GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY,
ANU JOHNSON
LECTURER IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
ST.MARY’S POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
 SYLLABUS
MODULE 1

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 2
MODULE 2

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 3
MODULE 3

MODULE 4

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 4
REFERENCES

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MODULE 1
✓ Introduction to Soil Mechanics
✓ Physical and Index Properties of Soil
✓ Consistency limits of soil
✓ Gradation of soil
 INTRODUCTION
The term "soil" can have different meanings, depending upon the field in
which it is considered. To a geologist, it is the material in the relative thin
zone of the Earth's surface within which roots occur, and which are formed as
the products of past surface processes. The rest of the crust is grouped under
the term "rock".
To an agriculturist, it is the top layer of earth responsible for supporting plant
life.
To an engineer, it is a material that can be:
✓ built on: foundations of buildings, bridges
✓ built in: basements, culverts, tunnels
✓ built with: embankments, roads, dams
✓ supported: retaining walls
Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering
problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles,
which are produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks, regardless of
whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituents.
Soil Engineering is an applied science dealing with the applications of principles of soil
mechanics to practical problems.
Geotechnical Engineering is broader term which includes soil engineering, rock mechanics
and geology.

SCOPE OF SOIL ENGINEERING

- Vast application in the construction of various civil engineering works.
(i) Foundations- Foundation Engineering is an important branch of soil engineering
(ii) Retaining structures – Soil engineering gives theories of earth pressure on retaining
structures
(iii) Stability of slopes- Soil engineering provides methods for checking stability of slopes
(iv) Underground structures – the forces exerted by soil are discussed in soil engineering.
(v) Pavement design – behavior of subgrade under various loading is studied
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 ORIGIN OF SOIL
✓Formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration or chemical
decomposition
✓Soil may be considered as an incidental material obtained from the geologic
cycle which goes on continuously in nature.
✓The geologic cycle consists of erosion, transportation, deposition and upheaval
of soil.
✓Exposed rocks are eroded and degraded by various physical and chemical
processes.
✓The products of erosion are picked up by agencies of transportation and are
carried to new locations where they are deposited.
✓The shifting of the material disturbs the equilibrium of forces on the earth and
causes large scale earth movements and upheavals. The process results in
further exposure of rocks and GEOTECHNICAL
the geologic cycle gets repeated
ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 9
• If the soil stays at the place of its formation just above the parent rock, it is
known as residual soil or sedimentary soil. Its engineering properties vary
considerably from the top layer to the bottom layer. The properties of bottom
layer resemble that of the parent rock in many respects.

• When the soil has been deposited at a place away from the place of its origin, it
is called transported soil. Its engineering properties are entirely different from
the properties of the rock at the place of deposition
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 10
 FORMATION OF SOILS
Soils are formed by either
(a) physical disintegration or
(b) chemical decomposition
a) Physical Disintegration
- There is no change in the chemical composition.
- The soil formed has the properties of parent rock.
- Coarse grained soils, such as gravel and sand, are formed.
- Occurs due to the following physical processes.
i) Temperature changes – Different minerals of rock have different coefficients of thermal expansion.
Unequal expansion and contraction of these minerals occurs due to temperature changes. When the
stresses induced due to such changes are repeated many times, the particles get detached from the rocks
and the soils are formed.
ii) Wedging action of ice – Water in the pores of cracks gets frozen in very cold climates.
- As the volume of ice formed is more than that of water, expansion occurs.
- Rocks get broken into pieces.
iii) Spreading of roots of plants
iv) Abrasion – As water, wind and glaciers move over the surface of rocks, abrasion and scouring takes
place. It results in the formation of soil
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b) Chemical Decomposition
- Original rock minerals are transformed into new minerals.
- Soils formed do not have properties of parent rock.
- Occurs due to the following chemical processes
i) Oxidation
Within the weathering environment, oxidation of a variety of metals occurs. The
most commonly observed is the oxidation of Fe2+ (iron) and combination with
oxygen and water to form Fe3+ hydroxides and oxides such as goethite, limonite
and hematite. This gives the affected rocks a reddish-brown coloration on the
surface which crumbles easily and weakens the rock. This process is better
known as ‘rusting’.
ii) Carbonation
Carbonation of rock material is caused by carbon dioxide in the presence of
water. Lime stones are very much affected by carbonation.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 12
iii) Hydration
Mineral hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid
attachment of H+ and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral. When
rock minerals take up water, the increased volume creates physical stresses
within the rock. For example iron oxides are converted to iron hydroxides and
the hydration of anhydrite forms gypsum. Another example of hydration is the
chemical decomposition of mineral feldspar in granite to form kaolite.
iv) Leaching
Leaching is the process in which percolating water washes out water-soluble
salts from the soil. Soil produced by chemical weathering of rocks will be
cohesive (silt and clay).
v)Hydrolysis
H+ ions from the water molecules replaces the metallic ions like Ca , Na, K in
rock minerals and soils are formed with a new chemical composition
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 13
 TRANSPORTATION OF SOILS
(1) Water transported soils – Flowing water is the most important agent of
transportation of soils.
- It carries a large quantity of soil either in suspension or by rolling.
- Size of soil particles carried by water depends upon the velocity. The swift
water can carry the particles of large size such as boulders and gravels. With a
decrease in velocity, the coarse particles get deposited. The finer particles are
carried further downstream and are deposited when the velocity reduces.
- A delta is formed when the velocity slows down to almost zero at the
confluence with a receiving body of still water.
- All types of soils carried and deposited by water are known as alluvial deposits.
- Deposits made in lakes are called lacustrine deposits.
- Marine deposits are formed when the flowing water carries soil to ocean or sea
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 14
(2) Wind transported soils – The particle size of soil depends upon the
velocity of wind. The finer particles are carried far away from the place of
formation.
- Soils deposited by wind are known as Aeolian deposits.
- Large sand dunes are formed by winds.
- Loess is a silt deposit made by wind.
(3) Glacier – Deposited Soils – Glaciers are large masses of ice formed by the
compaction of snow.
- As the glaciers grow and move, they carry soils with them.
- Drift is a general term used for the deposits made by glaciers.
- Deposits made by melting of glaciers are called till.
(4) Gravity – deposited soils – soils can be transported through short distances
under the action of gravity.
- Colluvial soils, such as talus, have been deposited by the gravity
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FIELD APPLICATIONS OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

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 Physical and Index Properties of Soil:
Soil as a three-phase system
- Soils are generally composed of three distinct phases. These
are solids, water and air.
- The space occupied by water and air is defined as the void of
the soil.
- The void may be partially or wholly filled by water or air.
- The components parts may be illustrated by a phase diagram.
For convenience, all the solid particles are segregated and
placed in the lower layer of the three-phase diagram. Likewise
water and air particles are placed separately. The three-phase
diagram is also known as block diagram
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(a) Actual soil mass, (b) Representation of soil mass by phase diagram

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PHASE DIAGRAMS
Although the soil is a three-phase system, it becomes a two-phase
system in the following two cases:
(1) When the soil is absolutely dry, the water phase disappears.
(2) When the soil is fully saturated, there is no air phase.

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In a three-phase diagram, it is conventional to write volumes on the left
side and the mass or weight on the right side

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 24
➢VOID RATIO (e)
It is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids. It is expressed as
decimal.
Void ratio = (volume of voids / volume of solids)
e = Vv/Vs .
➢POROSITY(n)
• It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume. It is expressed in
percentage.
• Porosity = (volume of voids/ total volume)
n = (Vv/V) x100
➢Water content (w) or Moisture content
It is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids (dry weight) of the soil mass.

𝑊𝑤
w= x 100
𝑊𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑑
➢Degree of Saturation (S)
It is defined as the ratio of the volume of water in the voids to the volume of voids.
Commonly expressed as a percentage

It is equal to zero when the soil is absolutely dry and 1 when the soil is fully
saturated
➢Air Content (ac)
It is defined as the ratio of the volume of air voids to the total volume of voids.
Commonly expressed as percentage

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➢Percentage Air Voids (na)
It is the ratio of the volume of air voids to the total volume of the soil
mass.
Commonly expressed as percentage

➢Mass Density
The mass of soil per unit volume is known as mass density.
The following five different mass densities are used in soil engineering
(a) Bulk mass density (ρ) – It is defined as the total mass per unit total
volume. Also known as wet mass density or bulk density or density

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b)Dry mass density (ρd) – It is the mass of solids per unit total volume

(c) Saturated mass density (ρsat) – It is the bulk mass density of the
soil when it is fully saturated.

(d) Submerged mass density (ρsub or ρ’) – It is defined as the

submerged mass per unit total volume

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(e) Mass density of solids (ρs) – It is the ratio of the mass of solids to
the volume of solids

➢Unit weight – it is the weight of soil per unit volume. Five different
unit weights are there
(a) Bulk unit weight (γ) – It is defined as the total weight per unit total
volume.

(b) Dry unit weight (γd) – It is defined as the weight of soil solids per
unit of total volume
𝛾d=𝑊𝑠/𝑉

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(c) Saturated unit weight (γsat) – It is the bulk unit weight when the
soil is fully saturated

(d) Submerged unit weight ( γsub or γ’) – It is the submerged weight

per unit of total volume.

(e) Unit weight of solids (γs) - It is the weight of soil solids per unit
volume of solids

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➢Specific Gravity of Solids (G) – it is defined as the ratio of mass or
weight of a given volume of solids to the mass or weight of an equal
volume of water at 40C

Specific gravity of most natural soils falls in the range of 2.65 to 2.80.
The following two terms related with the specific gravity are also used
(a) Mass specific gravity (Gm) – it is the ratio of the mass(weight)
density of the soil to the mass (weight) density of water.

(b) Absolute specific gravity (Ga) – Ratio of mass density of the

absolute solids to the mass density of water.

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➢ DENSITY INDEX OR RELATIVE DENSITY

• The density index is defined as,

ID = (emax – e / emax – emin)
Where,
emax = void ratio in the loosest state
emin = void ratio in the densest state
e = natural void ratio of the deposit
• This term is used for cohesion less soils only.
• When the natural state of the cohesionless soil is in the
loosest form,
emax= e.
FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BASIC SOIL PROPERTIES

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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1
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This is a general equation from which the unit weights corresponding to the
saturated and dry states of soil may be got by substituting S = 1 and S = 0
respectively (as a fraction).

The submerged unit weight γ′ may be written as

35
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1
INDEX PROPERTIES
Index properties are the simple physical properties of the soils, which are
used for classification of soils for various engineering applications. They
indicate a qualitative behavior of soil when subjected to various types of
load. They can be listed as given below:

• Water content
• Specific gravity
• Grain size distribution
• Plasticity properties popularly known as Atterberg limits (Liquid limit,
Plastic limit and Shrinkage limit) and their indices like plasticity
Index, Liquidity Index, Consistency Index, Shrinkage Index.
• In-situ density
• Relative density
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 36
 PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINATION OF INDEX PROPERTIES
➢Determination of water content by oven drying method (BIS)
Equipments:-
• Containers
• Desiccator with any suitable desiccating agent
• Thermostatically controlled oven
• Weighing balance with accuracy of 0.01 gm.

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PROCEDURE:-

1. Clean the container, dry it and weight it with the lid. (W1)

2. Take the required quantity of the wet soil specimen in the container &
weight it with the lid.(W2)

3. Place the container with its lid removed, in the oven at (105oC – 110oC)
for a period of 24 hours. When the soil has dried, remove the container
from the oven using tongs.

4. Find the weight W3 of the container with the lid and the dry soil sample.
The observations are:

Weight of an empty container = W1

Weight of container + wet soil = W2
Weight of container + dry soil = W3

The calculations are as follows:

Weight of dry soil = W3 – W1

Weight of water in the soil = W2 – W3

➢Field density of soil by core cutter method
• The apparatus consists of a mild steel-cutting ring with a dolly
to fit its top and a metal rammer.
• The core-cutter is 10 cm in diameter and 12.5 cm
in length. The dolly is 2.5 cm long. The bottom 1
cm of the ring is sharpened into a cutting edge.
• The empty weight (W1) of the core cutter is found
• The core-cutter with the dolly is rammed into the
soil with the aid of a 14-cm diameter metal
rammer.
• The ramming is stopped when the top of the dolly
reaches almost the surface of the soil.
• The soil around the cutter is excavated to remove
the cutter and dolly full of soil, from the ground.
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• The dolly is also removed later, and the soil is carefully
trimmed level with the top and bottom of the core-cutter.

• The weight of the core-cutter and the soil is found (W2).

• The weight of the soil in the core-cutter, W, is then got as

(W2 – W1).

• The volume of this soil is the same as that of the internal

volume of the cutter, V, which is known.

• The in-situ unit weight of the soil, γ, is given by W/V. If the

moisture content, w, is also found, the dry-unit weight, γd,
may be found as
γd = γ/(1 + w).
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➢FIELD DENSITY BY SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

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 The principle of the sand replacement method consists in obtaining the volume of the soil
excavated by filling in the hole in-situ from which it is excavated, with sand, previously
calibrated for its unit weight, and thereafter determining the weight of the sand required to
fill the hole.

The procedure consists of calibration of the cylinder and later, the

measurement of the unit weight of the soil.

(a) Calibration of the Cylinder and Sand: This consists in obtaining the weight of sand
required to fill the pouring cone of the cylinder and the bulk unit weight of the sand.

− Uniformly graded, dry, clean sand is used. The cylinder is filled with sand almost to be
top and the weight of the cylinder with the sand is taken (W1).

− The cylinder is placed centrally above the calibrating container such that the bottom of the
conical portion coincides with the top of the container. There sand is allowed to run into
the container as well as the conical portion until both are filled, as indicated by the fact that
no further sand runs out; then the shutter is closed.
− The weight of the cylinder with the remaining sand is found (W2).
− The sand is run out of the cylinder into the conical portion by pulling out the shutter.
When no further sand runs out, the shutter is closed. The weight of the cylinder with the
remaining sand is found (W3).
− The weight of the sand filling the calibrating container (Wcc) may be found by deducting
the weight of sand filling the conical portion (W3) from the weight of sand filling the
container (W1 – W2)
− Since the volume of the cylindrical calibrating container (Vcc) is known precisely from
its dimensions, the unit weight of the sand may be obtained by dividing the weight Wcc,
by the volume Vcc.
− The observations and calculations relating to this calibration part of the work
will be as follows:

Initial weight of cylinder + sand = W1

∴ Weight of sand occupying conical portion, Wc
Weight of cylinder + sand, after running sand into the conical portion and calibrating
container = W2
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Weight of sand occupying conical portion and calibrating container = (W1 – W2)
•Weight of sand filling the calibrating container,
Wcc = (W1 – W2) – Wc
Volume of the calibrating container = Vcc
•Unit weight of the sand:

(b) Measurement of Unit Weight of the Soil: The site at which the in-situ unit weight is
to be determined is cleaned and levelled.
-A test hole, about 10 cm diameter and for about the depth of the calibrating
container (15 cm), is made at the site, the excavated soil is collected and its weight is
found (W).
-The sand pouring cylinder is filled with sand to about 3/4 capacity and is placed
over the hole, after having determined its initial weight with sand (W4), and the sand
is allowed to run into it.
-The shutter is closed when not further movement of sand takes place.
-The weight of the cylinder and remaining sand is found (W5).
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 − The weight of the sand occupying the test hole and the conical portion
will be equal to (W4 – W5).

− The weight of the sand occupying the test hole, Ws, will be obtained by
deducting the weight of the sand occupying the conical portion, Wc,
from this value.

− The volume of the test hole, V, is then got by dividing the weight, Ws,
by the unit weight of the sand.

− The in-situ unit weight of the soil, γ, is then obtained by dividing the
weight of the soil, W, by its volume, V.

If the moisture content, w, is also determined, the dry unit weight of the
soil, γd, is obtained as γ/(1+w).
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 46
 ➢ Specific gravity using pycnometer.
− Pycnometer is used for the determination of specific gravity of solids.
− First, the weight of the empty pycnometer is determined (W1) in the dry condition.
− Then the sample of oven-dried soil, cooled in the desiccator, is placed in the pycnometer
and its weight with the soil is determined (W2).
− The remaining volume of the pycnometer is then gradually filled with distilled water. The
entrapped air should be removed either by gentle heating and vigorous shaking or by
applying vacuum.
− The weight of the pycnometer, soil and water is obtained (W3) carefully.
− Lastly, the bottle is emptied, thoroughly cleaned and filled with distilled water, and its
weight taken (W4).
− From the readings, the wt of solids Ws = W2 – W1,
Wt of water = W3 – W2,
Wt of distilled water = W4 – W1
∴ Weight of water having the same volume as that of soil solids = (W4 – W1) – (W3 – W2).
By definition, and by Archimedes’ principle,
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CONSISTENCY LIMITS
Atterberg Limits
Border line water contents, separating the
different states of a fine grained soil

water content
0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid
limit limit limit

brittle- semi- plastic liquid

solid solid

49
The Atterberg limits are based on the
moisture content of the soil.
The liquid limit: is the moisture
content that defines where the soil
changes from a plastic to a viscous
fluid state.
The plastic limit: is the moisture
content that defines where the soil
changes from a semi-solid to a plastic
(flexible) state.

50
51
Liquid Limit Definition
• The water content at which a soil changes from a
plastic consistency to a liquid consistency
• Defined by Laboratory Test concept developed
by Atterberg in 1911.

52
⚫Defined by Laboratory Test concept developed by Atterberg in 1911.

The liquid limit (LL) is arbitrarily

defined as the water content, in
percent, at which a pat of soil in a
standard cup and cut by a groove
of standard dimensions will flow
together at the base of the groove
for a distance of 12 mm under the
impact of 25 blows in the devise.
The cup being dropped 10 mm in a
standard liquid limit apparatus
operated at a rate of two shocks
per second.
53
 LL Test Procedure
• take a sample of
120 gm which is
passed through the
425 microns
• Mix the sample
with unknown
water content
• Place Soil in Cup
54
LL Test Procedure
• Cut groove in
soil paste with
standard
grooving tool

55
 LL Test Procedure
• Rotate cam and
count number of
blows of cup required
to close groove by
1/2”

56
LL Test Procedure
• Perform on 3 to 4 specimens that
bracket 25 blows to close groove
• Obtain water content for each test
• Plot water content versus number of
blows on semi-log paper

57
LL Test Results

Interpolate LL water
content at 25 blows

Log N
25

LL= w%
water content, %
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 Plastic Limit
The minimum water content at which a soil
will just begin to crumble when it is rolled
into a thread of approximately 3 mm in
diameter.

59
Plastic Limit procedure
• Like liquid limit take a sample which is sieved
through 425 microns
• About 20 gm of soil is taken and mix with water till it
becomes plastic
• About 10 gm of plastic soil is taken in one hand and a
ball is formed
• The ball is rolled with fingers on a glass plate to form
a soil thread of uniform diameter

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 Plastic Limit procedure
• When point is reached where thread is cracking and cannot be
re-rolled to 3 mm diameter, collect at least 6 grams and
measure water content.
• Calculate the water content of each of the plastic limit moisture
cans after they have been in the oven for at least 16 hours.
• Compute the average of the water contents to determine the
plastic limit, PL

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 Shrinkage limit
Fig. (a) shows the block diagram of a soil sample when it is fully
saturated and has the water greater than the expected shrinkage limit.
Fig. (b) shows the sample at shrinkage limit. Fig. (c) depicts the
condition when the soil sample has been oven dried

Fig. stages for derivation of shrinkage limit

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 - The total volume V3 in Fig.(c) is the same as total volume V2 in Fig. (b). The three figures
indicate, respectively, stage I, II and III.

where w1 represents the water content in stage I.

- For determination of the shrinkage limit in the laboratory,

i) about 50 gm of soil passing a 425 µ sieve is taken and mixed with distilled water to make a
creamy paste.

ii) The water content (w1) of the soil is kept greater than the liquid limit.
iii) circular shrinkage dish, made of porcelain or stainless steel and having a diameter
30
to 40 mm and a height of 15 mm, is taken. The shrinkage dish has a flat bottom and has its
internal corners well rounded.

iv) The capacity of the shrinkage dish is first determined by filling it with mercury. The capacity
of the shrinkage dish in ml is equal to the mass of mercury in gm divided by the specific
gravity of mercury.

v) The mass of empty shrinkage dish is obtained accurately.

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vi)The soil sample is placed in the shrinkage dish, one-third its capacity. The dish is
tapped on a firm surface to ensure that no air is entrapped. More soil and the
tapping continued till the dish is completely filled with soil. The excess soil is
removed by striking off the top surface with a straight edge.

vii)The mass of the shrinkage dish with soil is taken to obtain the mass (M1) of
the soil.
viii) The volume of the soil V is equal to the capacity of the dish.

ix)The soil in the shrinkage dish is allowed to dry in air until the colour of the soil
pat turns light. It is then dried in an oven.
x) The mass of the shrinkage dish withdry soil is taken to obtain
the mass of dry soil Ms.

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xi) For the determination of the volume of the dry pat, a glass cup, about 50 mm diameter and 25
mm height, is taken and placed in a large dish.
xii) The cup is filled with mercury. The excess mercury is removed by pressing a glass plate
with three prongs firmly over the top of the cup.
xiii) The cup full of mercury is transferred to another large dish.
xiv) The dry pat of the soil is removed from the shrinkage dish, and placed on the surface
of the mercury in the cup merged into it by pressing it with the glass plate having
prongs.
Fig. determination of
volume of dry pat
xv) The volume of the mercury is determined from its mass and specific gravity.
xvi) The volume of the dry pat Vd is equal to the volume of the mercury displaced.

xvii) The shrinkage limit of the soil is determined using the Eq, from the measured values of V1,
V2, M1 and Ms.

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SHRINKAGE PARAMETERS

i) Shrinkage Index - It is defined as the difference between the liquid and shrinkage limits of a soil.
Is = wL – wS

ii) Shrinkage Ratio – It is defined as the ratio of a given volume change expressed as a percentage of
dry volume,to the corresponding change in water content.

where V1 = volume of soil mass at water content w1

V2 = volume of soil mass at water content w2

Vd, = volume of dry soil mass

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 When the volume V2 is at the shrinkage limit,

Another expression for shrinkage ratio (SR) can be found, by expressing the water content

iii) Volumetric Shrinkage – It is defined as the change in volume expressed as a percentage of the
dry volume when the water content is reduced from a given value to the shrinkage limit.

iv) Linear Shrinkage- It is defined as the change in length divided by the initial length when the
water content is reduced to the shrinkage limit.

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Definition of Plasticity Index
• Plasticity Index is the numerical difference
between the Liquid Limit w% and the Plastic
Limit w%
Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

PL w% LL

PI = LL - PL

plastic (remoldable)
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Liquidity index
• The ratio of difference
between natural water
content and plastic limit to
the plasticity index
• When the soil is at liquid
limit, its liquidity index is
100% it behaves like liquid
• When the soil is at plastic
limit its liquidity index is
zero

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•The ratio of difference between liquid
limit and natural water content to the
plasticity index 70
➢ Shrinkage index (IS)
• The numerical difference between the liquid
limit and shrinkage limit

➢ Shrinkage ratio

Ratio of a given volume change expressed as a

percentage of dry volume to the corresponding change
in water content
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 GRADATION OF SOIL
➢COARSE GRAINED SOIL
When 50% or more of the total material by weight is retained on 75 micron sieve.
They are subdivided into gravel and sand. The soil is termed gravel (G) when more
than 50% of coarse fraction is retained on 4.75mm IS sieve, and termed sand (S) if
more than 50% of the coarse fraction is smaller than 4.75 mm ISD sieve
➢FINE-GRAINED SOILS
When more than 5O% of the total material passes 75 micron IS sieve.
They are further divided into three subdivisions, depending upon the values of the liquid limit:
1. Silts and clays of low compressibility- LL less than 35 (represented by symbol L)
2. Silts and clays of medium compressibility – LL greater than 35 but less than 50
(represented by symbol I)
3. Silts and clays of high compressibility – LL greater than 50 (represented by symbol H)
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 72
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 73
Grain Size Distribution
Significance of GSD:
• To know the relative proportions of different
grain sizes.

An important factor influencing the

geotechnical characteristics of a coarse grain
soil.

Not important in fine grain soils.

74
Grain Size Distribution
Determination of GSD:
• In coarse grain soils …... By sieve analysis
In fine grain soils …... By hydrometer analysis

hydrometer

stack of sieves

sieve shaker

soil/water suspension

Sieve Analysis Hydrometer Analysis 75

Sieve Analysis

76
 Sieving procedure
(1) Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in
the analysis.
(2) Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
(3) Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending
order of sieve numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan
below #200 sieve. Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the
cap over it.
(4) Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.
(5) Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight
of each sieve with its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record
the weight of the bottom pan with its retained fine soil.
77
78
79
 Data Analysis:
(1) Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of
the empty sieve from the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this
mass as the weight retained on the data sheet. The sum of these retained
masses should be approximately equals the initial mass of the soil sample. A
loss of more than two percent is unsatisfactory.
(2) Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight
retained on each sieve by the original sample mass.
(3) Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100
percent and subtracting the percent retained on each sieve as a cumulative
procedure.

80
81
For example: Total mass = 500 g,
Mass retained on No. 4 sieve = 9.7 g
For the No.4 sieve:
Quantity passing = Total mass - Mass retained
= 500 - 9.7 = 490.3 g
The percent retained is calculated as;
% retained = Mass retained/Total mass
= (9.7/500) X 100 = 1.9 %
From this, the % passing = 100 - 1.9 = 98.1 %
82
 Grain size distribution
100

% Finer 80

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
83
 Grading curves
100

80

% Finer 60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

W Well graded

84
 Grading curves
100

80

% Finer
60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
U Uniform

85
 Grading curves
100

80

% Finer
60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poorly graded

86
 Grading curves
100

80

% Finer
60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poorly graded
C Well graded with some clay
87
 Grading curves
100

80

% Finer
60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poorly graded
C Well graded with some clay
88
F Well graded with an excess of fines
 100

80
hydrometer sieve

% Passing
60
fines sands gravels

40

D10 = 0.013 mm
20
D
30
D30 = 0.47 mm
D60 = 7.4 mm
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Grain size (mm)

Grain Size Distribution Curve

• can find % of gravels, sands, fines

define D10, D30, D60.. as above.

 To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
D60
Cu =
D10
D302 x% of the soil has particles
Cc = smaller than Dx
( D60  D10 )
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
D90 = 3
mm 90
SIEVE ANALYSIS

- For coarse grained soil (D>75 µ) (Gravel and sand)

- Sieves are wire screens having square openings.

- The sieves are designated by the size of square opening, in mm or microns (1 micron = 10 -6m = 10 -
3
mm)
- Sieves of various sizes ranging from 80 mm to 75 microns are available.

- Coarse sieve analysis – for the fraction of soil retained on 4.75 mm sieve ie. gravel fraction - use
sieves 80,40,20,10,4.75 mm

- Fine sieve analysis- for the fraction of soil passing through 4.75 mm sieve ie. sand fraction - use
sieves 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600µ, 300µ, 150 µ, and 75µ

- Sieves are stacked one over the other with decreasing size from top to the bottom.

- A receiver, pan, is placed at the bottom of the smallest sieve.

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 91
 ( a ) Dry Sieve Analysis- suitable for cohesionless soils , with little ·or no fines.

1. The soil sample is taken in suitable quantity. The larger the particle size, the greater is the quantity
of soil required.

2. The soil should be oven-dry. It should not contain any lump.

3. The sample is sieved through a 4.75 mm IS sieve.

4. The portion retained on the sieve is the gravel fraction or plus 4. 75 mm material.

5. The gravel fraction is sieved through the set of

coarse sieves manually or using a mechanical
shaker. Hand sieving is normally done.
6. The weight of soil retained on each sieve is obtained.
7. The minus 4.75 mm fraction is sieved through the set of fine sieves using a mechanical shaker. The
mass of soil retained on each sieve and on pan is obtained to the nearest 0.1 gm.

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 92
(b)Wet Sieve Analysis-
If the soil contains a substantial quantity (say, more than 5%) of fine particles, a
wet sieve analysis is required.
1. All lumps are broken into individual particles.
2. A representative soil sample in the required quantity is taken and dried in an
oven.
3. The dried sample is taken in a tray and soaked with water.
The slurry is then sieved through a 4.75 mm IS sieve, and washed with a jet of
water. The material retained on the sieve is the gravel fraction. It is dried in an
oven, and sieved through set of coarse sieves.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 93
4. The material passing through 4.75 mm sieve is sieved through a 75 µ sieve. The material is
washed until the wash water becomes clear.
5. The material retained on the 75 µ sieve is collected and dried in an oven. It is then sieved
through the set of fine sieves of the size 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 µ, 300 µ, 150 µ, and 75 µ.
6. The material retained on each sieve is collected and weighed. The material that would have
been retained on pan is equal to the total mass of soil minus the sum of the masses of material
retained on all sieves.

On the basis of the total weight of sample taken and the weight of soil retained on each sieve, the
percentage of the total weight of soil passing through each sieve (also termed as percent finer
than) can be calculated as below:

% retained on a particular sieve = (weight of soil retained on that sieve/ total weight of soil taken) x 100

Cumulative % retained = sum of % retained on all sieves of larger sizes and the % retained on that particular sieve.

Percentage finer than the sieve under reference = 100% - cumulative % retained
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 94
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

- The particle size distribution curve, also known as a gradation curve, represents the distribution
of particles of different sizes in the soil mass.

- The percentage finer N than a given size is plotted as ordinate (on natural scale) and the
particle size as abscissa (on log scale).

- The semi-log plot for the particle size distribution has the following advantages over natural plots.

(1) The soils of equal uniformity exhibit the same shape, irrespective of the actual particle size.

(2) As the range of the particle sizes is very large, for better representation, a log scale is required.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 95
GRADING OF SOILS

- The distribution of particles of different sizes in a soil mass is called grading.

- Grading of soils can be determined from _the particle size distribution curves.
- Fig shows the particle distribution curves of different soils.

• A curve with a hump such as curve A, represents the soil in which some of the intermediate particles are
missing. Such a soil is called gap graded or skip graded. 96
• A flat S-curve, such as curve B, represents a soil which contains the particles of different sizes in
good proportion. Such a soil is called a well-graded (or uniformly graded) soil.
• A steep curve, like C, indicates a soil containing the particles of almost the same size. Such soils are
known as uniform soils.

- The particle size distribution curve also reveals whether a soil is coarse-grained
or fine-grained.
- A curve situated higher up and to the left (curve D) indicates a relatively fine-
grained soil, whereas a curve situated to the right (curve E) indicates a coarse-
grained soil.

- The uniformity of a soil is expressed qualitatively by a term known as uniformity

coefficient, Cu, given by,

where D60 = particle size such that 60% of the soil is finer than this size, and

D10 = particle size such that 10% of the soil is finer than this size.

D10 size is also known as the effective size.

- The larger the numerical value of cu, the more is the range of particles.

- Soils with a value of Cu less than 2 are uniform soils.

- Sands with a value of Cu of 6 or more are well-graded.

- Gravels with a value of Cu of 4 or more are well-graded.

- The general shape of the particle size distribution curve is described by another coefficient
known as the coefficient of curvature (Cc) or the coefficient of gradation (C8).

where D3O is the particle size corresponding to 30% finer.

97
- Cc should be 1 to 3 for a well-graded soil.
EFFECTIVE DIAMETER OF SOIL
Effective Size represents a diameter that directly corresponds to
the percentage, by weight, of grains that equal to 10% on the
grain-size diagram. To illustrate, 10% of the soil sample particles
are finer-grained, and 90% of the sample particles are coarser than
the “effective size.”
UNIFORMITY CO-EFFICIENT OF SOIL
- The uniformity of a soil is expressed qualitatively by a term known as uniformity
coefficient, Cu, given by,

where D60 = particle size such that 60% of the soil is finer than this size, and

D10 = particle size such that 10% of the soil is finer than this size.

D10 size is also known as the effective size.

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 98
− The larger the numerical value of cu, the more is the range of particles.

− Soils with a value of Cu less than 2 are uniform soils.

− Sands with a value of Cu of 6 or more are well-graded.

− Gravels with a value of Cu of 4 or more are well-graded.

COEFFICIENT OF CURVATURE OF SOIL

- The general shape of the particle size distribution curve is described by another coefficient
known as the coefficient of curvature (Cc) or the coefficient of gradation (C8).

where D3O is the particle size corresponding to 30% finer.

- Cc should be 1 to 3 for a well-graded soil.

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 99
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
− Soil classification is the arrangement of soils into different groups such
that the soils in a particular group have similar behaviour.

− If the classification of a soil has been done according to some standard

classification system, its properties and behavior can be estimated based
on the experience gained from similar soils elsewhere.

A classification system thus provides a common language between

engineers dealing with soils

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 100

INDIAN STANDARD CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS
− Indian Standard Classification (ISC) system adopted by Bureau of Indian
Standards is in many respects similar to the Unified Soil Classification (USC)
system.
− However, there is one basic difference in the classification of fine-grained soils.
The fine- grained soils in ISC system are subdivided into three categories of low,
medium and high compressibility instead of two categories of low and high
compressibility
− Soils are divided into three broad divisions:
(1)Coarse-grained soils, when 50% or more of the total material by weight is retained on
75 micron sieve.
(2)Fine-grained soils, when more than 5O% of the total material passes 75 micron IS
sieve.
(3)If the soil is highly organic and contains a large percentage of organic matter
and particles decomposed vegetation, it is kept in a separate category marked as
peat (Pt).
− ISC system classifies the soils into 18 groups: 8 groups of coarse- grained, 9 groups of
fine-grained and one of peat. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 101
 102
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1
1. Coarse-grained soils- they are subdivided into gravel and sand. The soil is
termed gravel (G) when more than 50% of coarse fraction is retained on
4.75mm IS sieve, and termed sand (S) if more than 50% of the coarse fraction is
smaller than 4.75 mm ISD sieve.

2. Fine-grained soils- they are further divided into three subdivisions, depending
upon the values of the liquid limit:
(a)Silts and clays of low compressibility- LL less than 35 (represented by symbol
L)

(a)Silts and clays of medium compressibility – LL greater than 35 but less than 50
(represented by symbol I)

(a)Silts and clays of high compressibility – LL greater than 50 (represented by

symbol H) GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 103
Classification of coarse-grained soils (ISC system)

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 104

Classification of fine-grained soils (ISC system)

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-MODULE 1 105