace left to read the solution boiling point from the
vertical axis.

 The boiling point elevation is the difference between the two temperatures.

6. 3 Multiple Effect Evaporators

Evaporators are classified by the number of effects. In a single-effect evaporator, steam provides
energy for vaporization and the vapor product is condensed and removed from the system. In a
double-effect evaporator, the vapor product off the first effect is used to provide energy for a
second vaporization unit. Triple- effect evaporator problems are familiar to generations of
engineering students. This cascading of effects can continue for many stages. Multiple-effect
evaporators can remove much larger amounts of solvent than is possible in a single effect.

Heat Transfer

In a multiple effect arrangement, the latent heat of the vapor product off of an effect is used to
heat the following effect. Effects are thus numbered beginning with the one heated by steam. It
will have the highest pressure. Vapor from Effect I will be used to heat Effect II, which
consequently will operate at lower pressure. This continues through the train: pressure drops
through the sequence so that the hot vapor will travel from one effect to the next.

Normally, all effects in an evaporator will be physically the same in terms of size, construction,
and heat transfer area. Unless thermal losses are significant, they will all have the same capacity
as well.

Evaporator trains may receive their feed in several different ways. The feed order is NOT related
to the numbering of effects. Effects are always numbered according to decreasing pressure
(steam flow).

 Forward Feed arrangements follow the pattern I, II, III. These require a single feed pump
(reduced fixed costs). They typically have reduced economy (higher operating costs) since
the cold feed must be raised to the highest operating temperature. These also tend to have the
most concentrated liquor, which tends to be the most viscous, in the lowest temperature
effects, so there may be difficulties getting a good overall heat transfer coefficient.

 Backward Feed arrangements go III, II, I. These need multiple pumps to work against the
pressure drop of the system; however, since the feed is gradually heated they usually have

Heat Transfer

better economies. This arrangement also reduces the viscosity differences through the system
and so is better for viscous solutions.

 Mixed Feed arrangements offer a compromise, with the feed entering in the middle of the
system (i. e. II, III, I). The final evaporation is done at the highest temperature so economies
are still better than forward feed, but fewer pumps are required than in a backward feed
arrangement.

 Parallel Feed systems split the feed stream and feed a portion to each effect. This is most
common in crystallizing evaporators where the product is likely to be slurry.

Heat Transfer

Past GATE Questions on

Concept of evaporators

1. Multiple effect evaporator has capacity to process 4000 kg of solid caustic soda per day
when it is concentrating from 10% to 25% solids. The water evaporated in kg per day is,
A) 800 B) 24, 000 C) 60, 000 D) 48, 000

2. The advantage of backward-feed multiple-effect evaporators over forward-feed units is

that,
A) Heat sensitive materials can be handled.
B) There is no additional cost of pumping.
C) Most concentrated liquor is at highest temperature.
D) Equal heat transfer coefficients exist in various effects.

3. A multiple effect evaporator as compared to a single effect evaporator of the same

capacity has
A) Lower heat transfer area
B) Lower steam economy
C) Higher steam economy
D) Higher solute concentration in the product

4. A dilute aqueous solution is to be concentrated in an evaporator system. High pressure

steam is available. Multiple effect evaporator system is employed because –
A) total heat transfer area of all the effects is less than that in a single effect evaporator
system
B) total amount of vapour produced per kg of feed steam in a multi effect system is much
higher than in a single effect
C) boiling point elevation in a single effect system is much higher than that in any effect
in a multi effect system
D) heat transfer coefficient in a single effect is much lower than that in any effect in multi
effect system,

Heat Transfer

Answer Key:

1-B 2-C 3-C 4-A

Explanatory Answer:

4. Ans: (A)

Explanation: Multiple effect evaporator system is used because total heat transfer area of all the
effects is less than that in a single effect evaporator system.

6. 4 Evaporator Modeling

In an evaporator, heat is transferred from a heating medium (usually steam) to a solution by

conduction through a solid surface (the tube walls). As the solution boils, mass and heat are
simultaneously transferred into the vapor phase. Consequently, an evaporator model consists of

 an overall material balance

 component material balances

 energy balances (usually one each on the process side and the heating side)

 heat transfer equations

For many evaporator calculations, we are less interested in the behavior of the evaporator as a
function of time than in broad behaviors. As we start looking at longer and longer times,
fluctuations in behavior become less apparent and the system values approach a single operating
point, the steady state. When we consider the steady state system, process variables stop
changing with respect to time, so the time derivatives of the accumulation terms become zero.
This allows us to replace differential equations with algebraic equations, and the steady state
model which results is:

 Steam Side Material Balance msi = mso = ms

 Process Side Material Balance mf = m + mv

 Component (Solute) Balance mf * xf = m * x

Steam Side Energy Balance losses are negligible, then Substituting the result of the mass balance
gives

Heat Transfer

where is the latent heat of the steam.

Process Side Energy Balance

Equations used for modelling of evaporators (Single effect)-

1) Rate of heat transfer, Q = U A (ΔT)

where U –Overall heat transfer co-efficient, W/m2K
A –Area, m2
(ΔT) –Temperature difference between the heating medium and the boiling solvent.

2) Material Balance F = E + P
Where; F –Feed (kg/hr)
E –Vapor (kg/hr)
P –Product (kg/hr)

3) Component balance FXF = PXP

Where; XF–Mass fraction of solute in feed
XP–Mass fraction of solute in Product

4) Energy Balance
FhF+ ShS = EhE+ PhP+ ShC
FhF+ S(hS –hC) = EhE+ PhP+ ShC
FhF+ SλS = EhE+ PhP

Heat Transfer

Where F –Feed (kg/hr)

E –Vapor (kg/hr)
P –Product (kg/hr)
S –Steam (kg/hr)
hF–Enthalpy of feed (J/kg)
hE–Enthalpy of vapor (J/kg)
hP–Enthalpy of product (J/kg)
λS–Latent heat of steam (J/kg)

Problem:
An evaporator operating at atmospheric pressure is fed at the rate of 10000 kg/h of weak liquor
containing 4% caustic soda. Thick liquor leaving the evaporator contains 25% caustic soda. Find
the capacity of the evaporator.

Solution:
Basis: 10000 kg/h of thick liquor leaving the evaporator.
Let m be the kg/h of thick liquor leaving the evaporator.
Material balance of caustic soda:
Caustic soda in feed = Caustic soda in thick liquor
0. 04 x 10000 = 0. 25 x m
m = 1600 kg/h
Overall material balance:
Kg/h of feed = kg/h water evaporated + kg/h of thick liquor
10000 = kg/h water evaporated + 1600
kg/h water evaporated = 8400 kg/h
Capacity of evaporator = 8400 kg/h

PROBLEM:

A single effect evaporator concentrates 10000 kg/hr of a chemical solution from 10 % to 20 %

solids by weight. Feed enters at 30 oC. Saturated steam at 110oC (latent heat of 540 kcal/kg) is
available. Condensate leaves at saturation temperature. The solution boils at 45 oC (latent heat =
570 kcal/kg). Specific heats of all solutions maybe taken as 1 kcal/kg oC. Overall heat transfer
coefficient is taken as 1800 kcal/hr m2 oC. Calculate the (i) Steam consumption rate in kg/hr; (ii)
Heat transfer area.

Answer:
(i) Steam flow rate = 5555. 6 kg/hr
(ii) Area (A) = 25. 64 m2.

Heat Transfer

Past GATE Questions on

Concept of Evaporator

1. It is desired to concentrate a 20% salt solution (20 kg of salt in 100 kg of solution) to a

30% salt solution in an evaporator. Consider a feed of 300 kg/min at 300C. The boiling
point of the solution is 1100C, the latent heat of vaporization is 2100 kJ/kg, and the
specific heat of the solution is 4 kJ/(kg K). The rate at which heat has to be supplied (in
kJ/min) to the evaporator is
A) 3. 06 x 105 B) 6. 12 x 105 C) 7. 24 x 105 D) 9. 08 x 105

Ans: (A)
Explanation: Given,
xF = 0. 2, F = 300 kg/min, xL = 0. 3
TF = 300C
TL = TV = 1100C

Applying the solute balance,

F  xF = L  xL + v  0
300  0. 2 = L  0. 3
L = 200 kg/min
Applying the overall material balance,
F=L+v
v=F–L
v = 300 – 200 = 100 kg/min
The net rate of heat supplied
Q = FCp  T + v 
 = 2100 kJ/kg
Cp = 4 kJ/kg – K
0
 T = TL – TF = 110 – 30 = 80 C
Putting values in the equation,
Q = 300  4  80 + 100  2100
Q = 3. 06  105 kJ/min

Heat Transfer

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