MOLDING OF STANDARD SANDSCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS

BY

ABDULRAIMI YAHAYA ANIVASA 2021/ND/CVE/059

BELLO TALENT MICHEAL 2021/ND/CVE/061

ADEMU RAMOTU OJOCHIDE 2021/ND/CVE/ 062

YUSUF JAFARU ADEIZA 2021 /ND/CVE/063

DUGHUM TORKUMA CHRISTIAN 2021/ND/CVE/064

PROJECT SUPERVISED BY: MR. JUBRIL RUFAI & MR. AYOBAMI

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Standard sandcrete hollow blocks are a type of construction material made from a mixture of sand,

cement, and water. These blocks are widely used in the building industry for various applications

due to their cost-effectiveness and availability. The production process involves molding the

mixture into specific shapes and allowing it to cure and harden over time.

Standard sandcrete hollow blocks revolve around understanding and improving the process of

producing these construction materials. Sandcrete hollow blocks are widely used in the construction

industry for building walls, partitions, and other load-bearing structures. They are typically made

from a mixture of sand, cement, and water, which is molded into the desired shape and then allowed

to cure and harden.

According to Oyekan and Kamiyo (2016), sandcrete hollow blocks are manufactured using a mix

ratio of cement and sand, typically ranging from 1:3 to 1:8. The mix proportion influences the

strength and durability of the blocks, making it essential to adhere to standardized mixing ratios

during production.The raw materials used in sandcrete block production are crucial to the overall

quality of the blocks. It is recommended to use clean, well-graded sand to achieve better compaction

and minimize voids within the blocks (Udoeyo & Oluwafemi, 2013).

During molding, the mixture is placed into a mold and compacted to remove air voids and ensure

uniformity. Adequate compaction is necessary to prevent the formation of weak spots and to

enhance the blocks' load-bearing capacity (Oyekan & Kamiyo, 2016).

Curing is a critical stage in the production of sandcrete hollow blocks. It involves keeping the

blocks moist and protected from rapid drying for a specific period to allow them to gain strength

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gradually. Proper curing ensures the development of optimal compressive strength, which is

essential for the blocks to withstand structural loads (Udoeyo & Oluwafemi, 2013).

The quality of standard sandcrete hollow blocks can vary significantly depending on the production

process. Standardizing the production process is essential to ensure consistent and reliable blocks.

This includes adherence to specified mix proportions, proper compaction, and adequate curing

practices (Oyekan & Kamiyo, 2016).

Standard sandcrete hollow blocks are versatile construction materials widely used in the building

industry. Their quality and performance are influenced by factors such as mix proportions, raw

material selection, compaction, and curing. Adherence to standardized practices is crucial for

producing high-quality blocks that can meet structural requirements and contribute to safe and

durable constructions.

Anosike (2011) opine that Sandcrete technology or Block molding is becoming the backbone of

infrastructural development of every country. Block molding industry is one of the largest

production sectors of the construction industry in Nigeria. Virtually every Local Government Area

has one or more small- or large-scale block production factories. Block production is no doubt a

lucrative venture, if properly managed. At present, numerous block moulding firms have sprung up

in Nigeria to meet with the requirements of construction and infrastructural development as there

are no laid down guidelines as per who is qualified to produce blocks for use in Nigeria (Uzoamaka,

1977; Oyekan and Kamiyo, 2008; Abdullah et al., 2012). In practice, average technical expertise,

materials, tools, machinery and all necessary infrastructures are all that are required to start

producing blocks either for private use or for commercial purpose. Okoli et al. (2008) argue that

apart from manufacturers and entrepreneurs who are producing blocks strictly for business

purposes, quite a number of contractors and clients are also making blocks for use on their

projects. Such contractors and clients employ block makers; provide them with all necessary

materials and logistics to produce the block requirements of their building or infrastructural

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projects, with the sole aim of minimizing production cost and ensuring quality (Oluremi, 1990;

Ogunsankin et al., 2011; Ko, 2011). Sandcrete blocks comprise of natural sand, water and binder.

Oyetola and Abdulahi (2006) added that cement, as a binder, is the most expensive input in the

production of sandcrete blocks. This has necessitated producers of sandcrete blocks to produce

blocks with low OPC content that will be affordable to people and with much gain. The poverty

level amongst West African Countries and particularly Nigerian has made these blocks widely

acceptable among the populace so as to minimize the cost of construction works. The improper use

of these blocks leads to microcracks on the walls after construction. The use of alternative cheaper

local materials as stabilizer will greatly enhance the production of sandcrete blocks with the

desired properties at low cost. It will also drastically reduce the cost of production and consequently

the cost of construction works. A survey by raw materials research and development Council of

Nigeria on available local building materials reveals that certain building materials deserve serious

consideration as substitute for imported ones. Few of these materials includes: cement / lime

stabilized bricks /blocks, sundried (Adobe) soil blocks, burnt clay bricks/ blocks, cast in-situ walls,

rice husk ash (RHA), mud and straw, lime and stonecrete blocks. Some of the problems faced in

construction today can be linked to this masonry unit, which is a major construction material. Poor

quality of building materials is one of the factors responsible for the collapse of buildings.

Hornbostel (1991) posit that it is therefore imperative to ensure that the production of blocks and

bricks are not only standardized but regulated and adequately supervised to ensure quality. Oyekan

and Kamiyo (2011) added that this comes with great challenge in Nigeria due to the large size of the

block manufacturing industry coupled with the fact that most of those involved in block

production are not registered and are inadequately trained. Every industry has its own prospects

and peculiar challenges which if identified and appropriately addressed will help bring about

improvement for developmental purposes (Okpala, 1993; Oyekan, 2001; Rodriguez et al., 2008;

Umaru et al., 2012). Producing good quality blocks comes with quite a number of challenges and

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prospects. It is therefore important to identify these prospects and challenges with a view to

improving and raising the standard of our block industry in Nigeria for the overall benefit of the

construction industry.

1.2 Aim and Objectives

1.2.1 Aim

Molding of standard sandcrete hollow blocks for the construction of a Legacy workshop for the

Department of Civil Engineering at Itakpe Campus with a view to identifying the prospects and

challenges facing the block molding industry.

1.2.2 Objectives of the study

The Objectives are as follows:

i. to explore and optimize the production process of standard sandcrete hollow blocks.

ii. to evaluate the influence of various factors, such as raw material selection, mixing ratios,

molding techniques, and curing methods.

iii. to study the test plan on sandcrete blocks based on workability, drying shrinkage, water

retentively, strength and stress-strain characteristics

1.3 Limitations of the Study

Sandcrete blocks offer many advantages, but their production is not without challenges. One of the

primary concerns is the inconsistency in block quality and strength, often resulting from variations

in the raw materials and the production process itself. Ensuring uniformity in the blocks' properties

is essential to guarantee their structural integrity and safety in general constructions .

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1.4 Significance of the study

Sandcrete hollow blocks play a crucial role in construction, particularly in regions with limited

resources and infrastructure. They are made from a mixture of sand, cement, and water, and can be

produced in different sizes and shapes to meet specific construction requirements. Due to their

affordability and ease of production, sandcrete blocks are widely used in both urban and rural areas,

contributing significantly to building projects, housing developments, and infrastructure initiatives.

production of standard sandcrete hollow blocks is a critical aspect of the construction industry. By

improving the process and implementing standardized practices, we can enhance the quality,

strength, and overall performance of these blocks, thus contributing to safer, more reliable, and

sustainable constructions

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General review on Sandcrete Hollow blocks

Sandcrete hollow blocks , a popular building material in many parts of the world ,have been

extensively studied and analysed for their production processes .The molding stage is a critical step

in creating these blocks. The literature review delves into various aspects of molding sandcrete

hollow blocks, examining the materials techniques ,quality control, and innovations associated with

essential construction process.

2.1.1 materials for Sandcrete hollow block making

The primary materials for molding sandcrete hollow blocks are cement, sand and water. The choice

of these materials and their proportions significantly affects the quality and durability of the

blocks.Reeasrch has shown that using the right mix design , with the appropriate ration of cement to

sand , can enhance the strength and reduce shrinkage cracks in the blocks (Ogunbayo et al.,2018)

2.1.2 Molding Techniques

Molding techniques plays a vital role in determining the final quality of sandcrete blocks.

Traditional methods involve manually filling the blocks models and compacting the mixture using

wooden or metal tampers. However, studies have explored innovative approaches such as the sue

vibrating machines (Ajayi et al., 2017) enhance compaction , reduce air voids, and improve block

strength

2.1.3 Quality control and Testing

Achieving consistent quality in sandcrete blocks is crucial for ensuring the structural integrity of

buildings .Researchers have emphasized the importance of quality control at the monitoring the

water-cement ratio, curing conditions, and block dimensions. Various tests, sieve analysis, and

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water absorption tests are conducted to assess block quality (Onyelowe and

Nwakaire .,2016).Quality control measures help identify and rectify issues early in the production

process

2.1.4 Environmental Considerations

In recent years, there are has been a growing concern for sustainable building practices. Some

studies have explored environmentally friendly alternatives for sandcrete block production.

Research by (Olutoge et al 2020) investigated the use of rice husk ash as a partial replacement for

cement in sandcrete blocks. This is not only reducing the environmental impact but also enhances

certain properties of the blocks

2.1.5 Innovations in Sandcrete Block Molding

Technology has played a significant role in improving the molding process. Innovative approaches

like the use of hydraulic press machines have been explored. These machines provide uniform

pressure during compaction, resulting in blocks with higher strength and reduced surface defects

(Ikechukwu and Ndubuisi,2019).Additionally, research into automated block molding machines has

potential to increase production efficiency and consistency

2.1.6 Challenges in Sandcrete Block Molding

While many studies have focused on improving sandcrete block molding , challenges persist .Issued

such as inconsistent raw materials quality,inadqaute training of blocks makers , and the need for

quality control infrastructure in informal block making settings remains crtical (Dabai and Zubairu,

2019).Addressing these challenges is essential to ensure the widespread production of high quality

sandcrete blocks.

The molding of sandcrete hollow blocks is a fundamental stage in their production, with significant

implications for the quality and durability of these building materials. Extensive research has been

conducted to optimize materials, techniques, and quality control measures. Innovations in

machinery and environmentally friendly alternatives continue to shape the future of sandcrete

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blocks molding. However, challenges related to quality control and sustainability in informal block-

making setting remain. Future research should focus on addressing these challenges while

embracing emerging technologies and sustainable practices to improve the overall quality and

sustainability of sandcrete block production . Therefore the literature provides and overview of the

key considerations and advancements in the molding of sandcrete hollow blocks, serving as a

valuable resource for the researchers, practitioners,and policy makers in the constrction industry #

2.2 Blocks and Bricks molding

Hollow sandcrete blocks have been in use in many nations of the world including Nigeria, playing a

major role in the building industry (Dashan and Kamang, 1999; Al-Khalaf and Yousif, 1984;

Morenikeji et al., 2015). Sandcrete blocks and bricks are masonry units manufactured from a

mixture of cement, sand and water. They are largely used as walling materials in construction of

shelter and other infrastructures. Oyetola and Abdullahi (2006) argued that sandcrete has been in

use throughout West Africa for over 5 decades as a popular building material for preparation of

building blocks and bricks. They posit that it is predominantly used and suitable for load and

non-load bearing walls, or for foundations. The material constituents, their mix, presence of

admixtures and the manufacturing process are important factors that determine the properties of

sandcrete blocks. In Nigeria, 95% of walling materials in buildings are made of sandcrete blocks.

Anwar et al. (2000) put forward that Sandcrete walls have adequate strength and stability, provide

good resistance to weather and ground moisture, durable and easy to maintain. They also provide

reasonable fire, heat, airborne and impact sound resistance. As material for walls, its strength is less

than that of fired clay bricks, but sandcrete is considerably cheaper. Chandrasekhar et al. (2003)

argued that Sandcrete is the main building material used for the construction of walls of most post-

independent buildings in Nigeria. In many parts of Nigeria, Sandcrete hollow blocks are the major

cost component of the most common buildings. The blocks are usually manufactured with the use of

a vibrating machine (Falade, 1997; Cisse and Laguerbe, 2000). A new technology developed in

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South Africa but now used in several parts of Africa known as hydra form technology is also used in

manufacturing sandcrete blocks in Nigeria (Oyekan, 2001). Hydra form block, usually solid, is a

type of sandcrete block that could be stacked together to form a wall without cement.

HYDRA comes from Hydraulic indicating the hydraulic action in manufacturing blocks, while

FORM comes from the formation of interlocking blocks. The main benefit of using Hydra form

Interlocking’ Block for a walling unit is that the interlocking blocks are dry stacked meaning no

mortar is required in 70% of the structure. Nair et al. (2006) opine that the Hydra form interlocking

blocks lock front and back, top and bottom eliminating the need for mortar joints in the super

structures. Interlocking refers to the male and female ridges on the top and bottom as well as front

and back of the Hydra form blocks. Ganesan et al. (2008) added that these ridges lock into one

another to lock the blocks into place. Hydra form blocks lock on 4 sides, front and back; top and

bottom which ensure each block is locked into place. The foundation is laid in mortar as normal;

blocks from the first course up can be dry-stacked. The top 3-4 courses below the roof structure

must be bedded in mortar (ring beam). This secures the wall ensuring each block is perfectly locked

and in place. Original Hydra form Machines are only manufactured in South Africa (Abdullahi,

2006; Eze et al., 2005; Thwala et al., 2012).

Oyetola and Abdullahi (2006) shed light on the utilization of rice husk and rice husk ash as a partial

replacement material or stabilizing agent in building works. Studies carried out to investigate

some characteristics of aha husk ash/ordinary Portland cement concrete. Test results indicate

that the compressive strength for all the mixes containing AHA increases with age up to the 14-day

hydration period but decreases to the 28-day hydration period while the conventional concrete

increases steadily up to 28-day hydration period. Further studies were carried out on rice husk as a

stabilizing agent in clay bricks. In that study, clay bricks were produced with 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%,

5%, and 10% rice husk. Some of the bricks were burnt in an electric furnace to a temperature of

1005°C for about 3-4 hours. Compressive strength and absorption tests were carried out. It was

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concluded that the addition of husk reduces the compressive strength of the bricks and the husk clay

bricks becomes lighter as the percentage of husk clay increases.

Oyekan and Kamiyo (2011) opine that hollow sandcrete blocks containing a mixture of sand,

cement and water are used extensively in many countries of the world especially in Africa. In many

parts of Nigeria, sandcrete block is the major cost component of the most common buildings.

The high and increasing cost of constituent materials of sandcrete blocks has contributed to

the non-realization of adequate housing for both urban and rural dwellers. Hence, availability of

alternatives to these materials for construction is very desirable in both short and long terms as a

stimulant for socio-economic development. In particular, materials that can complement cement in

the short run, and especially if cheaper, will be of great interest.

Oyekan (2001) argued that over the past decade, the presence of mineral admixtures in construction

materials has been observed to impart significant improvement on the strength, durability and

workability of cementitious products. The author added that in the areas prone to flood,

hydrothermal properties of the buildings‘ construction materials are of importance. Also, energy

requirements for residential and commercial buildings are known to be influenced by building

design and by the materials used.

Nair et al. (2006) posit that in both temperate and tropical regions, thermal properties of building

materials are of significant importance to the determination of the heating or cooling load within

the building and hence the capacity of the mechanical equipment required in handling the load.

This is necessary to provide a given level of thermal comfort within the building and over the

annual climatic cycle. Substitution of any of these admixtures is aimed at enhancing at least one of

the properties of the block. However, Yogenda et al. (1988) suggested that rice husk is a residue

produced in significant quantity on a global basis. While it is utilized as fuel in some regions, it is

regarded as a waste in others thereby causing pollution; due to problem with disposal. Hence, it is

beneficial to adopt in an environmentally friendly manner, will be a great solution to what would

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otherwise be a pollutant. When burnt under controlled conditions, the rice husk ash (RHA) is highly

pozzolanic and very suitable for use in lime-pozzolana mixes and for Portland cement

replacement. Effect of RHA blended cement on the strength and permeability properties of

concrete has been investigated by Ganesan et al. On sandcrete block, Cisse and Laquerbe (2000)

observed that the mechanical resistance of sandcrete blocks obtained when unground ash resulted to

increase in performance over the classic mortar blocks. Their studies on Senegalese RHA also

revealed that the use of unground RHA enabled production of lightweight sandcrete block

with insulating properties at a reduced cost. Okpala (1993) partially substituted cement with RHA in

the percentage range of 30–60% at intervals of 10% while considering the effect on some properties

of the lock. The experiment showed that a sandcrete mix of 1:6 (cement/sand ratio) required up to

40% cement replacement and a mix of 1:8 ratio required up to 30%, are adequate for sandcrete

block production in Nigeria. Hence, as a result of the high cost of procuring the rice husk required

for producing large number of blocks needed for an average-size building, and in the light of the

reduced agricultural activities in Nigeria, replacing cement with such high volume of RHA could be

economically counterproductive for local sandcrete block manufacturers thereby defeating the main

purpose of the substitution which is to reduce the unit cost of the block.

2.3 Quality of Sandcrete blocks and bricks

Quality is defined as ―fitness for purpose‖ or compliance with specification (Anosike, 2011,

Taylor, 2002). They authors argued further that it is the overall characteristics needed by a product

or service to satisfy stipulated and implied needs. ISO 8402-1986 standard define quality as "the

totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bears its ability to satisfy stated or

implied needs". In addition, the manufacturing business dictionary, defined quality as a measure of

excellence or a state of being free from defects, deficiencies, and significant variations, brought

about by the strict and consistent adherence to measurable and verifiable standards to achieve

uniformity of output that satisfies specific customer or user requirements.

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 Ogunsanmi et al. (2011) identified quality as one of the three key elements for developing risk

classification model for design and build projects. This therefore follows that quality is a significant

factor that cannot be undermined in the construction of projects. Nunnally (2007) argued that

quality management and quality assurance on the other hand have been adopted to include all

aspects of producing and accepting a construction project which meets all required quality

standards. He further asserts that quality management includes such activities as specification

development, process control, product acceptance, laboratory and technician certification, training

and communication. The author concluded that quality control, which is a part of the quality

management process, is primarily concerned with the process control function. The Standard

Organization of Nigeria (SON) established through Act 56 in 1971 is the sole statutory body

that is vested with the responsibility of standardizing and regulating the quality of all products in

Nigeria including sandcrete blocks. The Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS) for sandcrete block is a

standard reference document developed by the SON which prescribes the minimum requirement and

uses of sandcrete blocks.

Abdullahi (2005) reported that sandcrete blocks are widely used in Nigeria, and other

countries like Ghana, as walling units. The blocks are composed of cement, sand, and water, molded

into a variety of shapes and sizes (Barry 1969). The quality of blocks, however, is inconsistent due

to the different production methods employed and the properties of the constituent materials

used. Blocks are those building units used in the construction of wall and partitions. They are of

sizes and weights that can be easily handled by bricklayers, with the facing surface layer than that of

a brick but conveniently dimensioned.

Hodge (1971) opine that sandcrete blocks are available for the construction of load bearing and non-

load bearing structures. He argued that load bearing blocks must conform to building regulations

which stipulate the amount of solid mineral contained in section—i.e., the total width of block.

Sandcrete blocks are also used in the task of transforming the actual load from the overlaying

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structural element to the foundation. However, the load bearing wall are referred to those walls

acting as supports for the whole structure to transmit the weight to the ground surface underneath it

for stability (NIS 87: 2000; Duncan et al., 2012). Sandcrete blocks possess an intrinsic low

compressive strength making then susceptible to seismic activity. Previous research has shown

dismal results in the production of sandcrete blocks, which have exhibited compressive strength far

below the standard requirement for the construction of houses (Oyekan and Kamiyo, 2008).

Sandcrete blocks have been used for a long time throughout Nigeria (NIS 87:2000). The importance

of the blocks as part of local building materials in the building and construction industry cannot

be overemphasized. Bricks are alternatives to sandcrete blocks. However, the clay suitable for

making high strength bricks is not available everywhere in Nigeria and the clay bricks

produced and presently used in construction are not uniform in quality. Anosike and Oyebade

(2012) put forward that the rapid changes in the use of bricks to block in Nigeria have encouraged

the investigations into the use of sandcrete blocks to be more elaborate. It was also realised that in

some places in Ondo and Ekiti States in Nigeria were occupied by rivers, which make it easier to

obtain river sand rather than clay for making blocks. Also, in Minna communities, sand is easily

obtained from borrow pits and riverbeds situated in the environment which enhance the use of

sand for block making. The word sandcrete has no standard definition; what most workers have

done was to define it in a way to suit their own purpose.

2.4 Standardization and regulation of Quality

In Nigeria, the fulcrum of Standardization and Regulation of quality for all products is vested in the

Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON). Established by Act No. 56 of 1971 and with three

amendments in 1976, 1984 and 1990, SON as a corporate body have the sole responsibility

for National Policy on Standards, Standards Specification, Quality Control and Metrology,

Manufactured Industrial and imported products and services. The Act No. 20 of 1976 which

amended the previous one conferred on the Honorable Minister of Industry the power to declare

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Mandatory Industrial Standards in Respect of products or processes recommended by the

Nigerian Standards Council (UNESCO 2008). The Act No. 32 of 1984 changed the name of the

agency to Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) from Nigeria Standards Organization (NSO).

This was aimed at eliminating conflicting identity with the then Nigerian Security Organization.

Finally, the Act No. 18 of 1990 conferred on SON partial autonomy from the Ministry of

industry. This amendment gave far-reaching transformation to the Organization succession and a

common seal, and may sue or be sued in its corporate name. The statutory functions of Standards

Organization of Nigeria by section 3, subsections (1) of 1971 Act No. 56 are as follows:

i. to organize test and do everything necessary to ensure compliance with standards

designated and approved by the Council.

ii. to undertake investigations as necessary into the quality of facilities, materials and

products in Nigeria, and establish a quality assurance system including certification of

factories, products and laboratories

iii. to ensure reference standards for calibration and verification of measures and measuring

instrument.

iv. to compile an inventory of products requiring standardization.

v. to compile Nigeria Industrial Standards

vi. to foster interest in the recommendation and maintenance of acceptable standards by

industry and the general public

vii. to develop method for testing of materials, supplies and equipment including items

purchased

viii. for use of departments Government of the Federation or State and Private

establishment.

ix. Register and regulate standard marks and specification.

x. To undertake preparation and distribution of standard samples.

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 xi. To establish and maintain such number of Laboratories or other institutions as may be

necessary for the performance of its functions under this Act

2.5 Standard requirements

The Federal Building Code (First edition, 2006) stipulates that the application of all materials and

components used in the construction of buildings must be such that will achieve aesthetics,

durability, functionality, character and affordability (Afolayan et al., 2008; Anosike, 2011).

Locally available building materials should be integrated for their additional advantages of

availability, identity, job creation and affordability. The National Building Code stipulates as

follows:

Sandcrete Blocks: shall mean a composite material made up of cement, sharp sand and water.

i. Blocks shall be molded for sandcrete using metal (wood) molds of: 450mm x 225mm x 150mm

450mm x 225mm x 225mm 450mm x 225mm x 100mm

ii. They are usually joined by mortar which is a rich mix of sandcrete.

Aggregate: This include both coarse and fine, from natural sources, blast furnace slag, crushed

clay and furnace clinker.

Sand: shall be of approved clean, sharp, fresh water or pit sand, free from clay, loam, dirt, organic

or saline water of any description and shall mainly pass 4.70mm test sieve. If lagoon sand is used

this must be properly washed to the approval of the supervisor.

Mix Proportion: Mix used for blocks shall not be richer than 1 part by volume of cement to 6 parts

of fine aggregate (sand) except that the proportion of cement to mix-aggregate may be reduced to

1:4 ½ (Where the thickness of the web of the block is one 25mm or less).

Strength Requirements: Sandcrete blocks shall possess resistance to crushing as stated below

and the 28day compressive strength for a load bearing wall of two or three story building shall

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not be less than:- average strength of 6 blocks, lowest strength of individual block 2.00 N/mm2

(300psi), 1.75N/mm2 (250psi).

Molding: The 28-day compressive strength of a sandcrete block for load bearing wall of two- or

three-story buildings shall not be less than the values given above and shall comply with the existing

NIS specification for sandcrete blocks.

Compaction: Two methods to be applied depending on the availability of materials (tools)

By approval (standard) machine compaction. 2. My metal mold (hand) compaction.

Production/Processing: The sandcrete block shall be cast using an appropriate machine with

cement/sand ratio of 1:6 measured by volume. Where hand mixing is carried out, the materials

shall be mixed until an even color and consistency throughout is attained. The measure shall be

further mixed and water added through a fire hose in such sufficient quantity as to secure

adhesion. It shall then be well rammed into molds and smoothed off with a steel face tool (Okoli et

al., 2008)

Curing: After removal from machine, the blocks shall be left on pallets under cover in separate

rolls, one block high, with a space between each block for at least 24 hours and kept wet by

weathering through a fire watering hose (Anosike, 2011). The blocks may then be removed from the

pallets and the blocks may be stacked during which time the blocks shall be kept wet. The blocks

may be stacked not more than 5 blocks high under cover at least seven (7) days before use after the

previous period

Physical Requirement: Special sizes and shapes of blocks and bricks 11.25mm (i.e. 4½) thick or

less shall be solid with grove and tongued joints. Blocks of greater thickness, than 11.25mm (i.e.

4½) thick shall be hollow of used above damp proof course. Hollow blocks shall be more than

50mm thick. ow blocks shall be used only where vertical steel reinforcement is to be fixed (Eze

et al., 2005.

2.6 Standard Enforcement

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control of building works in Nigeria, there shall be established in all Federal, State and Local

Government Urban Development Agencies, a Code Enforcement Division/Unit in their

Development Control Departments to carry out the following functions: 1. Enforce the provisions of

the Code through the appropriate registered professionals. 2. Implement the provisions of the Code

to secure the intent thereof. 3. Request, so far as is required in the discharge of official duties,

receive the assistance, and cooperation of other officers in all Government Ministries, Departments,

Parastatals, Police and other Law Enforcement Agency.

2.7 Standard production Method

Nunnally (2007) suggested that sandcrete blocks, usually hollow, are manufactured with the use of a

vibrating machine for large scale production and hand mold for small scale production.

Baiden and Tuuli (2004) added that the type of hollow sandcrete blocks commonly produced

and used for construction of buildings in Nigeria are made of a standard mix proportion of 1:6

cement-sand ratio; that is, one part by volume of cement to six parts by volume of coarse sand. The

sizes of blocks produced are 225 x 225 x 450mm and 150 x 225 x 450mm with one-third of their

volume void, and the solid core blocks of size 100 x 225 x 450mm used mainly as non-load bearing

partition walls. In the manufacture of the blocks, hand mixing is generally employed and the

materials are turned over a number of times until an even colour and consistency are attained

(Goncalues and Bergmann (2007).

Water is usually added through a fire hose and it is further turned over to secure adhesion. It is then

rammed into the machine moulds, compacted and smoothed off with a steel face tool. After removal

from the machine molds, the blocks are left on pallets under cover in separate rows, one block high

and with a space between 2 blocks for the curing period. They are kept wet during this period by

watering daily After curing, the blocks are stacked and stored ready for transportation to project

sites for use. Hydra form blocks are composed of soil and mixed with 8-10% cement. In producing

hydra form blocks, laterite soil or “Murrum" is preferred. Generally, you can use soil with 5-35%

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clay and silt content. It is advisable never to use black cotton soil as it contains highly reactive

clay and the blocks will crack when they dry. Uzoamaka (1977) opine that black cotton soil

also contains high amounts of organic material not suitable for block production. Dashan and

Kamang (1999) posit that the Hydra form 220mm block is mostly dry-stacked (except for

foundations, ring beam and lintels) and is suitable for any walls in the structure. The Hydra form

140mm block is a semi dry-stacked block. Slurry is made from fine sand and cement and poured

into the cavities of the 140mm blocks. This locks the structure together creating a firm wall. The

most common application would be internal. The Hydraform 220mm block is mostly dry-

stacked (except for foundations, ring beam and lintels) and is suitable for any walls in the structure.

The 140mm block functions similar to the 220mm block as a dry-stacked block but can save you up

to 15% in material costs. The disadvantage would be the cornering, which must be plastered to

achieve the required load strength (BSI 1992; Nair et al., 2006; ASTM 2004). Hydraform walls

creates a smooth finish that can be left as a face brick finish for outside walls and plastered on

internal walls. Hydraform recommends that outside face brick walls are treated with a water

repellent to protect the outer surface. Paint can be applied directly to the smooth wall or to the

plastered Hydraform wall. There are approximately 37 blocks in one square meter of wall. "Green"

(fresh) Hydraform blocks are stacked and covered with black plastic to avoid moisture loss. The

blocks are then watered daily to create a greenhouse effect, allowing the cement to harden and

the blocks to strengthen. Hydraform recommends 250micron black plastic for curing. Cure your

Hydraform blocks for a minimum of 7 days and allow the block to dry for another 7 days before

building. This will ensure strong good quality blocks. Hydraform recommends that blocks are

cured under black plastic for a minimum of 7 days. Allow the blocks to dry for a further 7 days

before building. Blocks will achieve maximum strength after 28 days. Hydraform recommends a

minimum of 8% cement which once properly cured should yield a Min 7MPa block. This means 12

parts soil to 1 part (UNESCO 2008)

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Materials and Method

Sandcrete block is a composite material which made up of Portland cement (binder), sharp sand and

water. The material constituents, their mix, presence of admixtures and manufacturing process are

important factors that determine the properties of sandcrete hollow blocks and bricks. Cement, as a

binder, is the most expensive input into the production of sandcrete hollow blocks. There are

different materials used in sandcrete hollow block production.

3.1.1 Materials

Fine aggregate (sand): The quality of sand used vary from one locality to the other, but generally

aggregate use include both coarse and fine, from natural sources, blast furnace slag, crushed clay

and furnace clinker. Usually, sharp river quartzite sand free of clay, loam, dirt and any organic or

chemical matter is the ideal. The two predominate types of sand used are white sand and coloured

sand. In some cases, the sands are not completely free from materials such as dust, silt, tree roots

etc. Such sand is sieved to remove the organic materials in them before use. Some manufacturers

make use of stone-dust to improve the quality of their blocks. Sources of sand include pits,

rivers and sea.

Cement: The cement widely used in Nigeria is the Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and the

Dangote Cement with properties conforming to BS 12 (British Standards Institution, 1971)

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Water: In Nigeria, block manufacturers make use of any type of water available. This

includes water from streams, rivers, wells and boreholes. Fresh, colourless, odourless and

tasteless potable water that is free from organic matter of any kind is the ideal.

Molds : wooden or steel in the shape of hollow blocks to hold the mixture while it sets

Wheelbarrow or buckets: this was used to transport materials and mixtures on site

Trowel: this was used to smooth and level the top surface of the blocks

Measuring equipment: equipment such as measuring tapes or rulers was used to ensure consistent

block dimensions

Curing materials: plastic sheets or wet gunny bags was used to cover the blocks and keep them

moist during the curing process

Mixing equipment: Depending on the scale of production, the use of concrete mixer is

recommended for larger quantities.

3.2 Molds types and sizes

Sandcrete blocks are molded using mainly metal molds: There are two main types of blocks molded

in Nigeria which was adopted during the course of this project. They are solid and hollow blocks.

The sizes in length x breath x height includes:

1. 450mm x 225mm x 225mm (hollow)

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2. 450mm x 150mm x 225mm (hollow)

3. 450mm x 225mm x 225mm (solid)

4. 450mm x 150mm x 225mm (solid) 5. 450mm x 100mm x 225mm (solid)

3.3 Mode of production and mix ration

Batching by volume was adopted with the use of wheel barrows, head pans and paint buckets (for

water). The mix ratio varies from 1 bag of cement to 3 to 7 wheel barrows of sand. The amount of

water required is usually determined by trial and error. This ranges from 2 to 4 paint buckets of

water or 3 to 5 wheel-barrows of water depending on the moisture content of the sand. The general

procedure for mixing is as follows. Measure sand and cement unto a concrete platform on the

ground. Mix with shovel about three times. water was added for the fourth time after mixing and

then turn the whole mix about two times.

3.4 Curing

The method generally adopted for curing during the course of this project is sprinkling by exposing

blocks with water 24 hours after de-molding. Long rubber hose with nozzle and plastic bucket was

used. The blocks was spray opening at the workshop once a day for a period of not more than three

days. After removal from the mold, the blocks are manually transported to site where it will be used

for construction of legacy workshop

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