Language Across The Currriculum - English - For Printing

LANGUAGE ACROSS THE
CURRRICULUM
(As per Syllabus (2021-2022) of Tamilnadu Teachers Education University)
BACHELOR OF EDUCATION (B.ED.,)

– First Year – first semester
Dr. N. Mahalakshmi
M.A.,(English).,M.Ed.,M.Sc.,(psychology).,Ph.D.(Education)NET
Assistant professor Krishnasmy College Of Education,
Manapattu, Puducherry.
S. Perundevi
M.Sc.,M.Phil(physics)., M.Ed., .(Education).,M.Sc., (Applied Psychology)
Assistant professor in Physical Science, CK College of Education,

Jayaram Nagar, Chellankuppam, Cuddalore.
Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications

Sri manakula Vinayagar Note Book Company
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First Edition: March 2022
Price : 253
ISBN : 978-81-950382-8-2
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Syllabus
LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM
UNIT – I: CONCEPTUALIZATION AND PRINCIPLES OF

Language across the Curriculum, meaning, concept goals,

aims, needs and importance of Plurilingualism. – Modes of
human activities involving language – Language Objectives:
relationship between language and thinking – development
of conceptual literacy – Basic tenets of language across the
curriculum. – Principles of language across the curriculum –
integration across the curriculum: personal and pedagogical
integration.
UNIT – II: ACADEMIC AND SOCIAL LANGUAGE
Language: meaning, concept, definitions, aims, objectives

functions and importance – proficiency of home language
and school language – Strategies for Enhancing Language
proficiency: drama, essay, storytelling, group discussion,
peer tutoring – nature of expository texts Vs. Narrative texts
– Transactional Vs. Reflexive texts. Reading comprehension
skills, language skills and literacy skills – linguistic education:
academic language and social language, CALP skills, BICS
skills, conceptual literacy.
IV Language Across the Currriculum
UNIT – III: INTEGRATED CURRICULUM AND
LANGUAGE EDUCATION
Integrated Curriculum types, meaning, key features,

objective types of integration – levels of curriculum integration
– Models of curriculum integration: Multidisciplinary
interdisciplinary Tran’s disciplinary and spiral curricula –
Coyle’s 4C’s of curriculum. – Content and language integrated
learning approach in the classroom – National Curriculum
Framework (NCF – 2005) – Recognition of mother tongue.
UNIT – IV: THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING
Plato’s problem theory of language – Cartesian theory of

language production – Locke’s theory of tabula raja – Skinner’s
imitation theory of language acquisition – Chomsky’s universal
grammar theory – Schumann’s cultural theory – Kraghen’s
monitor theory – Piaget’s views on language learning –
Vygotsky’s cultural tools for language learning.
UNIT –V: LANGUAGE RELATED ISSUES
Bilingualism – Multilingualism – Challenges of

teaching language in multicultural classroom. Linguistic
interdependence and the educational development of bilingual
and multi – lingual children – Nature of reading comprehension
in the content areas – Developing writing skills in specific
content areas. – Strategies for developing oral language for
promoting learning across the subject areas – Reading in the
content areas – social sciences, science and mathematics.
Language Across the Currriculum V
UNIT – I : CONCEPTUALIZATION AND PRINCIPLES
OF LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM Page
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1. Language across the Curriculum, meaning, 2
concept goals, aims, needs and importance of
Plurilinguelism.
1.2 Modes of human activities involving language 16
1.3. Language Objectives: 18
1.4. Relationship between language and thinking 21
1.5. Development of conceptual literacy 22
1.6. Basic tenets of language across the curriculum. 28
1.7. Principles of language across the curriculum 29
1.8. Integration across the curriculum: personal and 29
pedagogical integration.
UNIT - II: ACADEMIC AND SOCIAL LANGUAGE
2.1. Language 45
1. Meaning
2. Concept
3.definition
4. Aims
5. Objectives
6. Function
7. Importance
2.2. Proficiency of home language and school 72
language
2.2.1. Proficiency of home language
VI Language Across the Currriculum
2.2.2. School language Page
2.3. Strategies for enhancing language proficiency: 78
drama, essay story telling, group discussion, peer
tutoring
1. Drama
2. Essay
3. Story telling
4. Peer tutoring
2.4. Nature of expository text vs narrative texts 85
2.5. Transactional vs reflextive texts 91
2.6. Reading comphrension skill 98
2.7 language skill and literacy skill 103
2.8 linguistic education: acadmic language and 108
social language, CALP skills BICS skill
UNIT – III: INTEGRATED CURRICULUM AND
LANGUAGE EDUCATION
3.1. Integrated curriculum types, meaning, key 113

features, objectives types of integration
118
3.2 Levels of curriculum integration
121
3.3 Models of curriculum integration
3.3.1. Multidisciplinary inter-disciplinary trans 126
disciplinary and spiral curricula
3.4. Coyle’s 4c’s of curriculum 129
3.5. Content and language integrated learning 131
approach in the classroom
135
3.6. National curriculum framework (ncf2005
140
3.7. Recognition of mother tongue
Language Across the Currriculum VII
UNIT – IV: THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING Page
4.1 Plato’s problem theory of language 147

4.2. Cartesian theory of language production 148
4.3. Locke’s theory of tabula raja 149
4.4. Skinner’s imitation theory of language acquisition 150
4.5. Chomsky’s universal grammar theory 151
4.6. Schumann’s cultural theory 152
4.7. Kraghen’s monitor theory 154
4.8 Piaget’s views on language learning 156
4.9. Vygotsky’s cultural tools for language learning 158
UNIT –V: LANGUAGE RELATED ISSUES

5.1. Bilingualism 161
5.2. Multilingualism 164
5.3. Multicultural education: definition, goals and 170
problem
5.4. Linguistic interdependence and the educational 174
development of bilingual and multicultural
classroom
5.5. Nature of reading comprehension in the content 177
areas
5.6. Developing writing skills in specific content area 185
5.7. Strategies for developing oral language for 187
promoting learning across the subject area
5.8. Reading in the content area 190
5.9. Reading in the content areas - Social sciences, 193

science and mathematics
VIII Language Across the Currriculum
Language Across the Currriculum 1
UNIT – I
CONCEPTUALIZATION AND PRINCIPLES OF

1.0. Introduction
Language across the Curriculum is a very significant and
worthwhile concept as experienced by different practitioners.
According to researchers, this concept, if adopted in a school
situation, will enhance content competencies and language
competencies simultaneously. In order to understand the
meaning of the idea, there is a need to understand the meaning
of the three different attributes found in this idea. They are –
Language, Across and Curriculum.
1. Language - A tool that is used to communicate ideas
2. Across - From one side to the other of (a place, area,
etc.) as in “I ran across the street” or “I swam across the
river”.
3. Curriculum - The totality of experiences provided
inside and outside schools in order to achieve the set
objectives.
From the above meanings, one can able to acquire the
meaning of the term ‘Language across the Curriculum’
(LAC). Of course, language means the ability of a person
to communicate. ‘Language across the Curriculum’ mainly
implies that ‘attempts to develop a language or communicating
ability should cross through all the subjects. One may think
why this stress on ‘all’ the subjects. It is because so far attempts
to develop language ability was mainly focused in the context
of language teaching. Developing language ability did not find
any focus in the context of other subjects.
2 Language Across the Currriculum
Therefore, ‘Language across the Curriculum’ means
attempting to develop language ability not only through
language classes by the language teacher, but in the context of
other subjects by other teachers also.
1.1. Language across the Curriculum, meaning, concept
1.1.1. Meaning of LAC
‘Language across the Curriculum’ is an approach. An
approach is the way to reach the goals. The goals are two-sided
in the context of LAC. One, contentrelated or discipline- related
goals, and the other is related to language learning. 4 Hence,
‘Language across the Curriculum’ (LAC) approach integrates
language learning and content learning. The following are the
key points of the idea of ‘Language across the Curriculum’:
1. LAC is an approach to learning that focuses on improving
language proficiency in all subjects in order to enhance
students’ learning and learning outcomes.
2. Language education does not only take place in specific
subjects explicitly defined and reserved for it, such as
mother tongue education, foreign language education,
second language education, etc. Language learning and
education also takes place in each and every subject in
the school, in each and every academic/mental activity,
across the whole curriculum – whether we are conscious
of it or not.
3. LAC emphasises that language development is the
responsibility of all teachers across the school and in all
subject areas.
4. Each subject area has both similar language aspects and
patterns as in other subject areas plus its own specific
language usage and style.
Each subject area also has its own specialised vocabulary
and different writing genres, e.g., Science report writing is
different to History report writing. Since language learning
has to take into consideration the general language ability as
well as the understanding of language in different subjects, we
need to develop a comprehensive understanding of language
education and language learning in schools that take place
across all subjects, in addition to the central role of language
as a subject itself and all that it involves (e.g., shaping the
intellectual and social personality). This linguistic dimension
in each and every learning activity is sometimes hidden and
partly implicit and therefore, often underestimated in its
importance.
Language across the Curriculum is a modern concept
that a foreign or second language should be taught out of the
traditional language classroom by using contextual and content
based language teaching methodologies throughout the school
hours. Hence it demands that language learning should occur
in language classroom as well as other subject classrooms.
Studies in India have shown that most of the educated
people in India are struggling in the case of foreign language
i.e. English language, though they have got a fantastic subject
competency. It is a fact that a majority of students are writing
their assignments by copying from reference books or online
articles so that it becomes the Xerox copies. A huge majority of
the students are not able to indulge in self-study because they
lack skill in using English language. The present globalized
world offers thousands of courses all over the world, but our
students are not able to get admitted in foreign universities only
because they keep deficiency in using the foreign language.
It is a shocking fact that the students are not able to speak
or write their own sentences in foreign language even after
completing graduation and post-graduation with high grades.
A large number of students are not able to handle the modern
technology, as they haven’t got commanding power in English
Language. A major part of the research scholars are committing
plagiarism for writing their theses on account of the deficiency
in English Language. The real causes behind such a pathetic
condition are nothing else but the teachers and the educational
system. Schools often keep a time table in which only one or two
hours are allotted for language learning, and other subjects are
taught in mother tongue or in faulty foreign language. A huge
majority of the teachers at present are struggling when using
the foreign language. They are practicing adjustment teaching
in classroom, as they are not able to elaborate points in foreign
language. Students often tend to follow the wrong model of the
teachers in using foreign language for communication. Most
of the teachers are not able to make use of modern technology,
because they lack commanding power in foreign language.
The teachers are not able to give clear instructions in foreign
language. They do not encourage clarification of doubts by
students, as they are not confident enough to have ‘on the spot
conversation’ in foreign language. They are not able to manage
group activities effectively, as they lack communication skill
in foreign language. Most of the teachers are providing market
notes to students, because of this deficiency. A large number
of the teachers do not know how to praise students in foreign
language. All the above mentioned factors show that the
educational system is in need of a more dynamic and realistic
approach in language teaching, which can offer an opportunity
for the students for acquiring a faultless and effective foreign
language through continuous and systematic practicing hours
at school. The search for such a more effective methodology
has so far resulted in the emergence of a new concept called
‘Language across Curriculum’.
1.1.2. Concept of LAC
Language across the Curriculum is related to linking
different aspects of language education within school, and
emphasizes its importance in all non-linguistic subjects.
The LAC approach integrates language learning and content
learning in other subjects.
Language across the Curriculum has two dimensions:
As a concept: It accepts the fact that language education

does not only take place in a specific subject but also in
every other subject as well as activity.
As a policy: It leads to new forms of language use in
discourse and subjectspecific linguistic competencies.
The policy needs to address the issue of integrating
competencies and subject-specific teaching.
The academic language skills and competencies have to be
systematically stimulated and developed.
According to Fichera and Straight (1997), LAC works
with faculty to identify specific vocabulary that students need
to function effectively in various subjects.
Corson (1990) has specified the following attributes:
i) Language develops mainly through its purposeful

use.
ii) Learning involves talking, writing, shaping and
moving.
iii) Learning often occurs through speaking or writing as
much as through shaping and moving.
iv) Language use is a pre-requisite for cognitive
development.
v) Language is the medium for reflecting learning, for
improving it, for becoming autonomous.
Examples of LAC situations
Example I:
Let us see a specific example of how vocabulary aspects
are dealt in LAC settings. In a LAC situation, a teacher focuses
on three types of vocabulary:
1. Content specific or field specific vocabulary, i.e.,
technical vocabulary, for instance, photosynthesis,
water cycle, pollination, etc.
2. The second type is general academic vocabulary as
found in academic texts across a range of subjects
–These are word families like the word family
of ‘analyse’ will contain words such as analysis,
analyser, analytical, analytically, etc.
3. The third type is linking words or logical connectors
such as however, in contrast, firstly and secondly,
etc., which indicate the logical relationship between
different parts of the text.
How do teachers actually work in a LAC situation?
They use the following to teach language in every subject:
1. Subject-specific vocabulary, e.g. balance sheet,
reagent bottles, legato, etc. 2. Develop and work for
familiarity with subject specific word formation, i.e.
prefixes, suffixes, word roots, etc., e.g., in Science the
suffix ‘…ology’.
3. Deal with forms of expressions specific to the subject,
for example, in Mathematics, “The sum of 100 and X
is less than half of X, what is the value of X?” or in
English, “Do you agree with the viewpoint presented
in the essay? Justify your argument.”, etc.
4. Competency and skills are required for comprehending,
identifying, selecting and integrating information in
connection with specific text types, tasks and materials.
In science, e.g., “Extrapolate from the graph”, “Write
a hypothesis relevant to the experiment”, “Compare
Source A and Source B”, etc.
1.1.3. The goals and aim of LAC
LAC cannot be solely used in the conventional four modes
of language use - Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing.
This implies the use of this approach in all physical forms of
human expression. Carson (1990) has outlined eight modes
of activities involving language.
They are:
i) Listening
ii) Speaking
iii) Reading
iv) Writing
v) Viewing
vi) Shaping
vii) Watching
viii) Moving
The goals of LAC approach can be identified thus:
i) To support language development in the children;

ii) To guide the children in all domains of language use;
and
iii) To include in each leaning activity at school.
The main aims underlying LAC, it is not only a question
of the extension of language competences as such (in its
different dimensions and contexts), but rather the development
of “conceptual literacy” and “discourse competence”. The first
of these terms can be defined as the ability to think clearly
with the help of language, whereas the second means to apply
linguistic abilities acquired for the purpose of communicating
clearly about relevant topics and thematic structures. In other
words, language is as much a tool for conceptualizing content
and knowledge as it is for expressing oneself accordingly
in a rational, “academic” style, based on subject-specific
conventions and registers (Coetzee-Lachman 2006). The
integration of the two related concepts can be labelled academic
literacy. This is by no means to be contrasted with “vocational
literacy”, as is sometimes suggested.
i) To support language development in each and every
child, in all domains of language use, in each learning
activity in school, and to give children feedback about
their progress (through appropriate assessment and
evaluation).
ii) The overall goal, therefore, is not just the development
of Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency (CALP,
Cummins 1979), but of „Conceptual Literacy “and of
“Discourse Competence”.
iii) LAC in the broadest sense aims at enabling students
to manage the diverse discourse functions involved
in academic and/or vocational work and thus at
developing academic/vocational language proficiency
for satisfactory participation in the relevant discourses
LAC is no longer narrowly seen as the exclusive domain
of L1/LS education nor is it confined solely to the conventional
four modes of language: Reading, Writing, Listening and
speaking; all non-verbal means of representation and expression
are rightly seen as part of the overall semiotic systems when
communicating.
The whole scope of semiotics comes into focus including
images or graphs, movements and, generally speaking, all
visual forms of representation and expression (cf. Corson
1990: 72).
Learning in various subjects depends upon language. At
the same time language cannot be effectively learned without
a context. Both are closely interrelated. While other subjects
provide context for language, language development facilitates
the learning of other subjects. To function well in the school,
the young or adolescent learners need to be placed in an
environment of LAC approach. It will help them to develop
their thinking and communication skills leading to stress less
work later in life. It is therefore necessary to integrate language
and content of various subjects.
1.1.4. Benefits of LAC
The following benefits are likely to accrue to various
stake-holders:
i) For the school: The school can reorganise its structure
by formulating and implementing language policy
across the curriculum. This will motivate teachers
to work for a common goal.
ii) For the teachers: It will help the teachers to transact
their curriculum more effectively.
iii) For the students: It will minimize their problems
adjusting to the medium of instruction leading to
better learning of the subject content.
1.1.5. Origins of LAC
1.1.5. Difficulties
There could be a number of difficulties in implementing
LAC. They were observed particularly in countries like the
UK, North America, India, etc.
Corson (1990) listed several practical difficulties in
implementing LAC:
a) The attitudes of teachers - particularly many subject
teachers having to use one common language (not
representing Ll) for teaching their subjects;
b) Resistance of subject teachers to becoming ‘language
teachers’;
c) No particular person being responsible for supporting
cross-curriculum approach; and
d) Lack of clear perception about what to do about
language across the curriculum.
e) If LAC is to be introduced, there is a necessity for
bringing about a radical change in the attitudes of
teachers involved. Unless they are convinced that it
is in their own interest as well in the interest of their
students, they are not likely to fall in line.
In fact, teachers should define and set minimal goals in
conceptual and discourse terms. This means that teachers
have to require a high degree of information. They also need to
develop their professional competence in terms of:
I. Theory;
II. Curriculum planning; and
III. Teaching methodology.
1.1.6.Need and importance of Plurilinguelism.
Plurilingualism is the ability of a person who has
competence in more than one language to switch between
multiple languages depending on the situation for ease of
communication. Plurilinguals practice multiple languages
and are able to switch between them when necessary without
too much difficulty. Although plurilingualism is derived from
multilingualism (also referred to as bilingualism), there is a
difference between the two. Multilingualism is connected to
situations wherein multiple languages exist side-by-side in a
society but are utilized separately. In essence, multilingualism
is the coexisting knowledge of separate languages
while plurilingualism is the interconnected knowledge
of multiple languages. In general, plurilinguals have had
contact with languages not native to them through educational
institutions, however the education system plays only a
small role in the linguistic competence of these individuals.
Learning a second language is thought to stimulate someone’s
plurilingualism.
The term plurilingualism is used to talk about people
that can communicate in more than one language. New work
environments, cultural fusion, an increase in leisure and tourism.
This phenomenon is seen in an ever-increasing number of
people all around the globe as we are more frequently exposed
to several languages. Logically, plurilingualism is a reality for
the students of international schools.
1.1.6.1. Benefits of this phenomenon for children’s
development
Apart from the fact that speaking another language is almost
essential nowadays due to globalization in the workplace, a
large number of studies show that plurilingualism is beneficial
for the cognitive development of the brain, especially in
children.
Although some people continue to wrongly believe that
moving to a country where another language is spoken can
confuse children, various studies have shown that they can tell
two languages apart and start to master them from a very early
age. Being plurilingual does not confuse us. To the contrary, it
increases cognitive capacity and stimulates the development
of the brain. Therefore, for children, growing up with two
languages is just as natural as speaking only one and has many
benefits from a very young age.
Plurilingualism is a situation wherein a person who has
competence in more than one language can switch between
languages – from one language to another and vice versa –
according to the circumstances at hand for the purpose of
coping with a social matter. There is a distinction between
plurilingualism and multilingualism. Multilingualism, on
the other hand, is connected to situations wherein multiple
languages exist side-by-side in a society but are utilized
separately. Plurilingualism is derived from bilingualism. A
consequence of plurilingualism is pluricultural competence. In
general, persons who are identified as plurilinguals had contact
with foreign languages through educational institutions,
however the education system plays only a small role in the
linguistic competence of these individuals.
It is an even more recent term and its use is still being
developed and refined. The main distinction between
multilingualism and plurilingualism is that a multilingual
approach is about having different languages coexist alongside
each other, but separately, within individuals or societies,
with the ultimate aim of achieving the idealised competency
of the native speaker in each of them. In contrast, a
plurilingual approach emphasises the development of effective
communication skills which draw on all of our linguistic and
cultural experiences in an interactive way.
Plurilingualism is a life-long activity, a process of
learning languages of home, society and other peoples; it
acknowledges the partial nature of the knowledge anyone
can have of one language, be it their mother tongue or not.
Therefore, plurilingualism removes the ideal of the native
speaker as the ultimate achievement and replaces it with the
aim of an effective pluralistic communicator who draws on
his/her varied repertoire of linguistic and cultural knowledge
in a flexible, creative and individual way (as proposed by the
Council of Europe). As such, the concept of plurilingualism
provides a true qualitative leap in terms of our understanding
of language, reflected in our Healthy Linguistic Diet model
of language exposure and use. It might well be that in a few
years’ time, the term plurilingualism will become popular and
widely used.
1.1.6.2. The plurilingual brain from childhood
The brain of a plurilingual child is divided into two or more
compartments: one for each language. For obvious reasons,
this is not seen in people that only speak one language. This
creates more connections in the brain and allows youngsters to
switch and distinguish between languages perfectly. The two
languages are always active in the brain.
Constantly switching between one language and another is
great mental exercise for the brain. Generally, youngsters that
speak more than one language are more likely to perform well
in cognitive tasks and also have greater visual and additive
awareness. In other words, as well as having a “fitter” brain,
children that grow up in a multilingual environment can learn
faster than their classmates. Therefore, the children will not fall
behind in their education just because they speak a different
language at home than in school.
Some studies go even further and show that speaking
two or more languages changes the physical structure of the
brain, and all of these differences are positive. It has even been
proven that speaking several languages can delay the onset of
dementia.
Furthermore, having to coordinate two or more linguistic
systems increases a person’s mental flexibility. Moreover,
learning a second language helps children to understand
that their language is just one specific way of organising
reality and their personal experiences, not the only one. This
makes children more aware of diversity and helps them to open
up their minds to the world and others. These skills are basic
concepts for developing flexible and critical thinking, skills
that are essential and required by companies and society.
1.1.6.3.The importance of plurilingualism
Apart from the advantages for the cognitive development
of the brain, speaking another language has many more
benefits for children related to communication, culture and
future employment opportunities.
i) Logically, children that speak more than one
language able to communicate with people of
different nationalities in their daily lives or when
they travel to another country. In addition, they
have the double ability to read and write in different
languages and, therefore, have access to a broader
range of information that can widen their knowledge.
Likewise, having access to two different cultures
enriches a child’s education (literature, history,
traditions, etc.), allowing them to eventually become
a more cultured person.
ii) Finally, the work-related advantages of
plurilingualism are probably the most practical
benefit for children, as speaking more than one
language allows them to live, study and even work
in other countries. Furthermore, many employment
opportunities involve duties that must be carried out
in an international context and, therefore, being able
to communicate in other languages opens many doors
on the job market.
iii) Plurilingualism is extremely beneficial for children’s
development. What’s more, as the human brain best
absorbs information during childhood, this is clearly
also the perfect time to start communicating in another
language, although this can be beneficial for learning
in any stage of schooling.
1.2 Modes of human activities involving language
Modes of Human Activities Involving Language
There are eight modes of human activities involving

language learning. They are:
i) Listening: understanding and oral discourse;
ii) Speaking: constructing meaningful utterances;
iii) Reading: comprehending written texts;
iv) Writing: producing written texts;
v) Viewing: paying attention to visual information;
vi) Shaping: expressing through visual means;
vii) Watching: caring for movements;
viii) Moving: using the whole body.
i) Listening: The language art of listening begins
developing at birth and provides the basis for
development of speaking, reading and writing skills.
Listening can be defined as the interpretation of
sounds that are heard. When a baby is first born, he
immediately begins to receive sensory impressions,
including hearing sound. Listening is a skill that
allows a person to receive oral information from
others. It is therefore sometimes referred to as a
receptive skill and as an oral language skill.
ii) Speaking: Speaking is making use of vocal sounds to
communicate with others. The new born baby comes
into the world making a variety of sounds. These
sounds however, are not produced in an effort on the
part of the child to convey meaning in his early days.
Speaking is often referred to as an expressive skill and
an oral language skill. The speaker encodes a thought
into an oral message and transmit this message to a
listener, who must decode the oral symbols in order
to understand the message.
iii) Reading: Reading is the interpretation of written
symbols. It involves visual perception of the symbols,
sometimes translation of the visual symbols into
auditory ones and the connection of meaning with
these symbols. Initial stages of learning to read
generally follow those of learning to listen and
learning to speak. Understanding oral language forms
the basis for understanding the ideas found in print.
iv) Writing: Writing involves communicating with
others through the printed word or recording ideas of
oneself. It is classified as an expressive skill and a
written language skill. The writer encodes a message,
which is decoded and interpreted by the reader. Writing
allows a person to record and preserve information or
facts which can be read by the successive generations.
v) Viewing: Viewing refers to interpreting visual media.
These media include photographs, illustrations,
graphs, maps and diagrams found in books as well as
video presentations found on television, internet sites,
CD-ROMs, DVD-ROMs. It can even include live
performances in theatre or classrooms. Students today
are updated with visual media that are attempting
to convey information to them, persuade them to
do or believe something or simply entertain them.
The messages received from these media must be
comprehended using the same thinking skills needed
for comprehending print materials (i.e. read).
vi) Shaping: Shaping refers to the process of reinforcing
closer and closer approximations to an end goal or
skill. Shaping can be accomplished by first identifying
what the ultimate target behavior is and then providing
reinforcement for behaviors that are closer and closer
to that goal starting where the learner is at in the
present moment.
vii) Shaping: using visual means of expression
viii) Watching: attending to physical movements
ix) Moving: using the whole body, the whole person for
self-expression.
1.3. Language Objectives
Language objectives are lesson objectives that specifically
outline the type of language that students will need to learn
and use in order to accomplish the goals of the lesson. Quality
language objectives complement the content knowledge
and skills identified in content area standards and address
the aspects of academic language that will be developed or
reinforced during the teaching of grade-level content concepts
(Echevarria & Short, 2010).
1) These objectives involve the four language skills
(speaking, listening, reading, and writing), but they
can also include:
2) The language functions related to the topic of the
lesson (e.g., justify, hypothesize)
3) Vocabulary essential to a student being able to fully
participate in the lesson (e.g., axis, locate, graph)
4) Language learning strategies to aid in comprehension
(e.g., questioning, making predictions).
5) Communicative tasks (e.g., retelling, asking
clarification questions)
6) Language structures (e.g., sequential language, past-
conditional tense)
7) Types of texts students need to understand (e.g.,
informational text versus literature).
These objectives helps the learners to articulate the
academic language functions and skills that they need to
master to fully participate in the lesson and meet the grade-
level content standards (Echevarria, Short, & Vogt, 2008). And
are beneficial not only for language learners but for all students
in a class, as everyone can benefit from the clarity that comes
with a teacher outlining the requisite academic language to be
learned and mastered in each lesson.
Language Objectives are the HOW of the lesson and
articulates what students will be doing within the lesson in
terms of reading, writing, listening, speaking and thinking.
Like content objectives, language objectives should be stated
clearly and simply in student friendly language. Students
should be informed of them in both writing and orally. When
developing a language objective for a lesson, the teacher
should ask the question, “What are my students doing today
to develop their language skills?” For example, a language
objective could include interaction in the form of discussion
(paired and/or cooperative learning activities).
According to Echevarria, Vogt and Short, “A wide variety
of language objectives can be planned according to the goals
and activities in the lesson. In some cases, language objectives
may focus on developing students’ vocabulary. Other lessons
may lend themselves to reading comprehension skills practice
or the writing process, helping students to brainstorm, outline,
draft, revise, edit, and complete a text.” Language objectives
often accompany a content objective when teaching content
areas such as math, science or social studies. An example
of how a content objectives and language objectives can be
integrated within a lesson are shown below;
a) Content Objective:
The students will be able to use constructions to explore
attributes of geometric figures and to make conjectures
about geometric relationships.
b) Language Objectives:
The student will be able to use mathematical vocabulary
to explain orally or in writing the attributes of geometric
a) Content Objective:
Students will compare and contrast the physical
adaptations that whales and sharks have that aid in their
survival.
b) Language Objective:
Students will write a compare and contrast paragraph,
using vocabulary associated with the language function
of compare and contrast after completing a Venn Diagram
with a partner.
a) Vocabulary Objectives
Language objectives can also emphasize the vocabulary
necessary for students to master the content objective. It
is important for the teacher to recognize when important
vocabulary words will be introduced into the lesson. In
this case the vocabulary is extracted directly from the
content objective; however, there may be some tier two
vocabulary or background vocabulary that must also be
addressed for the ELL student. Without the understanding
of vocabulary the lesson itself may become fragmented
within the learners mind and the loss of focus will distract
the learner from making conceptual ties. Enhancing the
students focus is an important attribute to teaching and
the teacher should eliminate any distracters like lack of
vocabulary development within the lesson. An example
of how a vocabulary objectives can be written for a
math class are shown below;
b) Vocabulary Objective:
Students will use a specific list of mathematical
vocabulary to describe the attributes of specific geometric
figures
1.4. Relationship between language and thinking
The main use of language is to transfer thoughts from one
mind, to another mind. The bits of linguistic information that
enter into one person’s mind, from another, cause people to
entertain a new thought with profound effects on his world
knowledge, inferencing, and subsequent behavior. We’re
going to talk about language and thinking in a few different
terms, starting with cognitive development, or the gradual
development of the brain’s ability to think, make decisions,
solve problems, and so on. Humans are not born with language,
but learn it over time. This means that language is almost the
first thing we ever learn. Although we may not be able to create
words for a few months, our minds start beginning to acquire
language from the first time we hear it. Therefore, the way we
learn language actually can impact the way we will learn for
the rest of our lives.
As our minds learn language, that language creates a
framework that allows our mind to form consistent and
conscious thought. Humans are amazingly self-reflective,
thinking about ourselves and our experiences and our very
existence. There’s a reason smart people often seem to have
a larger vocabulary: an increased learning of language lets the
mind respond more efficiently to various situations. That same
logic is why children raised bilingually may have an easier
time learning other forms of information later in life.
The inmate connection between language and thought,
as opposed to the earlier assumed unilateral dependence of
language on thought, opened the way to a recognition of the
possibility that different language structures might in part
favour or even determine different ways of understanding and
thinking about the world. All people inhabit a broadly similar
world, or they would be unable to translate from one language
to another, but they do not all inhabit a world exactly the same
in all particulars, and translation is not merely a matter of
substituting different but equivalent labels for the contents of
the same inventory. From this stem the notorious difficulties in
translation, especially when the systematizations of science,
law, morals, social structure, and so on are involved. The extent
of the interdependence of language and thought—linguistic
relativity, as it has been termed—is still a matter of debate,
but the fact of such interdependence can hardly fail to be
acknowledged. A quote by philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein,
believed that thought without language was impossible: “The
limits of my language are the limits of my life.”
1.5. Development of conceptual literacy
“Literacy can be seen as dependent on instruction, with
the corollary that quality of instruction is key. This view
emphasizes the developmental nature of literacy — the passage
of children through successive stages of literacy, in each of
which the reading and writing tasks change qualitatively and
the role of the instructor has to change accordingly.”
— (Chall, 1996 as referenced in Snow, 2004)
Considering language and literacy as developmental is

really quite fundamental. Chall’s (1996) six stages of reading
development as a framework, which accounts for reading
development from birth to adulthood. These learners lifespan
is divided into six stages, which are summarised as below:
In Stage 0 (pre-reading), typically between the ages of
6 months to 6 years old, the child pretends to read, gradually
develops the skills to retells stories when looking at pages of
books previously read to him/her. The child gains the ability
to name letters of the alphabet, prints own name and plays
with books, pencils and paper. By six years old, the child can
understand thousands of words but can read few (if any). In
this stage, adults are encouraged to scaffold child’s language
attempts through parallel talk, expanding on verbalizations
and recasting child’s verbalizations. Adults are encouraging
children to use of two to three word combinations within social
contexts, and adults should implement dialogic reading or
effective shared reading for young children ages 2 to 5 years.
Any instruction (phonics, vocabulary) should be linked to
the book reading, and such books should include rhyme,
alliteration, and repetitive phrases. In one’s environment,
adults should verbally label objects with which children are
involved and encourage children to ask questions and elaborate
on observations (Westberg, et al., 2006).
In Stage 1 (initial reading, writing and decoding),
typically between the ages of 6 and 7 years old, the child is
learning the relation between letters and sounds and between
print and spoken words. The child is able to read simple texts
containing high frequency words and phonically regular
words, and uses skills and insight to “sound out” new words.
In relation to writing, the child is moving from scribbling to
controlled scribbling to nonphonetic letter strings. Adults are
encouraging the child to write about known words and use
invented spellings to encourage beginning writing, which
can be extended through assisted performance. In this stage,
the main aims are to further develop children’s phonological
awareness, letter-sound knowledge, and ability to manipulate
phonemes and syllables (segmentation and blending). These
skills should be taught in the context of print, and children
should have ample opportunities to manipulate, trace, and hear
the sounds of letters. To encourage independent reading, adults
should select books that have few words on each page, with
a large type size, and with illustrations on each page. During
shared reading, adults should increase the number of print-
focused questions that they ask children. Literacy instruction
should incorporate listening to stories and informational texts
read aloud; learning the alphabet; reading texts (out loud and
silently); and writing letters, words, messages and stories.
Teachers and parents must ensure that children have ample
opportunity to apply practices and strategies. (Westberg, et al.,
2006).
In Stage 2 (confirmation and fluency), typically between
the ages of 7 and 8 years old, the child can read simple, familiar
stories and selections with increasing fluency. This is done by
consolidating the basic decoding elements, sight vocabulary
and meaning context in the reading of common topics. The
learner’s skills are extended through guided read-alouds of
more complex texts. By this stage, adults should be providing
instruction that includes repeated and monitored oral reading.
Teachers and parents must model fluent reading for students
by reading aloud to them daily and ask students to read text
aloud. It is important to start with texts that are relatively
short and contain words the students can successfully decode.
This practice should include a variety of texts such as stories,
nonfiction and poetry, and it should use a variety of ways to
practice oral reading, such as student-adult reading, choral
(or unison) reading, tape-assisted reading, partner (or buddy)
reading and reader’s theatre. In this stage, vocabulary needs to
be taught both indirectly and directly. Adults need to engage
in conversations with children to help them learn new words
and their meanings. And during reading, it is important to
pause to define unfamiliar words and discussing the book upon
completion of reading (Westberg, et al., 2006). At the end of
this period, the learner is transitioning out of the learning-to-
read phase and into the reading-to-learn phase.
In Stage 3 (reading to learn the new), typically developed
between the ages of 9 and 13 years old, reading is used to learn
new ideas, to gain new knowledge, to experience new feelings,
to learn new attitudes, generally from one or two points of
view. There is a significant emphasis placed on reading to
learn, and writing for diverse purposes. There is time spent
balancing the consolidating of constrained skills (spelling,
grammar, fluency) whilst providing ample opportunities to
explore topics through reading, writing, speaking, listening
& viewing. By this time, the learner has transitioned to a
stage where he or she is expected to learn from their reading.
Adults should teach specific comprehension strategies, such
as comprehension monitoring, using graphic and semantic
organizers, answering questions, generating questions,
recognising textual structures, summarising, and identifying
main ideas and important details. Comprehension strategies
can be taught through direct explanation, modeling, guided
practice and application. Students benefit from cooperative
learning and students should be encouraged to coordinate and
adjust several strategies to assist comprehension. At this stage,
students should be encouraged to use a variety of tools to learn
new words, such as dictionaries, thesauruses, reference guides,
word parts (prefixes, base words, etc) and contextual clues
(Westberg, et al., 2006).
In the penultimate Stage 4 (synthesising information
and applying multiple perspective), typically between 14
and 17 years old, learners are reading widely from a broad
range of complex materials, both expository and narrative,
and are asked to apply a variety of viewpoints. Learners are
required to access, retain, critique and apply knowledge and
concepts. Learners are consolidating general reading, writing
and learning strategies whilst being required to develop more
sophisticated disciplinary knowledge and perspectives. These
adolescent learners deserve content area teachers who provide
instruction in the multiple literacy strategies needed to meet the
demands of the specific discipline. In these areas, adolescents
deserve access to and instruction with multimodal as well as
traditional print sources. Effective instruction includes ample
opportunities to discuss disciplinary content and explore
how these disciplines apply to the world outside the school
walls. Adults should encourage learners to refine interest,
pursue areas of expertise, and develops the literacies reflective
of the years ahead in post-school contexts (International
Reading Association, 2012).
In the final Stage 5 (critical literacy in work and
society), reading is used for one’s own needs and purposes
(professional and personal). Reading serves to integrate one’s
knowledge with that of others to synthesise information and
to create new knowledge. Reading and writing is purposeful,
strategic, often specialised and anchored. “Literacy” stratifies
greatly in adulthood, since our reading and writing habits are
shaped by educational, cultural and employment factors that
become increasingly diverse in the post-school landscape. In
professional and specialised settings, individuals are required
to synthesis information from a diverse range of sources in
order to form conclusions, shapes audiences views, and
navigate multiple points of views (or perspectives).
Through the stages of development, the teacher’s role
is to arrange tasks and activities in such a way that students
are developing (Verhoeven and Snow, 2001). The teacher -
therefore - must be “aware of the learning intentions, [know]
when a student is successful in attaining those intentions, [have]
sufficient understanding of the students’ prior understanding
as he or she comes to the task, and [know] enough about the
content to provide meaningful and challenging experiences
so that there is ... progressive development” (Hattie, 2012,
pp. 19). As noted by Snow (2004), “literacy can be seen as
dependent on instruction, with the corollary that quality of
instruction is key. This view emphasizes the developmental
nature of literacy -- the passage of children through successive
stages of literacy, in each of which the reading and writing
tasks change qualitatively and the role of the instructor has
to change accordingly.” (Chall, 1996 as referenced in Snow,
2004)
1.6. Basic tenets of language across the curriculum.
In order to understand the importance of language in school
education, for all subjects and across the whole curriculum,
one has to identify and summarise the basic tenets on which
LAC rests. These are (cf. Corson 1990, 74):
i. Language develops mainly through its purposeful use
(domains to be broadened)
ii. Learning (often) involves talking, writing, shaping
and moving (normally in reaction to perceptions)
iii. Learning often occurs through speaking or writing as
much as through shaping and moving
iv. Language use contributes to /is a pre-requisite for
cognitive development v. Language is the medium for
reflecting on learning, for improving it, for becoming
(more or less) autonomous as learners.
Therefore the goals of LAC are – in simple terms - to
support language development in each and every child, in all
domains of language use, in each learning activity in school,
and to give children feedback about their progress (through
appropriate assessment and evaluation). LAC is no longer
narrowly seen as the exclusive domain of L1/LS education
nor is it confined solely to the conventional four modes of
language: Reading, Writing, Listening and speaking; all non-
verbal means of representation and expression are rightly
seen as part of the overall semiotic systems that anyone have
at hand and that they use when communicating. The whole
scope of semiotics comes into focus including images or
graphs, movements and, generally speaking, all visual forms
of representation and expression (cf. Corson 1990: 72).
1.7. Principles of language across the curriculum
The introduction of Language across the Curriculum is

based on some modern studies and findings like Content Based
Instruction (CBI), Content Integrated Language Learning
(CILL), Skill Acquisition Concepts and the Immersion Theory
of Language Learning. Some other cognitive theories also can
be regarded the principles behind this curriculum. CBI and
CILL are two almost same movements in language learning in
America and England. These movements present the following
Principles.
1) Natural language acquisition occurs in context;
natural language is never learned divorced from
meaning, and content-based instruction provides a
context for meaningful communication.
2) Second language acquisition increases with content-
based language instruction.
3) People do not learn languages and then use them, but
learn languages by using them.
4) Language can be acquired through continuous
practice, as it is a skill subject
5) The immersion of language with content facilitates
more effective language acquisition.
1.8. Integration across the curriculum: personal and
pedagogical integration.
The meaning of curriculum integration varies from source

to source, and schools and teachers integrate curriculum
in different ways. James Beane, a prominent advocate for
curriculum integration (1993, 1997, 2005), understands
curriculum integration to involve meaningful learning
organized around issues important to teachers and students;
in this way, curriculum integration supports democracy
(Beane, 2005). Beane outlined four aspects of integration
that emphasize issues and align with democratic principles:
integration of experiences, social integration, integration of
knowledge, and integration as a curriculum design. Integration
of experiences means that past and present experiences are
integrated to facilitate new learning. Social integration occurs
when students from diverse cultural perspectives enjoy
common learning experiences.
Examining the research on curriculum integration presents
a challenge since there is little uniform understanding of what
curriculum integration is, which is compounded when terms like
interdisciplinary or integrated are often used interchangeably,
as noted by Nesin and Lounsbury (1999), Springer (2013), and
others.
The term curriculum integration (CI) refers to combining
two or more subjects when teaching a topic. CI involves
integrating the subject concepts, subject content (the
facts or substantive knowledge), and subject competencies
(or skills) developed in a topic.
It is important to note that, for CI to be effective,
the subject concepts and content from the different subjects
should be complementary so that their integration has the
potential to enrich student understanding. If the subjects do
not have sufficient conceptual connection under the umbrella
topic, the CI can be awkward, artificial, and even detrimental
to the learning process.
1.8.1. The reasoning and purpose underpinning
curriculum integration
Four interrelated arguments are generally used in support of CI:
• Traditional subject boundaries are not an accurate
reflection of the way the world really is, and therefore are
artificial and not conducive to the learning required in the
21st century. Learning through CI is therefore considered
by many commentators as more ‘authentic’ than single
subject learning.
• CI is more motivating for students, especially when
coupled with personalised inquiry learning.
• Because CI draws on more than one subject, it will lead
to deeper learning.
• CI aligns with the current trend of teachers working
cooperatively in shared innovative learning spaces with
large groups of students working independently.
1.8.2.Key steps to follow when designing a topic using CI
1. Create a concept map for the separate subjects in

relation to the topic and see if there are areas of overlap
or enrichment possible by asking what are the key
subject concepts and subject competencies that you
want students to learn in the topic? Don’t focus on key
competencies here but on subject concepts.
2. Identify any subject competencies associated with the
key subject concepts.
3. Consider the key content through
which the students will learn about
the subject concepts and develop subject competencies.
4. Consider the order in which the content will be shared
with students, how the students will be provided with
access to the knowledge identified in points 1 to 3 above,
how the key subject concepts relate to each piece of
content, and the types of learning activities will use be
used to explore the subject concepts and content, such
as reading, direct instruction, and guided inquiry.
5. Consider how you will assess the topic to identify
how bringing together the subjects has deepened the
learning or provided a cognitive advantage.
1.8.3. The role of subject teacher in integration of
Curriculum
Subject teachers often expect certain competences to
be already acquired through LS/L1 teaching and therefore
readily available in subject-specific learning contexts, without
additional training or reflection about their meaning and use in
these new contexts. In a way, these expectations are justified,
but they have to be spelled out explicitly, by way of “contract”
between teachers of language as a subject and teachers of non-
linguistic subjects. In addition, the subject teachers themselves
have to list clearly what they want to reach with their students
in terms of minimal language goals in connection with their
subject-specific goals. This requires a cross-curricular matrix
of educational goals in general and of linguistic competences in
particular to which different subjects and learning experiences
might add and contribute in different ways. It also has to be
agreed upon institutionally, (or even in the larger framework of
society as a whole), when these competences should be reached
and at what level. For example, some of the competences to
be developed through LS/L1 and to be delivered by a certain
point in time for further use and extension in new (subject
specific) contexts include the following: basic knowledge in
the formation of simple, but also of complex sentences – with
different types of super- and subordination of ideas (clauses,
sentences or parts thereof) and with different possibilities of
organising and linking those ideas /or propositions cognitively
and linguistically in appropriate ways. These competencies
also comprise correct spelling and orthography in general as
much as mastering the rules of phonology and pronunciation.
1.8.4. Curriculum integration and Pedagogical subjects
CI played a strong role in the first Finnish core curriculum,
written for comprehensive schools in 1970. The curriculum
even included a plan of comprehensive school based completely
on an integrated curriculum. This plan was not realized, and CI
was of less importance in the curricula that followed, which
were published about once a decade, although the debate
on CI was significant during the reforms. The new National
Core Curriculum for Basic Education is again strengthening
the role of CI. Additionally, the curriculum includes a list
of seven cross-curricular transversal competences, such as
multi-literacy and ICT competence, which are to be taught in
connection with every subject.
The purpose of integrative instruction is to enable the
pupils to see the relationships and interdependencies between
the phenomena to be studied. It helps the pupils to link
knowledge of and skills in various fields, and in interaction with
others, to structure them as meaningful entities. Examination
of wholes and exploratory work periods that link different
fields of knowledge guide the pupils to apply their knowledge
and produce experiences of participation in the communal
building of knowledge. This allows the pupils to perceive the
significance of the topics they learn at school for their own
life and community, and for the society and humankind. In the
learning process, pupils are supported to structure and expand
their worldview.
The core curriculum mentions four ways of organizing
cross-curriculum learning or even abandoning subject borders.
1) First, integration can be achieved through activities
such as theme days, events, campaigns, study visits,
or school camps.
2) Second, longer integrated study modules can be
created around a theme by combining the perspectives
of various subjects.
3) Third, integrated cluster subjects can be formed, for
example, a science cluster that includes mathematics,
physics, and chemistry.
4) The fourth and most radical way is to organize all
schoolwork holistically without any designated
subjects.
1.8.4.1. Teachers’ integrative knowledge
Lee Shulman has described the development of teacher
education as a process in which pedagogical knowledge has
become more and more openly acknowledged as essential
competence along with subject matter content knowledge.
However, according to Shulman, not enough attention has
been given to the pedagogical skills necessary for teaching
certain subject contents. Shulman’s point is that pedagogical
knowledge has been seen as too general, applicable to teaching
any subject and all content. Instead, Shulman stresses the
importance of pedagogical knowledge with which teachers
can teach specific content in different subjects. The content
of every subject needs its own pedagogical approach, i.e.,
pedagogical content knowledge to make it comprehensible to
students.
In short, teachers need understanding of CI as one option
for constructing a curriculum, and they need broad knowledge
of the current curriculum, including the content and objectives
of subjects they are not teaching themselves. For CI to be
successful, its purpose has to be clearly comprehended.
Furthermore, in collaborative forms of CI, teachers need good
skills and conditions for cooperation across subject borders.
1.8.4.2. Content knowledge
Content knowledge refers to teachers’ awareness of
the facts and the structure of their subject(s). In addition, a
teacher must know why these are the accepted facts in a
given field, how knowledge is constructed, why some aspects
of the field are more important than others, what alternative
understandings of a subject exist, how the facts are related to
other concepts within and outside of the discipline, and why
these things are worth knowing in the first place. Shulman does
not problematize the relation between scientific disciplines
and school subjects. In this way, the fundamental question of
content knowledge is left open. According to Stengel , Shulman
assumes that disciplines precede school subjects and that the
task of teachers is to modify disciplinary content knowledge
into learnable form, i.e., transform it into a school subject.
If the content of content knowledge does not come directly
from scientific disciplines, then content knowledge should be
considered as leaning on other sources, such as a curriculum,
textbooks, teachers’ guides, and media. It is beyond dispute
that scientific disciplines and school subjects are somewhat
symmetrical and that part of teachers’ content knowledge comes
from specific disciplines, especially the deeper knowledge of
alternative views and competing theories within a discipline.
However, to answer the question of why some things are
worth knowing, for instance, one might look for very different
explanations in school contexts as opposed to the contexts of
scientific inquiry.
1.8.4.3. Curriculum knowledge

By curriculum knowledge, Shulman means teachers’
broad comprehension of school subjects and an understanding
that the current one presents only one way of constructing a
curriculum. Curriculum knowledge includes awareness of
various instructional materials, teaching procedures, and
learning objectives. Teachers commonly use different kinds
of curricular materials from which to pick suitable tools. It
is important that teachers realize that they could pick other
tools as well, that alternative learning methods are available,
and that there are different ways to structure a course or a
curriculum, for example, in an integrative way. This knowledge
of alternative curriculum materials is the first of three different
forms of curriculum knowledge Shulman explains. The other
two are lateral and vertical curriculum knowledge.
1.8.4.4. Pedagogical content knowledge
The third kind of pedagogical knowledge essential for CI
is teachers’ ability to make content comprehensible to students.
However, mere comprehension is not enough; according to
Shulman, true learning is also linked to judgment and action
[3]. This is what is called pedagogical content knowledge.
It includes examples, metaphors, analogies, illustrations,
activities, assignments, and demonstrations that make the
content more accessible. This kind of knowledge also means
understanding what makes learning of certain kinds of content
difficult and what the common misconceptions are. Such
pedagogical methods are always content-specific so they
cannot necessarily be transferred to other contexts [2].
Shulman argues that pedagogical content knowledge is
the area that separates a teacher from an expert in a given
scientific discipline [3]. An expert might have a great deal of
content knowledge, but a teacher knows how to present the
information in a suitable way for school learning. However,
as noted above, the substance of the content knowledge of an
expert and that of a teacher are probably different, because
scientific disciplines and school subjects are not constructed
identically.
The relation between content knowledge and pedagogical
content knowledge is not one-way. In addition to content
knowledge that is refined into pedagogical content knowledge,
the content of school subjects can be constructed on
pedagogical bases. Content may be designed for certain age
groups, as happens in the Finnish school system: the integrated
subject taught as environmental studies in primary school is
differentiated into natural sciences in secondary school. This is
an example of how CI serves as a form of pedagogical content
knowledge. A school subject is designed as an integrated whole
with the aim of making the content more comprehensible to
young students.
Often CI means studying contents of several subjects in
connection. This means that the understanding of pedagogical
content knowledge cannot be bound only to subjects, but also
involves building bridges between subjects. At that point,
it becomes integrative pedagogical content knowledge. A
teacher has to have in mind demonstrations or activities that
show how different subjects are interrelated or even build on
knowledge from other disciplines, as in the above-mentioned
example of the birth of modernity. Another possibility is to use
the methods of co-teaching, collaborating with other teachers,
who combine the special pedagogical content knowledge of
their respective subjects.
1.8.4.5. Knowledge of ends, purposes, and values of
education
Shulman claims that normative and theoretical knowledge
of ends, purposes, and values of education is perhaps the most
important part of teachers’ scholarly knowledge. This includes
images of what is possible, of how a well-functioning school
might look, what the students should become, and what can
be understood as comprising a good education. The Finnish
core curriculum stresses the holistic growth of students as
ethical persons. For teachers to cultivate moral and social
awareness in students, the prerequisite is that teachers have
a good understanding of educational values and purposes. In
addition to general educational values, subject-specific values
can be recognized. Accordingly, CI can be seen as having its
own, although varying value base.
To sum up,
Primarily, student teachers have to be aware of CI as

one alternative for structuring the curriculum. This means
knowledge of general curriculum theory, including CI. It is
important for student teachers to know that a curriculum is
historically constructed and that subject division is only one
form of its actualization. This information is crucial when
teachers are constructing local curricula based on the core
curriculum.
Another required form of curriculum knowledge concerns
the content of the current curriculum. To apply CI successfully,
student teachers need to have at least preliminary knowledge
of contents of subjects they are not teaching themselves.
Without this kind of knowledge, it is difficult to plan teaching
that connects various subjects. It is a prerequisite for individual
teachers to be able to build conceptual bridges between their
subjects and other subjects. In addition, broad curriculum
knowledge promotes collaboration when teachers can identify
the intersections of subjects. These intersections can serve as a
basis for integrative themes.
Perhaps the strongest challenge in developing teacher
education from the perspective of CI is the strong tradition
of subject-divided pedagogies and teachers’ fixed positions
as subject teachers. Another challenge from a teacher’s
perspective is created when all the “innovations,” such as use
of the latest technology, enhancing co-teaching and CI, are
implemented at the same time [38]. In some visions the future
teaching staff will consist of generalist and specialist teachers
working together in new cooperation-based schools [33]. A
good starting point is not only developing subject pedagogy,
but also developing a pedagogy for CI.
UNIT - II
ACADEMIC AND SOCIAL LANGUAGE
2.0. Introduction
Language is an amazing feature unique to human beings.

One cannot imagine a society without a language. It is a
boon to the human kingdom. It is inevitable in the process
of education. Language, a system of conventional spoken,
manual (signed), or written symbols by means of which human
beings, as members of a social group and participants in its
culture, express themselves. The functions of language include
communication, the expression of identity, play, imaginative
expression, and emotional release. Therefore, as teachers, you
need to identify the specific ways in which language helps us
so that we can better explain its meaning. Hence, in this unit
the meaning, concept and importance of language is being
discussed in this unit.
2.1. Language: meaning, concept, definitions, aims,
objectives functions and importance
Meaning of Language:
Language is foremost a means of communication, and
communication almost always takes place within some sort of
social context. This is why effective communication requires
an understanding and recognition of the connections between
a language and the people who use it. These connections
are complex: for example, they tell about when to use slang
with a friend or formal language with a boss, how to judge a
candidate’s campaign speeches, and whether to abbreviate an
email. All of these acts require knowledge of the language,
as well as the cultural and social forces acting on that
language. The relationship between language and meaning
is not a straightforward one. One reason for this complicated
relationship is the limitlessness of modern language systems
like English (Crystal, 2005). Language is productive in the
sense that there are an infinite number of utterances one can
make by connecting existing words in new ways. In addition,
there is no limit to a language’s vocabulary, as new words are
coined daily.
The dictionary meaning of a language is:
1. “the principal method of human communication,
consisting of words used in a structured and conventional
way and conveyed by speech, writing, or gesture”.
2. ‘a system of communication used by a particular country
or community’.
3. “the style of a piece of writing or speech”.
4. “the words, their pronunciation, and the methods of
combining them used and understood by a community”
Features of a language:
Feature is a distinctive attribute or aspect of something.
A feature of something is an interesting or important part or
characteristic of it. In the light of this meaning, the distinctive
attributes of language are listed as below:
1) Language is learnt: Learning a language requires the
individual to make deliberate attempts. Hence, Language
is learnt.
2) Language is related to or the product of culture: The
culture contributes for language of a given society.
Every language is related to the culture of the society
to which it belongs. The culture of the people naturally
influences the language. Every language is the product
of society. Language could not be separated from the
culture in which that language exists. It has meaning
only in relation to that society and culture.
3) Language is species’ specific: animals and flies
communicate through different sounds specific to their
species. The sophisticated form of language and its use
is limited only to human beings. So language is species’
specific.
4) Language is a system: Language is not a haphazard
activity. There is system in every aspect of language. It
may be in the sounds that a language uses (Phonemes)
or the morphemes or words, etc. System is the inbuilt
part of language. To understand this, one needs to be
more observant and systematic. A person who wants
to learn a new language will have to learn new sounds,
new structures, and new vocabulary. The sound system
of language differs from language to language. Some
sounds are selected by some languages and these sounds
may not be found in other languages. Each language has
its own system of vocabulary. Thus, each language is
systematic.
5) Each language is a system of systems: There are
phonological and grammatical systems in all languages.
There are several sub- systems within a language. The
phonology of a language forms its own system as the
various sounds function in a systematic way. Language
is based on aural and oral system.
6) Language is a system of symbols. Each language works
through symbols. Different words used in a language are
the symbols. They stand for certain things. The language
will function well if its symbols are known both to the
speaker and the person to / with whom they are being
used. Symbols of language are vocal. Different symbols
are used in a single language.
7) These symbols are vocal. A language system does not
exist in a vacuum. It is primarily used in speech. Only
speech provides all the essential symbols of a language.
There are other kinds of symbols, which cannot be called
vocal symbols. For example, gestures and signal flags
are visual symbols, and the ringing of bells and the
beating of a drum are auditory symbols. They do not
form any language. In language, sounds are produced
through vocal organs. Reading and writing are no doubt
important, but speech is the basic form of language. A
language without speech is unthinkable.
8) Language is a skill. Skill is something that is learnt
by practice. Hence, swimming, singing, dancing, and
cooking are skills. Language is essentially learnt. It can
be mastered by practice. That is why language is a skill.
9) Language is basically a process. It is the process of
communication. Language is an activity towards the
goal of communication. Language is used mainly for
communication.
10) Language is unique: Every language has its special
features. It has its own style of functioning. The sounds,
vocabulary, and structure of every language is different.
So, language is unique.
The system of a language
In any language, there is a system in the use of sounds,
words, and also the structure of the sentences. To understand
further, this system of language has been viewed at different
levels.
1) Phonetics, Phonology: This is the level of sounds. Here,
one must distinguish between a set of possible human
sounds, which constitutes the area of phonetics proper,
and a set of system sounds used in a given human
language, which constitutes the area of phonology.
Phonology is concerned with classifying the sounds
of language and with saying how the subset used in a
particular language is utilised.
2) Morphology: To put it in simplified terms, this is the
level of words. It is what one normally understands by
grammar (along with syntax). The term morphology
refers to the analysis of minimal forms in language and
are comprised of sounds used to construct words, which
have either a grammatical or a lexical function. Observe
how the meaning changes with different forms of words
3) Syntax: This is the level of sentences. It is concerned with
the meanings of words in combination with each other
to form phrases or sentences. In particular, it involves
differences in meaning arrived at by changes in word
order, the addition or subtraction of words from sentences
or changes in the form of sentences. It furthermore deals
with the relatedness of different sentence types and with
the analysis of ambiguous sentences
4) Semantics: This is the area of meaning. There is no word
equal in meaning to the other in any language. You need
to select the exact word that conveys the meaning most
appropriately. The context in which the word is to be
used becomes important.
5) Pragmatics: It is the use of language in specific situations.
The meaning of sentences need not be the same in an
abstract form and in practical use. In the later case, one
speaks of utterance meaning. The area of pragmatics
relies strongly for its analyses on the notion of speech
act, which is concerned with the actual performance
of language. This involves the notion of proposition or
roughly the content of a sentence, and the intent and
effect of an utterance.
Concept of Language:
According to,
1) Edward Sapir 1921 “Language is a purely human and non-
instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions
and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”
2) Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager, 1942 “A language
is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which
a social group cooperates.”
3) Noam Chomsky, 1957 From now on I will consider
“- language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences,
each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of
elements.”
4) Fred C.C. Peng 2005 “language is behaviour which
utilizes body parts: the vocal apparatus and the auditory
system for oral language; the brachial apparatus and
the visual system for sign language. . . Such body parts
are controlled by none other than the brain for their
functions.”
5) Wayne Weiten 2007 “A language consists of symbols
that convey meaning, plus rules for combining those
symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety
of messages.”
From the above definitions, language can be best defined as,
6) “Language is a system of symbols and sounds used as a
tool to communicate ideas, emotions and desires by means
of which a social group cooperates.” – Author, 2022
For better clarity about the concept of language, let us
analyse two definitions. One of them is the definition given by
Bloch and Trager, and the other one given by Noam Chomsky.
Recall the definition of language given by Bloch and
Trager. Let us dissect this definition into components. From
this the following five components identified from this:
1. Language is a system.
2. Language is a system of symbols.
3. Language is a system of vocal symbols.
4. Language is a system of vocal symbols which are arbitrary.
5. Language is a system of vocal symbols, which are arbitrary
and through which the social group cooperates.
Let us understand the first aspect of this definition.
Language is a system. What is a system? A system is a group
of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements. These
elements form a complex whole. A system cannot be observed
directly. To give examples, culture is a system, religion is a
system, law is a system. In this way, language is also a system.
It is the description of observable behaviour. The grammar of
a language is a simple and orderly description of the way that
people in a given society talk-the sounds that people utter in
various situations, and of acts which are associated with the
sounds or follow the sounds. Secondly, the elements of the
system are different in different systems. The social behaviour
of people in a society forms the element of culture. The tenets
followed by a group of people belonging to a particular
religion become the elements of religion. The rules form the
elements of law. In language, the symbols form a system.
Language is a system of symbols. The railway guard uses
certain symbols, for example, the green flag. The train is not
supposed to start until the driver sees the guard showing the
green flag or the green lamp, for they are symbols of “All clear,
Go”. The train, however, stops or does not start if the guard
shows the red flag or the red lamp, for they denote the signal
“Danger, Stop’’. This system works successfully because the
symbols used are known to both the guard and the driver. The
system of language, similarly works through symbols, the
symbols being words. Language functions effectively when
the symbols used are known to the speaker and the listener,
the writer and the reader. The symbols of language are varied
and complex. Language symbols represent things, and are not
the things themselves. The word ‘table’ is not a table. It stands
for a table. The word ‘boy’ is not a boy. It stands for a boy.
There is no logical connection between the symbols and the
referent symbols. They acquire their meaning by convention.
A sign, on the other hand, has a direct relation to the object
it signifies. A road-sign showing the figure of a boy with a
school-bag cautions a vehicle driver that he is approaching a
school. Language uses words essentially as a symbol and not
as signs.
Now we are clear that language is a system of symbols.
What type of symbols is the next question? They are the vocal
symbols. “Vocal” means that which is produced by voice, for
example, h, g, c, in English etc. These are the vocal symbols.
Language is therefore a system of vocal symbols. These
symbols and their sequence are not uniform in all languages.
It is ‘arbitrary’. What is ‘arbitrary’? Arbitrary is something
based on random choice or personal urge rather than any
reason or rationale. Now we are clear about the meaning of
language. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols. The next
part of the definition explains the causes for which language is
used. It is used by people to come together or to work together.
People cooperate through this powerful means, the language.
According to Noam Chomsky’s definition of language, the
first part describes more about the structure of language,
whereas the second part gives some clues to the process of how
language is learnt or to the process of language acquisition.
The understanding of this definition requires one to know
its background. The ancient theories of language acquisition
discussed more about the dilemma of nature versus nurture,
that is, they discussed more about whether language is given by
god or innate or learned from the individual in the environment.
Then came some linguists and psychologists in the beginning
of the 20th century. They declared that a child’s language
acquisition is directed by habit formation and reinforcement
by imitation, repetition and analogy. This means that the child
learns by imitating others, and learns better with repetition
and through reinforcement. The most eminent representative
of behaviourism, B. F. Skinner brought to light a concept
known as operant conditioning. Accordingly, he claimed that
language acquisition is a learned set of habits. At the same
time, structural linguistics focused on ‘publicly observable
responses’ and identified the differences in the language
patterns and established that languages differ from each other
without limits. The behaviourists’ view was challenged by
Noam Chomsky in 1957, when he put forward the ‘theory
of transformational grammar’. This theory is undoubtedly
most dynamic and influential and has made him the ‘master
of modern thought’. His theory is known as ‘generativism’.
Chomsky worked on syntax, and this gave him the idea that
language is innate. According to him, the vital or crucial parts
of the human language ability are built into the brain and are
programmed into the genes.
According to Chomsky, language is an important ability
and it is illogical to explain it just by describing its formal
structures. This superficial description was provided by his
predecessors. The study of language should not stop just with
a description of the components. Chomsky tries to understand
language from the perspective of human nature. He has his own
rationale in saying that there is something more than repetition
and reaction in language. At the age of five, a child can speak
hundreds of sentences every day, sentences that he/she has not
said or known before, and can understand words that he/she has
not heard before. There has to be something deeper working
here. This cannot be explained as just action - reaction and
repetition. This means that there are deep processes possessed
by humans that make them different from other creatures.
These are yet to be identified. This understanding needs more
than description.
Definitions of Language:
Many definitions of language have been proposed. According to,
1) Edward Sapir, 1921 “Language is a purely human and
no instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions
and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”
2) Bernard Bloch, 1942 “A language is a system of arbitrary
vocal symbols by means of which a social group
cooperates.”
3) Noam Chomsky, 1957 From now on I will consider
“- language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences,
each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of
elements.”
4) Wayne Weiten, 2007 “A language consists of symbols
that convey meaning, plus rules for combining those
symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety
of messages.”
5) Henry Sweet, an English phonetician and language
scholar, stated: “Language is the expression of ideas by
means of speech-sounds combined into words. Words are
combined into sentences, this combination answering to
that of ideas into thoughts.”
6) The American linguists Bernard Bloch and George L.
Trager formulated the following definition: “A language
is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which
a social group cooperates.” Any succinct definition of
language makes a number of presuppositions and begs
a number of questions. The first, for example, puts
excessive weight on “thought,” and the second uses
“arbitrary” in a specialized, though legitimate, way.
Aims and Objectives of Language
The aims of learning a languages are to:
i) enable the student to use language(s) effectively as a

means of practical communication, providing a sound
base of communication skills necessary for future study,
work and leisure
ii) enable the student to understand the nature of language
and the process of total language learning, which
comprises the integration of linguistic, cultural and
social components
iii) enable the student to develop an appreciation of a variety
of literary and non-literary texts
iv) offer insight into the cultural characteristics of the
communities where the language(s) is (are) spoken
v) encourage an awareness and understanding of the
perspectives of people from other cultures
vi) promote involvement with different communities, where
relevant
vii) provide access to varied sources of information
viii) foster curiosity, a lifelong interest and enjoyment in
language learning.
ix) enable the student to understand the nature of language
and the process of total language learning, which
comprises the integration of linguistic, cultural and
social components
x) enable the student to develop an appreciation of a variety
of literary and non-literary texts
xi) offer insight into the cultural characteristics of the
communities where the language(s) is (are) spoken
xii) encourage an awareness and understanding of the
perspectives of people from other cultures
xiii) promote involvement with different communities,
where relevant
xiv) provide access to varied sources of information
xv) foster curiosity, a lifelong interest and enjoyment in
language learning.
Objectives
Objectives of learning a language are the learning outcomes
expected from the learner at the end of teaching. The following
are the objectives of teaching a language:
i) to communicate information, ideas and opinions
ii) to demonstrate comprehension of specific factual
information and attitudes, expressed in spoken and
written contexts
iii) to identify main ideas and supporting details and draw
conclusions from spoken and written texts
iv) to understand and appropriately use structures and
vocabulary
v) to request and provide information in both spoken and
written contexts
vi) to engage actively in oral production using
comprehensible pronunciation and intonation
vii) to take part in formal and informal exchanges related to
the areas of interaction and to cultural and international
issues.
Functions of a language
Language is used in many different ways, some of these are,
the informational, the expressive, the directive, the phatic, the
aesthetic. Language is a part of society. Actually, any language
varies according to, the nature of the society, what kind of
people, and their attitudes. People use language according to
their situation. The social background of any person can play
an important role in the kind of language he has.
Language is very important factor of communication
among society. Using language has some functions. People
use some functions to say a sentence, to ask, to reply, to greet
and etc.
Five functions of language:
Geoffery Leech( 1974 ) mentioned that language has five
functions. They are:
1. Informational function: “Informational function which

every one tends to assume is most important” Geoffery
Leech( 1974 ). In fact, this function concentrates on the
message. It is used to give new information. It depends
on truth and value. For example, the car is big, the bus is
crowded.
2. Expressive Function: ” language can have an expressive
function: that is, it can be used to express its originator’s
feelings and attitudes – swear words and exclamations
are the most obvious instance of this”. Geoffery Leech(
1974 ). The speaker or writer of this function tries to
express his feelings. He or she reflexes his or her
impression. This function could give a clear image for
the personality of the speaker or writer. The best example
of this kind is Poetry and literature . In fact, this function
evoke certain feelings and express feelings. Examples
of this kind are, I am very happy or I spent a wonderful
vacation. they reflex the feelings of the speaker or the
writer.
3. Directive Function: The third function of language is
the directive function whereby one aims to influence the
behavior or attitudes of others. The most straightforward
instances of the directive function are commands and
requests. This function of social control places emphasis
on the receiver’s end, rather than the originator’s end of
the message: but it resembles the expressive function
in giving less importance, on the whole, to conceptual
meaning than to other types of meaning, particularly
affective and connotative meaning” Geoffery Leech(
1974 ).Examples of this kind are, I want a cup of tea or
close the door. It is clear hear that, one uses the language
in a direct way. We ask someone to do something.
Sometimes one can use a sentence to express two
functions. For example, I am thirsty. In this example
could be used to show the condition of the speaker or
writer or to express the feeling. In a way that a person
asks someone to give him water.
4. Aesthetic Function: The fourth function is the aesthetic
function, which is ” the use of language for the sake of
the linguistic artifact itself, and for no purpose. This
aesthetic function can have at least as much to do with
conceptual as with affective meaning” Geoffery Leech(
1974 ). ” The function associated with the message-
the vehicle-is the poetic or aesthetic function: the sign
taken as an end in itself. All art understood as art is taken
to embody this function, and any object valued for its
beauty rather than for its ideological value or usefulness-
whether a gorgeous car, an elegant teapot, or some
acreage of untouched real estate-takes on this function.
Although Jakobson, perhaps more precisely than anyone
who preceded him, showed how the aesthetic function
could hinge on structure, he argues that cultural norms
ultimately determine the dominance of this function.
5. Phatic Function: According to Leech, the fifth
function is the phatic function. ” the function of
keeping communication lines open, and keeping social
relationships in good repair”. Geoffery Leech( 1974 ).
this function is used for normal talks. An example of
this, when two people meet each other accidently in a
place. They start talking about something unimportant
for the sake of communication like, how are you? How
is your children? And so on. It is a kind of daily talking.
It is not meaning but is good.
Importance of language
A language matters a great deal as this is what helps to
distinguish the sayings of one individual from the other. If
used efficiently it is a powerful and strong weapon that will
leave memorable impressions on the listener. Although
language refers to both the written as well as oral speech in
general terms, it is often referred for the words in a spoken
language.
There are more than thousands of languages spoken in
the entire world but only a few have gained wide prominence
over the years, for instance, English, Mandarin, Urdu, Hindi,
etc. The importance of language in our society is clear as it
has helped to smooth social contacts, preserve our culture
and convey our thoughts to individuals and people in groups
effectively.
Language is defined as a formal system that includes
sounds, signs, symbols, and gestures that are used as an
important means of communicating the thoughts, ideas, and
emotions from one individual to another. Its effectual use has
been a blessing in forging interpersonal relationships both in
personal and professional front.
Using language successfully is very important in the global
world so that you can make others understand what you want
to convey. Remember it is one of the skills that a person is not
born with but one that can be easily learned with a little effort
and hard work. The importance of language is that it is one of
the primary means of interaction and communication. Hence
make sure that the language you are using is appropriate for
your specific audience and is familiar to him and he can grasp
its meaning.
Language is considered as an important tool that helps
to create cultural ties, friendships, and relationships. It is a
medium used to offer shape to the thoughts, ideas and emotions
depending upon the perception of reality and portray it to
others in a manner that the people listening can understand
and relate to them. A common language is a symbol of social
solidarity and gives the impression of cultural kinship.
The importance of language is that knowledge helps the
speaker to reach out for his dreams. It is a fact that language is
knowledge and knowledge is indispensable. It is a key factor
for viable communication and interaction processes because
now it is possible to share and exchange ideas to and from
any part of the world. hence, the importance of language for
human can be listed as below:
1. Language as a culture carrier
A language is a communication tool between friends,

family, communities, society, organizations, cultural groups
and countries. The knowledge is an advantage that provides
the speaker with an outlook about his surroundings and gives
him the means to portray his thoughts to others.
There are different cultures in the world and it is the
language that primarily distinguishes the differences between
the cultures and celebrates its unique features. The importance
of language is that it shapes the thought-process and perception
of how an individual views the world. It also helps to define
the concept of culture in society because culture and language
are closely connected.
It is a fact that the languages used in different cultures are
varied in nature. Some of the cultures have adopted a direct
style of communication whereas others use the indirect style.
It is the language that helps others to understand the culture of
a place and it is a known truth that as the culture changes so
do the language. Ideas need expression and that is where the
language comes into existence.
It conserves our culture and helps to spread it as a culture
carrier. When you know the language it signifies that you
are aware of the culture and can connect with people in that
language. Language is an integral attribute of a person’s
personality and it is important to be fluent in it.
2. Language as a vehicle for thought
The importance of language is that it can be used efficiently
as a vehicle for our thoughts. The individual who has been
subjected to a specific language from birth is most probably in
the habit of thinking in that language.
The proficiency helps in an undisturbed thought-flow
process that can prove a godsend in both personal and
professional life. Remember it is the thoughts that take shape
and are expressed as words, ideas and gestures later on.
Without the thoughts, you will not be able to find a medium
for expressing yourself.
3. Language as a means of expression
There was a time when it was very difficult to express

your ideas and make others understand due to the lack of a
common language. Gestures and signs are well and good but
at the end of the day, you need simple words to communicate
your thoughts in a precise manner.
It is also not easy to interpret the signs clearly and correctly
and neither can you feel the emotion or the expression of the
speaker without the words. With time language was created
and it proved a blessing for people as proper interaction and
clear communication with the help of a common and shared
language became possible.
The importance of language was that with time it became
the means of expression amongst human beings. Remember
language opens the minds of people and makes them aware
of their surroundings. It acts as a guiding force that helps to
develop minds, perceptions and of course personality. The
importance of language is that it makes it possible to have a
meaningful conversation with a person. It helps to gather the
facts without assumptions so that a person can understand the
actual information and arrive at a decision.
Another importance of language is that it helps to convey
the emotions, feelings or gathered facts to someone else in a
precise manner. It is the language that provides an individual
with the ability to convey or transmit ideas effectively about
lots of things. It has become easy to express, understand,
identify, convey and interpret various states of emotion.
4. Language opens career opportunities
People who have a command over the common languages
spoken the world are considered highly educated and hence
gain the respect of others in the global community. The
importance of language is that a person who is proficient in
the use of a language that is common and is widely considered
as important and desirable has several career options open for
him.
It is, in fact, an inevitable requirement in several
professions and fields. This is the world of globalization The
ability to communicate is an important requirement of the
global business community.
A person proficient in commonly spoken language is an
urgent requirement of numerous industries and sectors so that
he can gather and compute all the available data and information
in such a language. This opens various career opportunities for
people all over the world.
5. Language makes it easy to have social contacts
One of the major differences between human beings and

animals is their ability to speak their minds effectively with the
help of a language. It is a proven fact that language is one of
the main components of civilization and moulds an individual
from birth.
A language is a tool that encourages the process of
human development. The child does not know any language
at birth but even without formal or informal training is able
to slowly and steadily recognize and understand most things
in the world. Parents, teachers, families, and friends shape the
development of a child with the help of language.
The communication skills help the child to learn the
complexities of language early on so that it can become a strong
foundation for the later years. Language is the foundation of
education and the child starts learning it in school verbally and
later in a written form. The language also helps children in
understanding literature and other various subjects that help to
give his future the necessary shape.
Developing various skills and know-how is also possible
only through a grasp of the language. Strong skills in language
are an asset that becomes a mode of effective communication
as well as a means of expressing their personality.
Social contacts are important in order to maintain social
relationships in society. It is the language that makes it easy
to develop these contacts and establish a cordial relationship
through interaction and cooperation.
6. Language as a means of personal development
A language is a form of expression that helps individuals
or groups to communicate and express their thoughts and
ideas. When two people meet it is the language that helps them
to understand each other’s views and thoughts. It also informs
each other about their feelings and what they are expecting or
trying to say to each other.
Suppose two people who are known to each other suddenly
meet somewhere. If they speak a language only then will they
be able to communicate their thoughts to each other in an
effective manner otherwise their meeting is of no significance?
The importance of language is that it helps to question,
provide answers to questions, communicate thoughts and
desires, and understand the expression and feelings of others.
Communication is possible via tone of voice, gestures,
emotions, expressions and no doubt words. In both personal and
professional life, it is communication via language that enables
teamwork and form bonds so that a person can better his life.
Another importance of language is that it helps to clear
misunderstandings between people via proper communication.
7. Language as a means of professional development
It has been proved that people with language skills have

a better chance at jobs than their counterparts who are not so
affluent in languages. The importance of languages in business
is that it helps you to create a professional identity that is distinct.
Being good at a language helps a person to listen,
understand, interpret and communicate effectively with the
people sitting opposite him. The importance of language is
that it is reflected in professional development through new
career opportunities.
As more and more business leaders are recognizing
the importance of languages the opportunities for career
advancements are also on an increase. The person who is fluent
in languages does not need a translator and can bond with the
clients easily. It can conduct all its conversation by itself so as
to develop a trustworthy and fruitful relationship that would
also prove beneficial in the future.
8. Languages help you in easy and safe traveling
Yes, it is the airplane that is going to take an individual to
a different country but it is his love of language that will help
him to understand the people and its culture in that country.
It also becomes easier to interact with everyone and ask for
directions or guidance if needed.
The best part of being a tourist or traveling to some other
place is soaking in the atmosphere of that place. It is possible
when you know the language and is able to converse with
others. The importance of language is that it helps in creating
instant connections and can lead to fruitful relationships.
Despite knowing the language, sometimes miscommunication
can occur because of mistranslation. It is not feasible to expect
everyone to understand whatever you are speaking.
When an individual decides to travel to another place in
a personal or professional manner, there should be a desire
to adapt to the new culture and this is possible via language.
Adaptability and the ability to communicate and interact are
dependent upon the grasp of an individual’s power over the
language. Remember it is seriously very difficult to adapt to
a place and get along with people if you are not aware of the
basics of the language of that place.
9. Language is important to society
The need to connect with others has resulted in the creation

and evolution of languages. It has played an effective role in
the growth of civilization since earlier times. It is because of
the existence of language that societies have formed that have
shared culture and understanding.
The importance of language in a society is immense. It is
the reason for gaining knowledge from different sources like
books, newspapers, online libraries, etc. The knowledge helps
in being aware of the environment and the audience and proves
helpful in gaining the necessary experience to handle other
people and difficult situations in the world. The language helps
people in society to express their different opinions effectively.
The importance of language is that it builds harmony
between individuals in a society that can lead to development
and progress. It also becomes easier to ask for cooperation and
help if needed. Language has been a boon as it has proved
its worth in expressing thoughts, ideas, feelings, and emotions
through words in society.
Remember it is shared knowledge and language that builds
a sense of camaraderie so that everyone feels an integral part
of the group. Language is a necessity in fostering a strong and
powerful close-knit family atmosphere where it is possible to
reinforce the objectives of the community so that everyone can
prosper and grow collectively.
It is also an important medium that helps in communication
with societies of our countries. Exchanging views and ideas
are only possible through the efficient use of language.
10. Language is used as a means for intellectual development
Tone, gestures, expression, and words are utilized together
to create a diverse and unique way of communication. The
importance of language is that it is used to organize thoughts
and ideas in mind, contemplate it and then speak with the help of
appropriate words in the language. This encourages intellectual
development whose main elements are communication skills
and language.
Intellectual development is a process of continuous
learning because this is the era of globalization. An individual
has to use imagination to visualize things that are not present
in front of him like a child who learns the art of visual thinking
in his very early years when he starts playing pretend games,
dressing up, etc. Another important step in the intellectual
development process is developing the ability for problem-
solving.
Creativity, concentration and reasoning understanding are
necessary tools that are to a great extent dependent upon the
learning of a language. The role and importance of language in
the development of intellectual development are unimaginable.
Proficiency of language
Languages are one of the most important factors in the
world. Most people speak multiple languages, and this is
becoming more and more common in countries like India. The
rise of globalization means that many Indians want to learn
other languages, both at home and abroad. However, there are
still many people who don’t know what language proficiency is.
What is Language Proficiency?
The first thing to understand is that it’s not about fluency. Flu-
ency is the ability to speak and understand a language, but it’s
not the same as language proficiency. Language proficiency
means that you can communicate in a foreign language, which
would make you more able to work or study abroad. One
should be able to understand the words of other people.
Developing Language Proficiency
Developing proficiency in any language begins with
word learning. Developing language proficiency improves
an individual’s capacity to communicate. Over time through
continued learning, language proficiency can be developed
and will help to improve your stay abroad.
Language Proficiency Level
The language proficiency level is reviewed by several
factors. There are two aspects in defining language proficiency
level. The first aspect defines how well one can use the
language and vocabulary taught at school, which is called the
functional level. The other definition includes your skill to
communicate orally, read information about the culture and
history of a specific country through books or media that does
not require previous knowledge on the topic.
Language learning to proficiently language learning is to
learn a language with some level of competence. It refers to the
mature speakers who have fluency, accuracy, and confidence
more than those at lower levels of performance due to their
daily lives experiences with the language at much higher than
native speakers.
The basic Language Proficiency levels are:
I. Limited Working Proficiency (LWP) – The speaker
can produce and understand simple sentences and has
an adequate command of grammar, but has a limited
vocabulary and cannot read or write fluently.
II. Professional Working Proficiency (PWP) – The speaker
has an adequate command of the grammatical structures
and words required for conversation, but does not have
much vocabulary or knows little about culture(s).
III. Full Professional Proficiency (FPP) – The speaker has a
broad range of knowledge including grammar, syntax,
and vocabulary.
IV. Native/Bilingual Proficiency – The speaker fluently
speaks an indigenous language as well as second or
additional languages. May also be able to read and write
fluently in their non-native languages.
2.2. Proficiency of home language and school language
Home Language
Home language is the language(s) a person speaks the best
and is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity. They may (or
may not) be the language of the majority.
From birth, children hear language around them. First they
understand it and then they start to use it themselves. In fact,
by the time they are five years old, children’s brilliant young
brains have helped them learn how to think and communicate in
their home language. They do still need plenty of opportunities
to hear and use their language so that they know it well enough
to learn increasingly difficult concepts and skills.
Mother tongue or home language programs that work
alongside the second language academic program. The best
of these offer the mother tongue lessons within the class day
with native language speakers where the students can be
supported with the vocabulary, concepts and learning which
is proceeding in the classroom. This is supported additionally
by intensive second language study, which again works both
within the classroom and in small groups; no program can
match the literacy of a child taught only in the mother tongue.
UNESCO has encouraged mother tongue (home language)
instruction in primary education since 1953 and UNESCO
highlights the advantages of mother tongue education right
from the start: children are more likely to enroll and succeed
in school, parents are more likely to communicate with teach-
ers and participate in their children’s learning, and children in
mother tongue education tend to develop better thinking skills.
Firstly learning does not begin in school. Learning starts

at home in the learners’ home language. Although the start
of school is a continuation of this learning, it also presents
significant changes in the mode of education. But when
learners start school in a language that is still new to them,
it leads to a teacher approach and reinforces passiveness in
classrooms. When learners speak or understand the language
used to instruct them, they develop reading and writing skills
faster and in a more meaningful way.
School Language
School language is the language used in textbooks,
in classrooms, and on tests. It is different in structure and
vocabulary from the everyday spoken English of social
interactions.
Learning in classrooms is primarily accomplished
through language. Teachers lecture, ask questions, orchestrate
discussions, and assign reading and writing tasks. Students
engage in academic tasks through reading, writing, exploring
the Internet, giving verbal answers to teacher questions,
listening to teacher lectures and student presentations,
participating in whole-class and instructional peer group
discussions, memorizing written text and vocabulary, and so
on. A major thrust of classroom research since the 1970s has
focused on the following question: What forms of classroom
language practice facilitate what kinds of learning? The
following points will help to improve the school language
among the second language learners.
Classroom practices to improve school language
1) The most obvious classroom practice for learning about
language is through the study of grammar and spelling.
As linguists point out, the grammar taught in school is a
prescriptive grammar and is not what linguists mean by
grammar (they mean a descriptive grammar).
2) Another typical classroom practice for learning about
language is the instruction of a second language.
Learning a second language can mean one of two things:
the learning of a foreign language or the learning of
English whose native language is not English. It is often
the case that the teaching of a second language includes
coverage of the grammar, vocabulary structures, and
history of the language.
3) One classroom language practice of interest to educational
researchers has been scaffolding. Scaffolding is the
process through which teachers and students interact
with each other by building on each other’s immediately
previous statement or utterance. For example, after
making a statement, a teacher might ask a student a
question intended to help the student elaborate or probe
the academic topic a bit further. The student, building on
the teacher’s question or comment, produces a statement
with more depth, complexity, or insight. The teacher
might then ask another question to scaffold the learning
even further, and so on. Through scaffolding, teachers
may be able to help students explore and understand
academic issues beyond what they are able to do on
their own. Scaffolding can occur between teachers and
students and also among students.
4) Mother classroom language practice that has received
a great deal of attention from educational researchers
has been the teacher initiation—student response—
teacher feedback/evaluation sequence (known as
I-R-F). It is also referred to as the asking of known-
information questions and recitation questioning. Of
concern to researchers and educators are the constraints
that such a conversational structure places on academic
learning. I-R-F sequences rarely provide students with
opportunities to provide long or in-depth responses, and
the knowledge displayed is contextualized by feedback
or evaluation that subsequently comes from the teacher.
I-R-F sequences rarely allow opportunities to explore
explanations or to debate issues. The teacher always
generates the topics, and thus students do not have
opportunities to ask questions. Further, I-R-F sequences
provide students with few opportunities to practice the
creation of extended spoken text. Research on I-R-F
sequences has also shown, however, that they may be
more complex and malleable than previously recognized.
For example, instead of just providing an evaluation of
the correctness of a student response, a teacher might
provide additional information and revoice a student
response in a way that models for students how to phrase
the statement in the academic jargon. Such revoicings
can be considered a kind of scaffolding. I-R-F sequences
may also be useful to display to the whole class what
counts as the knowledge for which they are accountable.
And I-R-F sequences may also be used by teachers as
a classroom management tool, ensuring that student’s
complete assignments and that they are paying attention.
5) A third classroom language practice that has received
a lot of attention has been sharing time (also known as
show-and-tell). Sharing time provides an opportunity
for young children to develop narrative performance
skills such as topic coherence, sequencing of events,
structuring narrative events, and adjusting a narrative to
an audience. Research shows that how students construct
a narrative during sharing time may reflect narrative
practices from their own families and communities. In
such cases, the narrative produced by the child may
differ from the narrative models that a teacher is using
to evaluate the child’s language performance, and as
a result the teacher may negatively evaluate the child.
The research on sharing time and similar classroom
language practices shows that there is great variation
in the narrative models, structures, and devices used
across cultures and that children may experiment with
many different types of narratives. Children adopt and
adapt narrative models from a broad range of sources.
In addition to suggesting the need for educators to be
sensitive to cultural variation in narrative performance
and in assessment of children’s language abilities, the
studies of sharing time show the close connections
among education, language, and cultural variation.
Difference between Home language and School language
The following point will help to understand better about
the home and school language.
Home Language School Language
Begins with telegraphic Can begin with full

1.
speech sentences
Is a new aspect in the
2. Is a natural part of daily life
learner’s life
It started no basis in gram-
3. It has a basis in grammar
mar
Doesn’t require conscious
4. Requires conscious effort
effort
Is based in listening as a first Involves technical knowl-
5.
resource edge of the language
6 Doesn’t require instruction It’s require instruction

2.3. Strategies for Enhancing Language Proficiency:
drama, essay, storytelling, group discussion, peer
tutoring
i) Drama:
Drama is a naturally expressive and creative medium
that is centered around the communication of thoughts and
ideas. It seems obvious that the practical and communicative
nature of drama is a natural companion to language learning,
yet it is seldom a key component of any language curriculum.
Drama has a much greater role to play in language teaching
than it currently occupies in classrooms around the world. As
Benjamin Franklin once said, “Tell me and I forget, teach me
and I remember, involve me and I learn.”
A vital component of learning a language is repeated
exposure to words and sentence structures in the target language.
The actual number of times a learner must be exposed to a new
word or structure before retaining it will differ from learner to
learner, as this is impacted by their natural abilities as well as
the size of their existing vocabulary within the target language.
Language educators worldwide recognize the need and
ensure that their students have the opportunity to learn a wide
range of words and sentence structures through Drama.
Through drama, there is an opportunity to give students
a real-life context for their learning, and by doing this,
learning experiences are made as more impactful. By varying
the content of these stories in terms of locations, characters,
themes, and so on, we can manufacture a wide and varied
diet of language input for students to engage with, all within
a natural and immersive context. This makes the learning
experience more meaningful for students and ultimately more
memorable. As students recall the events of a particular story
or the feelings it provoked within them, this acts as an effective
memory trigger, and the students are able to build connections
between the stories they have engaged with and the language
learned within.
ii) Essay:
Writing essays is one of the most effective ways to express
the thoughts, ideas, and experiences. Producing words allows
discussing a variety of topics in a well-crafted manner. Essay
writing also helps to learn a language quickly and more
efficiently.
Essay writing helps to think and speak in that language. By
continue practicing, it helps quickly to develop new thoughts in
the same language. The practice gradually leads to proficiency
in the language as obtained a deeper, better understanding of it.
iii) Storytelling:
A story can be used for teaching different language skills
and the teacher exploits the lesson with its full length. English
language teacher keeps precise and lucid learning objectives.
S/he always develops tasks very systematically. S/he designs
task from easy to complex. Teacher considers learners’
age, their social background and cultural background, their
previous language learning experience and relating their world
knowledge to the text. It sustains learner’s interest throughout
the class. Teacher uses authentic story to bring the real world in
the classroom and the language level of this story is appropriate
for this stage.
Teacher uses teaching aids keeping in mind about different
kind of the learner, like visual, auditory and kinesthetic. A
classroom consists of different types of learner and a good
teacher takes into account of all these important factors in
mind while making lesson plan for teaching language in the
classroom. Teacher uses wonderful techniques for teaching
integrated skills, through listening skills vis a vis reading,
writing and speaking skills and extends it for teaching language
forms and functions , from controlled tasks to free production of
language . Teacher uses peer-interaction techniques It provides
chance to correct themselves and to get involved in teaching
and learning process, making learners more cooperative and
free from teacher’s surveillance. A teacher should guide his
students instead of criticizing for their mistakes.
It develops creative thinking in the learners. Children
love fantasy and stories provide so much fantasy which makes
a bridge between their own imaginative world and their real
worlds.
Benefits of story telling
 Stories stimulate students’ imagination in which they
share their ideas in their own language.
 Language skills can be developed through stories.
 We can teach grammar indirectly by using stories in the
classroom.
 It develops listening skill as well as concentration skill
because children love listen stories very carefully.
Children are mischievous, can distract very easily but
stories helps to develop their concentration level.
 Children acquire unconsciously certain language items
e.g. use of words in certain context, guessing the meaning
of the words through context in the story, some sentence
patterns, some grammatical items etc.
 It provides opportunities for the learners to know about
the different cultures, manners, customs etc.
iv) Group Discussion:
Group Discussion or GD is a type of discussion that
involves people sharing ideas or activities. People in the group
discussion are connected with one basic idea. Based on that
idea, everyone in the group represents his/her perspective.
The GD or Group Discussion is used as an exam for
many organizations and schools. It tests the personality skills,
communication skills, teamwork, confidence, problem-solving
skills, social skills, behavior, and leadership abilities of a
candidate. It is also an essential part of short-listing candidates
for a job or admission to a university.
An intelligent candidate with good knowledge and skills
sometimes lacks communication skills, which can be a lack of
confidence, hesitation in speaking, unable to explain his/her point
of view, etc. Due to this, Group Discussion nowadays has become
an essential part of most of the organization and institutes
The process of group discussion
1. The process of a Group Discussion starts with the
announcement of the topic. The given topic could be
technical, factual, or case study.
2. Before beginning with the discussion, the preparation
time of 3 minutes is given. The time can also extend in
case of a long case statement.
3. Any participant in the group can initiate the discussion.
After the lead participant, anyone in the group can
continue the discussion. Similarly, everyone gets the
chance to speak. One after another, participants in the
group expresses their views on the given topic.
4. It ends when the panelist stops the discussion or may ask
one or more than one participant to summarize the GD.
Whenever you are asked for the summary, remember
to cover the discussed points. The summary cannot
include the words that were not part of the discussion.
The participants that were quite among the discussion
are generally asked to summarize it, which is a good
opportunity to present their views. But, it does not mean
that everyone should be quite. The summary should
include the essential discussed points and the conclusion
of the discussion.
5. The final scores are calculated. Based on the performance
of each participant, the panelist gives the scores. The
panelists are usually four to five to judge the performance
of candidates in the Group Discussion.
Advantages of group discussion
i. Increases confide: The GD allows the participants to
speak in public, which increases their confidence to
speak without any hesitation.
ii. Focuses on Deep thinking: It tests the knowledge of a
candidate. The participants get only a few minutes (3
to 5) for the preparation. In such a small duration, they
have to make a list of points to speak. The participants in
a group listen and understand other participants points of
view, making them think deeply about the topic.
iii. Improves Communication Skills:
GD helps the students to represent their views and ask
the questions. It not only increases the confidence of a
candidate but also enhances their communication skills.
iv. Removes hesitation of speaking:
Some candidates usually have hesitation in speaking in
public. At starting, such candidates might face difficulty
while speaking. But, after two or three Group Discussion,
it improves. Group Discussion helps such candidates
to speak loudly and express their views on the topic. It
further removes their hesitation in speaking.
v. Team Work:
Group Discussion is also based on teamwork. In a
company, it is very important to work as a team for the
assigned project. Due to this, the quality of working
together with team members is checked in the Group
Discussion. The panelist also judges the cooperation of
participants in the group. It allows participants to share
their views with other participants in the group.
vi. Behavior: It helps to understand the attitude and behavior
of the candidates towards other participants in a group.
vii. Listening Skills:
GD improves the listening skills of the candidates. For
example, the panelist may ask any candidate in a group
to summarize the discussion. A candidate can only
summarize if he/she has good listening skills. Due to
this, every candidate presents in the discussion listens
carefully. It further improves the listening skills of the
candidates.
viii. Diversity in the Ideas:
The Group Discussion involves sharing ideas with other
participants in the group. Every participant shares his/
her thoughts in the group, which makes the diversities in
the ideas.
ix. Recruitments: Group Discussion is widely used for the
recruitment process. It helps panelist to select a few
candidates from the group. It also helps them to judge
that the candidate is suitable for the organization or not.
v) Peer Tutoring:
Peer tutoring is an instructional strategy that consists of
student partnerships, linking high achieving students with lower
achieving students or those with comparable achievement,
for structured reading and math study sessions. According to
Rohrbeck, Ginsburg-Block, Fantuzzo, & Miller (2003), peer
tutoring is “systematic, peer-mediated teaching strategies”.
Peer tutoring is an effective educational strategy for
classrooms of diverse learners because it promotes academic
gains as well as social enhancement. Programs can be
successfully implemented at the classroom-level or on a wider
scale at the school — or district-level. With administrative
support and professional development, peer tutoring can help
teachers cope with challenges such as limited instructional
time, multiple curricular requirements, and appropriate social
engagement among students. Students engage in active learning
while staying abreast of the progress they are making. They
are held accountable for their achievement, and motivated by
social or tangible rewards. A goal of peer tutoring is to create
self-managed learners with high self-esteem.
Peer tutoring is particularly advantageous in inclusive
classrooms because it allows teachers to address a wide range
of learning needs and engages all students simultaneously.
Regardless of ability level, students can engage in and learn
from the lesson. Furthermore, the collaborative learning aspect
of the strategy encourages positive social interaction between
students in a classroom. By including traditional instructional
strategies along with peer tutoring, teachers can utilize the
ability differences inherent in an inclusive classroom, and
promote accessible and successful learning for all.
2.4. Nature of expository texts vs. narrative texts
Reading coursework in a particular content area helps
students better understand what they learn in classrooms. In
the contemporary classroom, literacy instruction is one of the
most important disciplines for preparing students for higher
education, and all the teaching learning classroom teachers
said they always spent more time on reading activities. This
teaching helps children how to read, educators also can equip
their students with the learning tools necessary, and not
only to succeed throughout their education and careers but
also in everyday activities such as reading habits. Literacy
in education involves a number of learning aspects, but one
of the most important factors is reading comprehension. All
reading instruction, including phonics, fluency, and vocabulary
development, leads to the ultimate goal of comprehension.
These reading comprehension narratives and expository texts
help with complication or problematic events and find the
resolutions to solve the problems.
Different between Expository and Narrative.
Different types of text require the students to use for

different types of skills and there are many different styles of
writing that are educators are taught in schools. Expository
texts require a reader to “construct meaning” while reading,
however, narrative texts focus more on the “elements” of
storytelling. Expository texts draw more on background
knowledge and evoke processing of details, whereas narrative
texts elicit processing of the thematic structure and not so
much of details. It is critical for educators to teach students,
all the skills necessary to use for different texts because
expository texts use different text structures and more complex
grammar to get information across than narratives. However,
more importantly, these necessary skills have to be taught in
the primary grades students and continued into the secondary
grades. Narrative and expository texts have different purposes;
here is the some difference purposes between Expository and
Narrative.
Difference between Expository and Narrative texts
It is factual and contains a lot It contains figures of speeches
of details in the form of facts.
The content is organized. While, it can be without
chronology
It is mostly factual. Whereas, It can be both fact
and fiction.
It is used by authors mostly It is used by authors writing
in text books. novels and short stories.
It require the use skills of It require such skills
comparing and contrasting, of understand theme,
drawing conclusions, and characterization, and overall
evaluating the overall text. story structure.
Expository texts can include Narrative reading is grouped
magazines, biographies, around novels, plays, short
newspapers, essays, techni- stories, poetry and folktales
cal documents and subject
matter textbooks.
The main purpose of The main purpose of narrative
expository text is to inform, text is to tell a story
describe, and report.
Expository (Informational) Text Structure:
Expository text is information-based text, which it’s, exists

to provide facts in a way that is educational and purposeful.
Consequently, educators can teach the child the prospective
six main types of expository text:
1. Process (how-to),
2. Problem-solution,
3. Comparison-contrast,
4. Definition,
5. Classification, and
6. Cause-effect.
Each of those has its slightly different structure and purpose
and the purpose is merely to inform-to provide information.
Some common examples are:
1. Textbooks
2. News articles
3. Instruction manuals
4. Language books
5. Self-help books
Expository texts strive to educate children based on facts,
rather than telling a story. Most expository texts are structured
to facilitate the study process for prospective, however, most
children find expository texts more difficult to comprehend than
narrative texts but this is particularly the case for struggling
reading children. There are several reasons why expository
texts pose a challenge in the learning text because children
are often unfamiliar with expository texts as most reading
activities in the early grades in elementary school.
Most of the expository text is typically structured with
visual cues such as headings and subheadings, which provide
clear cues as to the structure of the information. Teaching these
structures can help students recognize relationships between
ideas and the overall intent of the text.
1. Introduce the text structures in order, starting with
description and finishing with compare/contrast.
2. Introduce and work on a single text structure in each
lesson.
3. Prepare short passages (about six to eight lines) for the
text structure you are going to work on in that session.
The problem teacher’s face is that expository text reading
tends to be more difficult for students than a typical story.
Several characteristics of expository text may contribute to
this difficulty:
1. Technical vocabulary
2. High density of facts
3. Unfamiliar content
4. Cognitively demanding concepts
There are several strategies teachers can use to help
students identify the text structure. Learning to recognize the
structure of expository text may help students focus on the
important information in a particular passage and can serve as
a foundation for attaining the other text structure objectives.
Narrative text type
The narrative is central to children’s learning, and it tells a
story with a lot of emotion. Teachers can use different types of
text reading to promote growth in teaching-learning behaviors,
but it is very difficult for a teacher to explaining without an
example, how a story works, and what elements are make up
a story. However, students should know how narrative texts
work and how to read them, because stories are used for many
important purposes. The primary purpose of narrative text is
to entertain readers and narrative is essentially telling a story,
but the detailed purpose may vary according to the genre. So
teachers can increase their teaching effectiveness in reaching
more students by integrating content narrative text literacy
with best strategies into their regular classroom instruction.
Effective narrative techniques provide deeper meaning for
the children and help them to use imagination to visualize
situations and it is an important part of teaching-learning
because of using content area literacy strategies, students may
increase their abilities to internalize writing content of courses.
Difficulties of Narrative
Many students in the classroom may have difficulty
achieving reading skills, and these difficulties may become
even more serious over time if instructions are not modified
to address the students’ specific needs. Unless these students
receive appropriate intervention from their teacher, they will
continue to struggle, and the gap between their educational
achievement and that of their peers will widen over time.
Narrative texts are consistently found to be the most difficult
texts for students at school, and even for teachers when teaching
them narrative writing. Many teachers separate personal
narratives from short stories, while it was more challenging
to get them to make something up from scratch because the
narrative is a story. This term can be used as a noun or an
adjective. As a noun, narrative refers to the story being told. It
is the account of events, experiences, and details. It also refers
to the story-telling process.
Importance of using Narrative
The narrative structure is about story and plot and every
child loves a story, and every educator wants to tell a story
with their student, but everyone cannot relate to a story. That
is why it is important to use narratives. The narrative text
includes any type of writing that relates a series of events and
includes both fiction and nonfiction. They are indirectly tied
into standards on narrative texts where children are required to
think deeply about a text and engage in higher-order thinking.
Students need to learn the purposes and methods of narration
in order to understand their framework and to eliminate the
entire problem when they read. When students know the
narrative elements very well, they can more easily follow the
storyline and make successful predictions about what is to
occur in the story. In addition, understanding these elements
develops higher-level thinking skills. An important part of
narrative text is the narrative mode, the set of methods used to
communicate the narrative through a process narration. It is an
engaging writing style, and it immediately invites the audience
into the world and offers them a chance to participate in the
story which is telling. A reader can easily get wrapped up in
a narrative, but it is also a style that invites discussion and
participation. By using it tell that this story is not over. They
can take it home and think about it. They can retell it, add to it
and change it.
Students fail their studies in a school for a variety of
reasons. In some cases, their academic difficulties can be
directly attributed to deficiencies in the teaching and learning
environment. The teacher must first understand the pressing
need for specific expository comprehension instruction in
the elementary grades in order to affect change in modern
classrooms. Expository text is not only an important component
in the classroom but a constant companion in everyday life.
Teachers can increase their effectiveness in reaching more
students by integrating content literacy strategies into their
regular classroom instruction. Teachers need to first understand
comprehension and its significance for literacy in order to teach
and remediate reading comprehension strategies to students.
Comprehension is building bridges between the new and the
known. The process of comprehension is active, not passive;
in other words, the reader cannot help but interpret and alter
what he reads based on his prior knowledge about the topic.
2.5. transactional Vs. reflexive texts.
Meaning: Transactional texts are written with the purpose
of communicating ideas and information between individuals.
The term ‘transactional text’ is used for texts that are specifically
dependent on communication between two or more people to
gather or provide information.
Students who practice transactional forms of writing in
their classroom will have lots of opportunities to practice it
in their jobs. It is important, therefore, that students learn to
do it clearly, correctly, concisely, coherently, and carefully. It
includes all writing dealing with facts, theories, information
or persuasion, e.g., in newspapers, textbooks, manuals, and
recipe books. It includes the writing of historians, journalists,
scientists, advertisers, and philosophers.
Functional text is another name for transactional text. It
refers to text that has a more obvious purpose, very often a
business purpose. It is concerned with events in day-to-day
living. Transactional texts also include a broad range of text
types such 120 as business letters, friendly emails, invitations,
speeches, and interviews. Students need to learn to understand
and compose both social and business text formats to be
successful in school, the workplace, and social settings. It also
includes the published records of proceedings such as papers
read, addresses delivered, or discussions at the meetings
of a learned society or the like. It reflects the interaction of
an individual with one or more other persons, especially as
influenced by their assumed relational roles of parent, student,
or adult.
There are two types of transactional texts based on their
length. One is longer transactional texts which includes the
writing of letters, reviews, reports, diary entries, memoranda,
and minutes. There are shorter transactional texts like the
writing of the body copy of an advert or a poster, messages,
postcards, notices, flyers, e-mails, friendly letter, etc. Business
letter, invitation, diary extracts, minutes, articles, feature
articles, editorial reviews, and formal reports can also be
categorised as transactional texts.
Characteristics of Transactional texts:
Transactional texts intend to communicate, persuade or
inform. Transactional letters should be brief. Typically, they
include a short opening paragraph thanking the recipient
for their prior communication. A transactional letter usually
contains two main paragraphs, one to establish the topic and
the second to elaborate on it. The ending is brief and formal,
as befits a professional communication. In every piece of
transactional writing, you will find a specific purpose, which
is addressed to specific audience and it reflects a particular
context. The style of transactional writing will be different
based on the type of the text like formal in minutes, intimate in
a postcard, casual in a letter etc.
Example
1. Invitation
2. Agenda
3. Advertisement
Agenda
Department of English
Virudhunagar Hindu Nadars’ SenthikumaraNadar
College,Virudhunagar
Organizes Seven Day National Workshop on
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATIONSKILLS
S.No Date Topic Resource Person

1 15.2.2021 Introduction to Dr.N.Mahalakshmi
language Skills Assistant Professor
2 16.2.2021 Art of commu- Dr.R.Anandam
nication and its Assistant Professor of
Types English
3 17.2.2021 Developing Dr.N.Mahalakshmi
Receptive Skills Assistant Professor
4 18.2.2021 Developing Ln.Dr. S. Ramanathan
Productive Skills Assistant Professor
5 19.2.2021 Introducing Your- Ln.Dr. K. N. Sharmila

self and Body Assistant Professor of
Language English
6 20.2.2021 Effective Dr. N. Mahalakshmi

communication Assistant Professor
7 21.2.2021 Public Speaking Dr.N.Mahalakshmi
and Speaking in Assistant Professor
Groups
Reflexive texts
We are familiar about or at least heard of reflective
writing. But reflexive writing is a strange one. Therefore, it
is important to be clear about the difference between reflective
writing and reflexive writing. Below are given two texts. Read
them and identify the difference between texts 1, and 2.
1. The night was very dark and I was frightened. I was
always been afraid of ghosts. Whenever I was alone in the
dark, I was afraid that a ghost lurking in some dark corner
would suddenly spring on him. And tonight it was so dark that
one could barely see one’s own hand. I had to go from one
room to another. As I stepped out of the room, a feet seemed to
turn to lead and my heart began to beat like a drum. Rambha,
our old maidservant was standing by the door. “What’s the
matter, son?” she asked with a laugh. “I am frightened, Dai,” I
answered. “ Frightened, child! Frightened of what?” “See how
dark it is! I’m afraid of ghosts!” I whispered in a terrified voice.
Rambha patted my head affectionately and said, “Whoever
heard of anyone being afraid of dark! Listen to me: Think of
the lord and no ghost will dare come near you. No one will
touch a hair of your head. The god will protect you.” Rambha’s
words gave me courage. Thinking of the lord, I left the room.
And from that day, I was never lonely or afraid. I believed that
as long as lord was with me, I am safe from the danger.
2. This workshop was held during last week at the
SharadaNivas College, Tumkur. Talks by learned resource
persons were effective and useful. The need, strategies, and
methods of good listening were beautifully analysed. The
workshop helped to eliminate the bad habits of people while
conversing and clear the conditions for effective listening.
During one of the presentations I was surprised to know that
we really hear only 25% of what others speak. This focused
my attention on the importance of listening. We should make
conscious efforts to listen to someone who is speaking. Most of
the people pretend to listen to satisfy me and when I confront
them with some questions, they say, ‘will you please repeat
what you said’. But my mother is a very good listener. She
keeps nodding her head making signs ensuring her listening.
The best part is, she even repeats what I say and asks questions
based on that. I really love it. Sometimes I wonder why we not
learn from the examples that are just in front of us.
In texts 1 we can see that experiences have influenced the
individuals to such an extent that they have changed the life of
these people. In 2, such an impact is not seen. The individual is
reflecting on the past events and of course, might have learnt and
decided to follow it up in future life. The first is reflexive text
and the second one is reflective text. Reflective texts describe
a real or imaginary scene, event, interaction, passing thought,
memory, form, adding a personal reflection on the meaning
of the item or incident, thought, emotion or situation in one’s
life. Reflection achieves some learning, but the learner is the
“same person” afterwards. Reflexivity achieves learning, but
also leaves the learner changed as a result. So (very crudely!)
we could say that reflexivity is reflection + self- change. In
reflexive (self-reflective) texts, you will find the text coupled
with personal experience. For example, you might find about
how a person developed as a thinker, writer, or researcher; or
how a particular process or event was unfolded to him. The
key is that this writing engages the writer. As well as sharing
insights with readers, reflexive writing contributes as “an
important component of intellectual work”.
Example
My father had been suffering of gangrene for more than

a year and 4 times operated on right leg. starting from cutting
of 1 finger to cutting whole right leg. A real painful process he
had gone through. We are two sisters, both married and living
in other city than our parents.To be honest- Being a working
woman and a mother of 1 year old, I had been little selfish. I
had got too much engrossed with my “own” family, priorities,
profession and all that I never realised that the time I am
delaying to spend with my father- is time I may not ever get!
I always promised myself long weekend to long vacation to
spend with papa as quality time. I kept on delaying it for this-
that reason. At last I promised the Diwali vacation- to spend
with papa. Made plans as well to help him come out of downs
and improve at physical-mental health. A day before Diwali
vacation a late-night call blurred my imaginary plans. Papa
called and just asked me to visit him the coming morning. I
could sense pain and longing in his voice. I left early morning.
Every passing moment while travelling killed something
within. I reached home finally. From the open door I could
see papa looking at door, without blinking even once. The
last step I took on stairs, exactly was moment papa ended his
wait. My mom had no words other than saying- He just asked
where have you reached… just asked! This changed my mind
altogether. After this I have been very careful to the needs of
others. I do not want to repeat the same with my mother. I have
shifted to her place along with my husband and kids.
Transactional vs. Reflective
Transactional texts are written with the purpose of
communicating ideas and information between individuals. The
term ‘transactional texts’ is used for texts that are specifically
dependent on communication between two or more people to
gather or provide information.
Transactional texts include book reviews, term papers,
laboratory reports, research projects, proposals, and doctoral
dissertations; outside school, such writing takes the form of
letters, memos, abstracts, summaries, proposals, reports, and
planning documents of all kinds
• Functional Writing is another name for Transactional
Writing. This kind of writing includes letters, e-mails,
advertisements, and other writing that can be part of a
business transaction or is part of the broader business
world.
• One is longer transactional texts which includes the
writing of letters, reviews, reports, diary entries,
memoranda, and minutes.
• Shorter transactional writing includes the writing of the
body copy of an advert or a poster, messages, postcards,
notices, and flyers. Transactional writing is very
important because you will practice this kind of writing
in your future business career.
• While writing transactional type of texts, one needs to
consider the purpose, audience, context, and style.
• The assessment of transactional writing needs to be done
in such a way that helps students to improve this form of
writing.
• Reflexive texts are different from reflective texts.
Reflection achieves some learning, but learner is the
“same person” afterwards. Reflexivity achieves learning,
but also leaves the learner changed as a result. So (very
crudely!) we could say that reflexivity is reflection +
self- change.
• In reflexive (self-reflective) writing, one can present
personal experience. For example, one might write about
how he developed as a thinker, writer, or researcher; or
how a particular process or event unfolded for him. The
key is that this writing engages the person.
• As well as sharing insights with readers, reflexive writing
contributes as “an important component of intellectual
work”. In many cases, self-reflection is a means of
argumentation in which you use your experience to
make a point about the importance of a particular event,
process, or form of knowledge.
• Reflexive essays often focus on an experience and an
explanation of how that experience changed the person
or aided in the growth of a person as an individual.
• Often a challenging form of learning, reflexive essays
are important for developing critical thinking skills and
learning how to express opinions in greater depth.
2.6. Reading comprehension skills
Reading comprehension is now thought to be a process that
is interactive, strategic, and adaptable for each reader. Reading
comprehension is not learned immediately, it is a process that
is learned over time. In other words, reading comprehension
takes practice.
Here are ten (10) effective tips and strategies that teachers
can share with students to improve their comprehension of a
text. These are strategies for all students. If the students have
dyslexia or other special learning requirements, they may need
additional strategies.
1. Generate Questions
A good strategy to teach all readers is that instead of just
rushing through a passage or chapter, is to pause and generate
questions. These can either be questions about what has just
happened or what they think might happen in the future. Doing
this can help them focus on the main ideas and increase the
student’s engagement with the material.
After reading, students can go back and write questions
that could be included in a quiz or test on the material. This will
require them to look at the information in a different manner.
By asking questions in this way, students can help the teacher
correct misconceptions. This method also provides immediate
feedback.
2. Read Aloud and Monitor
While some might think of a teacher reading aloud in

a secondary classroom as an elementary practice, there is
evidence that reading aloud also benefits middle and high
school students as well. Most importantly, by reading aloud
teachers can model good reading behavior.
Reading aloud to students should also include stops to
check for understanding. Teachers can demonstrate their own
think-aloud or interactive elements and focus intentionally on
the meaning “within the text,” “about the text,” and “beyond
the text” (Fountas & Pinnell, 2006) These interactive elements
can push students for deeper thought around a big idea.
Discussions after reading aloud can support conversations in
class that help students make critical connections.
Strategies to Improve Reading Comprehension
i) Promote Cooperative Talk
Having students stop periodically to turn and talk in order
to discuss what has just been read can reveal any issues with
understanding. Listening to students can inform instruction
and help a teacher to can reinforce what is being taught.
This is a useful strategy that can be used after a read-aloud
(above) when all students have a shared experience in listening
to a text.
This kind of cooperative learning, where students learn
reading strategies reciprocally, is one of the most powerful
instructional tools.
ii) Attention to Text Structure
An excellent strategy that soon becomes second nature is
to have struggling students read through all the headings and
subheadings in any chapter that they have been assigned. They
can also look at the pictures and any graphs or charts. This
information can help them gain an overview of what they will
be learning as they read the chapter.
The same attention to text structure can be applied in
reading literary works that use a story structure. Students can
use the elements in a story’s structure (setting, character, plot,
etc) as a means of helping them recall story content.
iii) Take Notes or Annotate Texts
Students should read with paper and pen in hand. They can
then take notes of things they predict or understand. They can
write down questions. They can create a vocabulary list of all
the highlighted words in the chapter along with any unfamiliar
terms that they need to define. Taking notes is also helpful in
preparing students for later discussions in class.
Annotations in a text, writing in the margins or highlighting,
is another powerful way to record understanding. This strategy
is ideal for handouts.
Using sticky notes can allow students to record information
from a text without damaging the text. Sticky notes can also be
removed and organized later for responses to a text.
iv) Use Context Clues
Students need to use the hints that an author provides in a
text. Students may need to look at context clues, that is a word
or phrase directly before or after a word they may not know.
Context clues may be in the form of:
• Roots and affixes: origin of the word;
• Contrast: recognizing how word is compared or
contrasted with another word in the sentence;
• Logic: considering the rest of the sentence to understand
an unknown word;
• Definition: using a provided explanation that follows the
word;
• Example or Illustration: literal or visual representation
of the word;
• Grammar: determining how the word functions in a
sentence to better understand its meaning.
v) Use Graphic Organizers
Some students find that graphic organizers like webs and
concept maps can greatly enhance reading comprehension.
These allow students to identify areas of focus and main ideas
in a reading. By filling in this information, students can deepen
their understanding of the author’s meaning.
By the time students are in grades 7-12, teachers should
allow students to decide which graphic organizer would be
most helpful to them in understanding a text. Giving students
the opportunity to generate representations of the material is
part of the reading comprehension process.
vi) Practice PQ4R
This consists of six steps: Preview, Question, Read,
Reflect, Recite, and Review.
Preview: Students scan the material to get an overview.
The question means that students should ask themselves
questions as they read.
The four R’s have students read the material, reflect on
what has just been read, recite the major points to help learn
better, and then return to the material and see if you can answer
the questions previously asked.
This strategy works well when coupled with notes and
annotations and is similar to the SQ3R strategy.
vii) Monitor Understanding
Some students prefer to annotate, while others are more
comfortable summarizing, but all students must learn how to
be aware of how they read. They need to know how fluently
and accurate they are reading a text, but they also need to
know how they can determine their own understanding of the
materials.
2.7. Language skills and literacy skills
Language skills
One definition of “language” is “a system of symbols that
permit people to communicate or interact. These symbols can
include vocal and written forms, gestures, and body language.”
Another way to describe language is in terms of the four basic
language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
People generally learn these four skills in the following order:
1) Listening: When people are learning a new language
they first hear it spoken.
2) Speaking: Eventually, they try to repeat what they hear.
3) Reading: Later, they see the spoken language depicted
symbolically in print.
4) Writing: Finally, they reproduce these symbols on
paper.
Literacy skills
Literacy skills are all the skills needed for reading and
writing. But, what are the different writing and reading literacy
skills, Literacy skills include listening, speaking, reading and
writing. They also include such things as awareness of the
sounds of language, awareness of print, and the relationship
between letters and sounds. Other literacy skills include
vocabulary, spelling, and comprehension.
Reading Literacy skills
Reading is the process of looking at written symbols and
letters and understanding the meaning of them. There are lots
of literacy skills that are involved in developing vital reading
literacy skills. Reading skills contribute to a child’s reading
ability - in other words, how well they can read and understand
what they’re reading. There’s a wide variety of reading skills
that children develop and work on throughout their primary
education and beyond. These reading literacy skills include:
1) Decoding: The decoding definition in reading is the
process of working out how to say (or how to begin
sounding out) an unfamiliar written word. This process
makes it easier for children to understand, recognise and
figure out the meaning or pronunciation of words they
may not have seen before.
2) Phonemic awareness:Phonemic awareness is a
component of phonological awareness that exclusively
refers to the observation of phonemes. It refers to the
ability to focus on specific individual sounds in spoken
words.
3) Reading fluency:Reading fluency brings word recognition
and comprehension together. It’s the last main skill that’s
needed to be able to read. Fluency allows you to read
smoothly without getting stuck on your words.
4) Reading comprehension: Reading comprehension is the
understanding of what has been read through the learning
and processing of readingskills. Reading comprehension
is a crucial skill in adult life, too. For example, we need
reading comprehension skills to be able to understand
important letters, contracts, work documents, emails etc.
Writing literacy skills
Writing involves transcription (spelling and handwriting)
and composition (articulating ideas and structuring them in
speech, before writing). Similarly to reading literacy skills,
there are a lot of different writing literacy skills that come
together to form written literacy.
Phonological awareness:Phonemic awareness (an
awareness of sounds that make up words) is the ability to hear
and play with the individual sounds of language, to create
new words using those sounds in different ways. This happens
naturally as children develop.
Breaking down parts of language helps children to
understand it more clearly. It becomes the building blocks
for how they learn. These parts of language are mostly learnt
intuitively by listening to their parents and others around them
speak.
Words are made up of various sounds besides just
consonants and vowels, including:
• Digraphs: Two letters which form a single sound, such
as the ‘ea’ in ‘bread’ or the ‘ng’ in ‘song’.
• Onsets: The part of a syllable just before the vowel of
that syllable. In the word ‘cat’ the onset is the /c/ sound.
• Rimes: A syllable’s vowel and the sound immediately
after. In ‘cat’, the rime is the /at/ sound.
Vocabulary: Everyone typically has two types of
vocabulary: active and passive.Active vocabulary is the words
that a person knows and is able to use accurately in speech and
writing.The passive vocabulary contains words that a person is
aware of, but wouldn’t necessarily be able to use accurately in
context.It’s important to nurture a child’s passive vocabulary
so that they can in turn expand their active vocabulary.
Spelling: Spelling is the arrangement of letters to make
a word. Learn to spell words, including irregular spellings,
helps children to learn to read earlier (and it’ll help with their
writing too). Understanding spelling patterns and concepts
will be especially helpful when they encounter new words they
haven’t come across before.
Reading Comprehension
Understanding the meaning of what’s being read is the
final step for developing literacy skills. This involves being
able to make inferences from a text, as well as identifying
patterns and clues to make predictions.
For example, if a child reads about a character wearing an
elaborate dress and a crown, they should be able to infer that
the character is royal; perhaps a princess or a queen.
Literacy skills can be divided into three main areas:
information literacy, digital literacy and media literacy.
Information Literacy
Information literacy is what we traditionally think of
when we think of literacy skills. It involves working with
information, such as using the levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy
(remembering, understanding, applying, analysing, evaluating
and creating).
This type of literacy mainly involves reading, researching
and writing. It uses more traditional ways of consuming
information, such as reading a book or a newspaper article.
It’s not just about consuming information, though. Being
able to think critically and make balanced judgements about
the information we find and use is an important part of being
information literate. It gives us the opportunity to learn new
information, reach conclusions and express informed views.
Information literacy helps us to engage fully with what we
read and draw our own thoughts and opinions from it.
Digital Literacy
Technology has become a huge part of our everyday

lives, and so it’s brought with it a new form of literacy: digital
literacy. Simply put, digital literacy involves the ability to use
technology effectively and for a purpose.
When we’re digitally literate, we can have a range of
literacy skills, including:
• reading websites;
• using search engines;
• accessing videos and podcasts;
• evaluating web resources;
• using e-mail, chat services, texts;
• blogging;
• using social media sites;
• using map searches;
• researching on the Internet.
Digital literacy gives us a whole new way to communicate
and discover new information.
Using technology also means we have to evaluate what we
see more than ever. Anyone can post anything to the Internet,
so an important part of digital literacy is being able to evaluate
what we see and decide the trustworthiness of sources.
Media Literacy
Media literacy is about understanding the different ways
that information is produced and distributed. There are many
forms of media, with new ones being created all the time.
Forms of media can include:
• blogs;
• Tweets;
• podcasts;
• videos;
• e-books;
• social networks;
• e-mails;
• streams;
• TV;
• film.
Information, digital and media literacy skills are all
essential for children to learn. In today’s world, information
is being recienved through various channels all the time. It’s
important for students to learn how to digest this information,
evaluate it, and use it to form and share their own thoughts
and opinions.Learning these types of literacy skills also
prepare learners for life outside of school and beyond their
education. They need these skills to communicate with others
and understand the world around them.
2.8. Linguistic education: academic language and social
Language, CALP skills, BICS skills, conceptual
literacy.
The acronyms BICS and CALP refer to the length of time
required by immigrant children to develop conversational
skills in the target language and grade appropriate academic
proficiency in that language.
ICS = social language
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) refer
to linguistic skills needed in everyday, social face-to-face
interactions. For instance, the language used in the playground,
on the phone, or to interact socially with other people is part of
BICS. The language used in these social interactions is context
embedded. That is, it is meaningful, cognitively undemanding,
and non-specialized. It takes the learner from six months to
two years to develop BICS.
CALP = academic language
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)
focuses on proficiency in academic language or language
used in the classroom in the various content areas. Academic
language is characterized by being abstract, context reduced,
and specialized. In addition to acquiring the language,
learners need to develop skills such as comparing, classifying,
synthesizing, evaluating, and inferring when developing
academic competence. It takes learners at least five years to
develop CALP. Research from Collier and Thomas (1995) has
shown that it may take children with no prior instruction or no
support in native language development at least seven years to
develop CALP.
Social English is the language of everyday communication
in oral and written forms. Examples include:
− students are talking to their friends on the playground or
in the school bus
− students are having an informal face-to-face conversation
− students go to the grocery store and read the shopping list
ELLs’ social English may start developing within a few
months. However, it will likely take a couple of years before
ELLs fully develop social English skills in listening, speaking,
reading, and writing.
Difference between Academic English and social English
Academic English and social English are not two separate
languages. Academic English is more demanding and complex
than social English. An ELL student with social English
proficiency may not necessarily have the academic English
proficiency. It is important for you, the teacher, to make this
distinction. Academic English is the language necessary for
success in school. It is related to a standards-based curriculum,
including the content areas of math, science, social studies,
and English language arts.
For example:
In math you can teach your students all the terms for
subtraction, like “subtract,” “take away,” and “decreased by.”
In science, you can teach the terms to connect the parts
of an experiment, like “therefore,” “as a result,” and “for
instance.”
For social studies, you can teach the words and also the
background knowledge that ELLs will need. For example,
when you mention Thanksgiving, an English-speaking student
may think of the first European settlers on the east coast
during the 17th and 18th centuries. But for an ELL, the word
“Thanksgiving” may not mean much by itself.
In English language arts, you can teach ELLs by using
basic graphic organizers for word development to visually
represent knowledge. ELLs can write a word and then explore
its connections and relationships.
Conceptual literacy
‘Language across the Curriculum’ is not only a question of
the extension of language competencies as such (in its different
dimensions and contexts), but rather it is the development of
“conceptual literacy” and “discourse competence”. We need
to understand these two terms. What is conceptual literacy?
It is the ability to think clearly about concepts with the help
of language. Thinking involves language and imagining and
understanding something, identifying the attributes in the
form of words and phrases. Discourse competence is different
from this. It means to apply linguistic abilities acquired for the
purpose of communicating clearly about relevant topics and
thematic structures. In the first case, the student comprehends,
and in the second case, the student expresses in the form of
sentences what he/she has understood. For example, the
student understands what a triangle is and explains or vocalises
/ expresses / articulates what a triangle is in the second case.
Hence, language is not only a tool for expression as many
of us think, but more importantly it is a tool to understand
and comprehend things because as we understand something,
we keep interacting with ourselves by verbally identifying
the attributes. For example, when we see a rose, we say to
ourselves that it is red in colour, it is a flower, it is soft, etc.
In the context of academics, we identify the concepts by
using rational “academic” style, based on subject-specific
conventions and registers. The integration of the two related
concepts mentioned above, namely, conceptual literacy and
discourse competence can be labelled as academic literacy.
LAC helps to achieve this academic literacy. In conclusion,
LAC, in the broadest sense aims at enabling students to
manage the diverse discourse functions involved in academic
and/or vocational work. Thus, it develops academic/vocational
language proficiency for satisfactory participation in the
relevant discourses. These discourse functions can largely be
divided into a number of mental-linguistic macrostructures,
namely, describing/reporting, naming/ defining, explaining /
exemplifying, arguing/supporting, assessing, and evaluating.
Evaluation
1. Explain about language and their meaning, concept
2. spell out proficiency of home language
3. Writ about school language
4. Difference between proficiency home language and
school language
5. what are source of developing school language
6. what is meant by nature of expository text
7. Explain narrate text
8. explain briefly linguistic education
9. write a short notes on conceptual literacy
10. what are the source of developing school language?
11. describe strategies for enhancing language proficiency
12. Write a short notes on Essay, story telling and peer
tutioring
13. What are the skills to develop reading comprehension
14. write about story telling and group discussion
UNIT-III:
INTEGRATED CURRICULUM AND LANGUAGE
EDUCATION
3.1. INTEGRATED CURRICULUM TYPES, MEANING,
KEY FEATURES, OBJECTIVES TYPES OF
INTEGRATION
Definitions
Integrated curriculum, interdisciplinary teaching, thematic
teaching, synergistic teaching... When attempting to define
integrated curriculum, it is also necessary to look at related
terms. Several definitions are offered here. As this paper is
narrowed to K-12 integrated curriculum, definitions from
vocational and higher education are not included, although
there is a growing interest in both of those areas in the
interdisciplinary, integrated curriculum. The reader interested
in specifics about interdisciplinary work in those fields is
invited to consult the General References at the end of this
report.
Types of integrated curriculum
Integrating multiple subjects into a common theme can
happen in the following three ways:
1. Interdisciplinary
Bringing together all the branches or subcategories of a
broader subject and teaching students the connection among
the same. The classic example is social sciences where
government functioning, economics and math are taught as
an integration. The relation is direct and teachers plan the
connection intentionally.
2. Fusion or multidisciplinary
Science is the best example. Forces taught in physics can
easily be connected to chemical reactions in chemistry which,
in turn, is an influential concept in biology that explains
human metabolism. Multiple disciplines are taught together
and students are shown the bridge that connects them all.
In contrast, teaching these subjects as standalone topics can
become monotonous and may often seem without purpose.
3. Service-learning or trans disciplinary

A type of integrated curriculum where real-world issues
are connected to the theory taught in the classrooms. Through
various social drives, students can come across real-world
issues that are challenging humanity now. From climate change
to food scarcity, these need solutions. Trans disciplinary
integration connects the science and skills that the school
teaches to these issues and prompts students to brainstorm
solutions that can be put into effect.
Characteristics of an Integrated Curriculum
An integrated program includes:
 Experiences to develop children’s attitudes, skills, and
knowledge and to help them make connections across
the curriculum
 Activities that provide for a range of abilities
 Activities that are both teacher-initiated and
directed and child-initiated and directed
Whole class, small group, and individual experiences
 Opportunities for critical and creative thinking
 Opportunities to experience learning as a meaningful
whole
Curriculum features of integrated curricula
In this study, official curriculum documents of GS (
CDC, 1994; CDC, 1997; CDC 2002) were scrutinized and
key words were extracted and classified against the literature
about curriculum integration (e.g. Cromwell,1989; Jacobs,
1989; Shoemaker, 1989; Miller, Cassie & Drake, 1990; Caine
& Caine, 1991; Gardner, 1991;Lazear, 1991; Marsh & Willis,
1995; Lake, 1995). The results of literature search indicated
that four categoriesof features were advocated in the official
curriculum documents
1. Holistic learning
Subject integration is based on the research of the human
brain suggesting that the best way to help children to learn
was to make connections (e.g. Cromwell, 1989; Caine &
Caine, 1991; Brooks & Brooks, 1993). Miller (1993) asserted
that children would easily build up their knowledge of a topic
or a concept by making links to other content or concepts,
particularly their inter-relationship and applications. The GS
Curriculum claims that integration of subjects or topics may
be able to help children to learn for understanding (CDC,
1994). The holistic feature of a curriculum was hence defined
in this study as the extent to which a curriculum makes links
between knowledge content and concepts and helps children
to understand the interconnection among topics, themes or
disciplines in a cohesive manner.
2. Relevancy to learners’ life
Many educators (e.g. Jacobs, 1989; Shoemaker, 1989)
argued that the content of school subjects should be relevant
to learners’ real world experiences because pupils would be
more interested in the content that was meaningful to their
daily life. Integration would make the content more relevant to
pupil’s daily life and learners would hence be better motivated.
The curriculum documents of GS (CDC, 1994; CDC, 1997)
emphasized the provision for daily examples which are relevant
to pupils’ lives. Curriculum developers hope that pupils would
find the content of GS interesting and relevant. This study
adopted an operational definition for the “relevancy” feature
of a curriculum as the extent to which a curriculum is related
to pupils’ daily life, sustains pupils’ motivation and interests;
caters for the needs of individual pupils and helps pupils
capitalize their own experiences.
3. Development of problem-solving skills
Educators (Driver & Bell, 1986; Driver, 1990; Mestre
& Lochhead, 1990) asserted that thoseacademically able
students could perform well in examinations but they
lacked problem-solving skills forpractical applications. The
GS Curriculum emphasizes whether classroom activities
could effectivelyprovide “minds-on” and “hands-on”
learning processes for pupils (CDC, 1994). In particular, the
GSCurriculum recommends teachers to adopt more inquiry
investigations, problem solving methods, andcooperative
group learning activities (CDC, 1997). In this study, the
working definition for the feature of“problem-solving” was
the extent to which a curriculum developed pupils’ thinking
and hands-onexperiences in solving real-world problems, and
provided them with opportunities to apply what they hadlearnt
4. Science-technology-society (STS) approach
STS education was a movement of science education
which was increasingly adopted in North America early in
the 1980s. National Science Teachers Association (NSTA)
defined STS as “the teaching and learning of science and
technology in the context of human experience” (NSTA,
1990, p.47). According to Solomon (1993), an STS approach
focuses on students’ understanding of the environmental
threats to the quality of life as well as of the fallible nature
of science. It also focuses on the economic and industrial
aspects of technology. In Hong Kong, the GS Curriculum
claims to be able to facilitate STS education through the
integration of three subjects, viz., Primary Science, Social
Studies and Health Education (Fung, 1994). In order to
identify the curriculum features, this study adopted the
working definition of the STS approach as the extent to
which a curriculum helped pupils understand the scope
and limitations of science for resolving societal and
environmental issues and the interaction of science and
technology in our society, and cope with the problems of
the society from multiple perspectives and in a positive
manner.
The true objectives of integrated education are to:

• Provide the same opportunities and educational
experiences for blind children as those provided for
sighted children
• Allow blind children – and their families, neighbours,
and friends – to interact socially in normal situations
• Change the typical public response to blindness by
demonstrating that blind children are children first and
blind children next
• Provide a natural basis for adult life experiences so
that blind students may take their proper places as
contributing members in all sectors of society.
Integrated education is not simply placing a child in a
regular classroom. The child needs assistance. Blind children
can easily assimilate more than 80% of teaching and experience
in the regular classroom if they are provided with the correct
material in the correct form at the correct time. Therefore,
development of the right educational environment will make
integration of blind children a reality.
3.2 LEVELS OF CURRICULUM INTEGRATION
The five levels on the original synthesized continuum were:
1. Departmentalized.
This approach is the traditional model of separate and
distinct disciplines taught in isolation from each other.
Students travel to six or seven subjects a day, each not
conceptuallyconnected to the other.
For example, a student may study Jack London in language
arts, fission in science, the Antebellum South in social studies,
and percents in mathematics.
2. Parallel.
Topics or units of study are rearranged and resequencedto
coincide with one another. Similar ideas are taught in concert
whileremaining separate subjects. The content itself does not
necessarilychange, only the order in which it appears.
For example, when the social studies teacher teaches about
WorldWar II, the language arts class may read The Diary of
Anne Frank or thephysical education teacher may reschedule
his unit on American folkdancing to coincide with the social
studies unit on the WestwardExpansion.
3. Complementary or Shared Units of Study.
Related disciplines are brought together in a formal unit
to investigate a theme or issue. Shared planning and teaching
take place in two or more disciplines in which overlapping
concepts or ideas emerge as organizing elements.
For example, the mathematics teacher may teach grid
points while the social studies teacher teaches longitude
and latitude concepts. Or, the language arts teacher may
facilitate students reading stories about islands as the
science teacher covers volcanoes and island formation.
These teachers plan the unit of instruction and find ways to
support each other’s instruction.
4. Webbed .
Connections, or webs, are made between curriculum
contents and disciplines relative to a productive theme; subjects
use the theme to sift out appropriate concepts, topics, and ideas
sometimes called interdisciplinary units. Teams may remain in
class periods for instruction or use more flexible blocks of time
for instruction.
For example, teachers working together, usually organized
on an interdisciplinary team, identify a topic such as sea life or
a theme such as conflict and each member of the team teaches
that topic or theme such as conflict and each member of the
team teaches from the perspective of their discipline.
5. Integrated Themes.
Although themes for study can be, and often are, imposed
on students by teachers and others, the most successful
integrated themes are generated by students, based on their
personal and social concerns. Larger blocks of time (longer than
a class period) are generally necessary to investigate themes.
The learning of subject matter is woven into the investigation
of themes. Skills, competencies, concepts, and generalizations
are taught, but within a context that is authentic to student
questions.
For example, after structured discussion, students decide
to study the future. They generate questions they want to
investigate such as when they will die, or how will they make a
living, or what will be the condition of the environment. They
learn mathematical concepts while probing longevity statistics,
they read and write as they explore career opportunities, and
they explore numerous science concepts as they predict the
future of the environment. (Irvin & Schumacher, 1991,pp. 11-
12)
3.3 MODELS OF CURRICULUM INTEGRATION
Curricular approaches also focus on differentaspects like

subject matter, learners and society. Hence there are various
ways todefine curriculum-development for which several
models can be developed. Mostmodels can be classified as either
technical or scientific models or non-technical ornon-scientific
models. The classification of a model as non-technical or non-
scientificshould not be seen in a negative light. Instead those
educators who emphasize subjectmatter approaches adopt the
scientific or technical approach to curriculum development.
Advocates of learner-centered and problem centered designs
formulate non-technicalor non-scientific curriculum designs.
Technical-Scientific Models
According to this point of view, “Curriculum
development... Is basically a plan for
structuring the environment to coordinate in an orderly
manner the elements of time, space. Materials, equipment and
personnel.” (Feyereisn, et. al. 1970.) The curriculum can be
comprehended from a macro or broad point of view and its
prime objective is the education of the individual. It enables
the educationists to work with a plan in mind. Curricula can
thus be planned to achieve optimal student learning, through a
scientific organization of its components into a complex unit.
Let us discuss three models under the Technical-Scientific
Approach.
1. Taba’s Model
2. Goodlad’s Model
3. Hunkins’s Developmental Model
Taba’s Model
Tabs’s grassroots model has seven steps as listed below,
advocating a major role forteachers. These are –
Diagnosis of needs - Identify needs of the students for
whom curriculum is to be planned.
Formulation of Objectives - Specify the objectives by
which needs will be fulfilled.
Selection of Content - Select subject matter based on
objectivesand determines validity of the chosencontent.
Organization of content - Arrange the content in a
particularsequence keeping in mind the maturityof learners,
academic achievement,interests etc
Goodlad Model
In this model the basis of formulating educational aims
is the analysis of values of the existing culture. These aims
are translated into educational objectives, which are stated in
behavioural terms. Learning opportunities are provided based
on the learning objectives, for example providing courses or
readings.According to Goodlad, educational planners deduce
specific educational objectivesfrom these learning opportunities
and general objectives. From these objectives, the curriculum
planners design and or select organizing centers, which provide
learningopportunities for a group of students or a student.The
model is characterized as a technical-scientific one because its
various parts areinter-connected. Feedback and adjustment of
the entire model result fromanalyzing thestudent’s performances
and relating them to the values of the generalsociety. [John
L. Goodlad and Maurice N. Richter, 1966; in Ornstein and
Hunkins, 19881
Non-technical Non-scientific Models
The nomenclature of this category of models should not
mislead you into believing thatsuch models are non systematic
or non rational and neither do they suggest any degreeof
disorder. This approach to curriculum development focuses
on the learners’ self-perception of needs and preferences.
Learners in this approach are involved in thecurriculum
planning process. The technical-scientific models on the other
hand relymore heavily on the view of experts and demands
of subject matter, while consideringlearner’s needs. Hence
we can say that technical-scientific models primarily focus
onsubject matter whereas non-technical non-scientific models,
which focus on learnerneeds and subject matter and society,
become secondary. Both the camps are looking at curricula
from different frameworks.Let us now discuss three models
under this category:
1. Open classroom Model
2. Wienstien and Fantini Model
3. Roger’s Model of Interpersonal Relation
Open Classroom Model
The Open Classroom Model is based on the Activity
Curriculum. The proponents ofactivity curriculum do not believe
in planning any activity for the children. In their viewplanning in
advance could stifle the child’s development. This movement was
encouraged by William Kilpatrick at the time when
learning was teacher dominated and learners were passive
recipients of knowledge. According to the activity model,
children learnt by doing and were free to move around in
the classroom. Another popular supporter of the model
is Herbert Kohl (I 969). He believes that open classroom
is a place where learners can, “...make choices and pursue
what interests them.” The teacher also finds that “the
things that work best for him are the unplanned ones,
the ones that arise spontaneously because of a student’s
suggestion or sudden perception.”Open classroom model
emphasizes freedom of the child from teacher control andfrom
a rigid curriculum. The child should choose goals as per needs,
interests andaptitudes and thus choose his own curriculum.
The model places great faith in thechild’s ability and advocates
learner autonomy.
Weinstein and Fantini Model
This model is based on the belief that teachers
generate new content and techniquesby keeping the
learner central to the whole process. They can assess
the relevance of the existing curriculum, content and the
instructional methods employed. Based on theassessment
the curriculum is modified to meet the learner needs.
First step in the process of curriculum d velopment is to
identify the learner group. Since learners are taught in
groups, their interests and characteristics form the basis
of teaching. This is followed by identification of student
concerns, and because of this 82 the model is called non-
scientific or non-technical. Concerns of the learner determine
organization of content. More than demands of the subject
matter they organize ideas Models of CurriculumDesigning and
Developmentand content based on learner needs. The sources
of content could be - Learners’feelings, students’ identity,
experiences of a growing person, and students’ knowledgeof
the social content. The type of content will determine the
skills to be developed bythe students. The last stage is the
identification of teaching procedures. The modelaims to
develop feelings of self-worth in the learners after interaction
with contentand teachers. It emphasizes enhancement of self-
image of the learner and instills inthem a confidence and belief
in themselves [OmsteinandHunkins, 19881.
Roger’s Model of Interpersonal Relations
Carl Rogers (1979) has developed a model for changing
human behaviour which canbe used forcurriculumdevelopment.
In this model the emphasis is on human experiencesrather than
content or learning activities. He believes that by interacting
in a group,learners can solve their problems. They express
themselves honestly and exploreeach other’s feelings. Rogers
contendsthat the groupexperience”permits individuals...to
know themselves and each other more fully than is possible
in the usual social orworking relationships,the climateof
openness,risk taking and honesty generatestrust”,which
permits each participant to “test out and adopt more innovative
and constructivebehaviours.” In short, the model promotes
curriculum change by changing theparticipants involved in
curriculumdevelopment” [Omstein and Hunkins, 19881.
3.3.1. MULTIDISCIPLINARY INTER-DISCIPLINARY
TRANS DISCIPLINARY AND SPIRAL
CURRICULA
Multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and convergence
research are some of the most predominate research approaches
requested by funding opportunities. The terms can seem
interchangeable because of their vague and similar definitions.
However, the approaches do have subtle differences that are
important when it comes to responding to funding opportunities.
Multidisciplinary research takes place when faculty
from different disciplines work independently on a common
problem or research question. In this approach, faculty share
research goals and work on the same problem, but look at it
from their own discipline’s perspective. The findings from each
discipline are supplementary to each other. The advantage to
multidisciplinary research is that each aspect can be analyzed
by a particular specialty, which is often necessary to answer
complex research problems.
There are times when research needs things to go a step
farther than multiple disciplines each looking at a problem
through their own lens – that is when interdisciplinary research
happens.
A National Academies report titled Facilitating

Interdisciplinary Research, defines interdisciplinary research
as, “a mode of research by teams or individuals that integrates
information, data, techniques, tools, perspectives, concepts,
and/or theories from two or more disciplines or bodies of
specialized knowledge to advance fundamental understanding
or to solve problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a
single discipline or area of research practice.” In other words,
rather than working independently, with interdisciplinary
research disciplines interact and work collaboratively.
Interdisciplinary research relies on shared knowledge.
When this happens, a fundamental shift can take place over
time and a new interdisciplinary field emerges. For example,
biochemistry, nanoscience, and neuroscience all emerged as
interdisciplinary fields that eventually grew to become their
own disciplines.
Recently, another term – convergence research – is at the
forefront of research opportunities coming out of a number of
federal agencies. For instance, the National Science Foundation
(NSF) named Growing Convergence Research as one of their
10 Big Ideas.
When defined, convergence research has similarities
with multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research. Like
interdisciplinary research, convergence research involves
integrating disciplines and shifting thought processes, but
convergence research takes things even further. In the National
Academies report Convergence: Facilitating Transdisciplinary
Integration of Life Sciences, Physical Sciences, Engineering
and Beyond, convergence research is explained as “a
comprehensive synthetic framework for tackling scientific
and societal challenges that exist at the interfaces of multiple
fields. By merging these diverse areas of expertise in a network
of partnerships, convergence stimulates innovation from basic
science discovery to translational application.”
A convergence approach to research integrates insights

and approaches from what have historically been distinct
scientific and technological disciplines. At its core, two things
are necessary in convergence research: 1) It must be deeply
collaborative, involving a deep integration of disciplines; and
2) It results in a positive societal impact.
With small but distinct differences, it may be helpful to

think of these three approaches to research as stepping stones
that build upon one another. Multidisciplinary research is
the building block of both interdisciplinary and convergence
research. Likewise, interdisciplinary research has led to
convergence research, which goes beyond the integration
of disciplines to bring together disciplines that have not
historically worked together and adding the component of
societal impact. As research approaches evolve, it is likely
that in another decade it will be said that convergence research
is a stepping stone to the next approach being pursued by
researchers and funding agencies.
3.4. COYLE’S 4C’S OF CURRICULUM
The lighter version
• CLIL is complex and context-sensitive.

• There are generalparameters for CLIL.
• These are: Cognition, Culture, Content, Communication.
• Any particular CLIL model or methodology needs to
consider the relative value/importance of the parameters
above.
• Language as a learning tool operates in three ways: OF
– FOR – THROUGH
Coyle’s 4C’s model. Exposure to language is thought to be
essential in CLIL as it is through this that learners will acquire
the target language. As we have seen, this language may well
vary in register (BICS/CALP, instructional/ regulative). It
may also be spoken or written and produced by the teacher
or delivered through aids such as reading passages or videos.
Teachers will provide this input when, for example, they explain
something to learners, describe visuals or processes, give their
opinion in a whole class discussion, provide feedback to a
learner/ learners, organise project or group work, engage in
oral whole class exploration of a new concept, etc. However,
experts in language acquisition such as Krashen, Lightbown,
Ellis have long maintained that in order to learn from and
through exposure to language, learners need to be exposed not
just to any language but to what they term ‘comprehensible
input’, a term elaborated by Krashen (1982), which refers to
language which is just above the learners’ current level of
competence. They have also maintained that language can be
learnt, and, indeed is mainly learnt, through acquisition rather
than learning i.e. by being exposed to it rather than focussing on
it. In CLIL, exposure is obviously required to enable language
learning, but it is also required to communicate about subject
content and to enable the teaching of the other C’s (culture/
community, cognitive skills). This means a teacher will need
to be able to gauge whether the language they themselves
are using seems to be at the right comprehensible level for
students, and if not, be able to modify it. They will similarly
need to gauge the language of any materials or aids they use,
and modify the language in them if it is at the wrong level.
There is a very nice quote from Swan (1994) that captures the
essence of providing comprehensible input in the classroom:
“Good teaching involves a most mysterious feat-sitting, so
to speak, on one’s listener’s shoulder, monitoring what one
is saying with the listener’s ears, and using this feedback to
shape and adapt one’s words from moment to moment so that
the thread of communication never breaks.
The 4Cs Framework of CLIL (Coyle et al., 2010; Coyle,
2011) As illustrated in Figure 1, the four elements of CLIL-
content, communication, cognition, and culture-are interrelated
in teaching and learning in both the first language and the target
language (Coyle et al., 2010). Content refers to knowledge
used in a real sociocultural context. Communication is referred
to as the way in which learners use the foreign language, as
the target language, to communicate. Cognition refers to
cognitive or thinking skills that learners engage with to drive
the instructional process. Culture (intercultural skills) refers to
understanding learners’ own culture and other cultures. Among
the 4Cs, communication plays an important role because it
requires an awareness of different types of language as used
for different purposes. Dalton-Puffer (2007) asserted that the
CLIL approach requires a reconceptualization of language
roles, thus in implementing CLIL in the classroom, three kinds
of language learning, “the Language Triptych” (Coyle et al.,
2010), need to be incorporated, including the language of
learning, the language for learning, and the language through
learning.
3.5. CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED
LEARNING APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) has
become the umbrella term describing both learning another
(content) subject such as physics or geography through the
medium of a foreign language and learning a foreign language
by studying a content-based subject
Importants CLIL
With the expansion of the European Union, diversity of
language and the need for communication are seen as central
issues.
• Even with English as the main language, other languages
are unlikely to disappear. Some countries have strong
views regarding the use of other languages within their
borders.
• With increased contact between countries, there will be
an increase in the need for communicative skills in a
second or third language.
• Languages will play a key role in curricula across Europe.
Attention needs to be given to the training of teachers
and the development of frameworks and methods which
will improve the quality of language education
• The European Commission has been looking into the
state of bilingualism and language education since the
1990s, and has a clear vision of a multilingual Europe in
which people can function in two or three languages.
CLIL work
The basis of CLIL is that content subjects are taught and
learnt in a language which is not the mother tongue of the
learners.
• Knowledge of the language becomes the means of
learning content
• Language is integrated into the broad curriculum
• Learning is improved through increased motivation and
the study of natural language seen in context. When
learners are interested in a topic they are motivated to
acquire language to communicate
• CLIL is based on language acquisition rather than
enforced learning
• Language is seen in real-life situations in which students
can acquire the language. This is natural language
development which builds on other forms of learning
• CLIL is long-term learning. Students become
academically proficient in English after 5-7 years in a
good bilingual programme
• Fluency is more important than accuracy and errors are
a natural part of language learning. Learners develop
fluency in English by using English to communicate for
a variety of purposes
• Reading is the essential skill.
CLIL in the classroom
CLIL assumes that subject teachers are able to exploit
opportunities for language learning. The best and most common
opportunities arise through reading texts. CLIL draws on the
lexical approach, encouraging learners to notice language
while reading. Here is a paragraph from a text on fashion:
The miniskirt is a skirt whose hemline is high above

the knees (generally 200-300 mm above knee-level). Its
existence is generally credited to the fashion designer Mary
Quant, who was inspired by the Mini Cooper automobile,
although André Courrèges is also often cited as its inventor,
and there is disagreement as to who invented it first.
The language to be looked at in a passage like this falls
into three categories - subject specific, academic and other
lexis including fixed expressions and collocations:
Subject specific Academic Other language

above the knee(s)
miniskirt credited
credited to
hemline designer
inspired by
knee-level cited
cited as
fashion designer invented
disagreement as to
The treatment of this lexis has the following features:
• Noticing of the language by the learners
• Focus on lexis rather than grammar
• Focus on language related to the subject. Level and
grading are unimportant
• Pre-, while- and post-reading tasks are as appropriate in
the subject context as in the language context.
The future of CLIL
There is no doubt that learning a language and learning
through a language are concurrent processes, but implementing
CLIL requires a rethink of the traditional concepts of the
language classroom and the language teacher. The immediate
obstacles seem to be:
• Opposition to language teaching by subject teachers
may come from language teachers themselves. Subject
teachers may be unwilling to take on the responsibility.
• Most current CLIL programmes are experimental. There
are few sound research-based empirical studies, while
CLIL-type bilingual programmes are mainly seen to be
marketable products in the private sector.
• CLIL is based on language acquisition, but in monolingual
situations, a good deal of conscious learning is involved,
demanding skills from the subject teacher.
• The lack of CLIL teacher-training programmes suggests
that the majority of teachers working on bilingual
programmes may be ill-equipped to do the job adequately.
• There is little evidence to suggest that understanding of
content is not reduced by lack of language competence.
Current opinion seems to be that language ability can
only be increased by content-based learning after a
certain stage.
• Some aspects of CLIL are unnatural; such as the
appreciation of the literature and culture of the learner’s
own country through a second language.
Benefits of CLIL
Many teachers see CLIL as a more natural way to learn a
language; when a subject is taught in that language there is a
concrete reason to learn both at the same time. And as students
have a real context to learn the language in, they are often
more motivated to do so, as they can only get the most of the
content if they understand the language around it.
Moreover, being content focused, CLIL classes add
an extra dimension to the class and engage students, which
is especially advantageous in situations where students are
unenthusiastic about learning a language.
CLIL also promotes a deeper level of assimilation – as
students are repeatedly exposed to similar language and
language functions and they need to produce and recall
information in their second language.
Furthermore, it has the advantage that multiple subjects can
be taught in English, so that students’ exposure to the language
is increased, meaning their language acquisition is faster.
3.6. NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK (NCF-
2005)
The National Curriculum Framework is one of four
National Curriculum Frameworks published in 1975, 1988,
2000 and 2005 by the National Council of Educational
Research and Training NCERT in India. The document
provides the framework for making syllabi, textbooks and
teaching practices within the school education programmes in
India. NCF 2005 has been translated into 22 languages and has
influenced the syllabi in 17 states. The NCERT gave a grant to
each State to promote NCF in the language of the State and to
compare its current syllabus with the syllabus proposed, so that
a plan for reforms could be made. Several States have taken
up this challenge. This exercise is being carried out with the
involvement of State Councils for Educational Research and
Training (DSERT/SCERT) and District Institutes of Education
and Training (DIET).
The Document is divided into 5 areas:
 Perspective
 Learning and Knowledge
 Curriculum Areas, School Stages and Assessment.
 School and Classroom Environment
 Systemic Reforms.
Salient Features of NCF 2005
• Ncf 2005 discusses each level of school education. It
includes pre-primary, primary, upper primary, secondary
and higher secondary schools.
• For this, 21 center groups were formed.
• The basic premise of Ncf 2005 is the Indian Constitution
– a secular, egalitarian, pluralistic society based on the
core values of social justice and equality.
• It Distinguish between knowledge and information. For
understanding instead of rote learning.
• Under this action is considered a major tool for the child
to know the world. Students should get the opportunity
of self-study, exploring the natural world and social
environment. Therefore, students can construct
knowledge on their own.
• It provides Curriculum equity, for inclusive education.
• NCF recommends reduced Curriculum burden for
students.
• It integrates environmental education with other school
subjects.
• It develops a humane, student-friendly evaluation
system.
• Emphasis on grading and
• Builds participation in the school system and other civic
groups.
• It suggests that emphasis should be given on critical
pedagogy and quality and accountability should be
ensured in education.
• Ensures student activity and availability of ease of
thinking in learning.
• NCF’s aim is to provide a rich, nurturing, experiential
learning environment.
• It encourages communication and participation.
Objectives
The objectives of NCF 2005 were determined according
to the needs of the society. National Curriculum Framework
2005 to be made according to the situation of the country and
in view of the present education system.
Its objectives were determined as follows:
1. National Integration –national unity, sovereignty,
integrity were given a new look in NCF 2005 and it was
created keeping in mind the main aspects like linguistic
difference, religious difference prevailing in the nation
so that the students of all levels of the country can be
developed.
2. Teaching Methods – The teaching methods being used
in teaching work were not according to the present
circumstances. There was a need to adopt new teaching
methods as per the framework of NCF 2005. For
example, emphasis on the use of play methods to provide
education to young children through play and games.
3. Social Importance –NCF 2005 was created keeping
in mind the social importance. National Curriculum
Framework 2005 was designed keeping in view the
needs and requirements of the society.
4. Mental and Intellectual Development – Its main
objective was to make the intellectual development of
the students. To prepare the students for future problems
and to make their mental level so strong that they can
learn to be normal in every situation.
5. Physical Development – Suitable changes were also
made in its teaching methods for the physical development
of the students. Sports were given prominence in co-
curricular activities so that the physical development of
the children could be done.
6. Teaching Objectives – According to the structure of
NCF 2005, new learning objectives were included in
education. It was necessary to choose the educational
objectives according to the present conditions of society.
7. Interest Importance – Its main objective was to make
the curriculum according to the interest of the students. Its
goal and objective were to make the curriculum student-
centered and to implement the education according to
the interest and levels of the students.
8. All-round Development – Curriculum
Structure 2005
was designed for all-round development (cognitive,
functional) of the students. So that the students can
develop at all levels. Based on the important objective
of education, it was included in the objectives of NCF
2005.
9. Development of culture – Its purpose was to develop
Indian culture and to propagate culture.
10. Development of moral values – It was necessary to
develop Indian civilization and democratic moral values
among the students. So that the students can be well
acquainted with the condition of the nation.
Principles
NCF 2005 adopted 8 principles. Following whose path
the National Curriculum Framework 2005 (NCF 2005) was
created –
1. Humanity Principle – For the development of human
qualities in the students and for the development of the
spirit of cooperation among the citizens, it was necessary
that the qualities of humanity should be developed
in them. Therefore, this principle was followed in the
construction of its structure.
2. Multiculture Principle – People of all types of religions
live in India and everyone has their own culture and
people of all religions respect each other’s culture for
the nature of unity in diversity and for the propagation of
this culture. Indian culture was included in it.
3. Social Theory – Keeping in view the social values
and social needs, it was necessary that the NCF 2005
(National Curriculum Framework 2005) should be
prepared according to the social conditions. So that the
real objectives of education can be achieved.
4. Unity Principle – Keeping in mind the unity, integrity
and sovereignty of India it was destined to be built. In
view of the observance of secularism and the view of
equality of fundamental rights, it was necessary that the
principle of unity should be followed at the time of its
creation.
5. Adjustment Theory – For the development of the art of
adjusting (change in behavior according to the situation)
with the society in the students, it is necessary that the
skill of adjustment should be developed in them through
teaching. For this, this principle was incorporated in the
NCF 2005.
3.7. RECOGNITION OF MOTHER TONGUE
Mother tongue can often be referred to as your first language
or native language. It is the language that you most commonly
speak. However, mother tongue is always referencing the
language that the child has used from birth and in important
and impacting times in the child’s life.
For example, there are instances where a child is brought
up until school age using a particular language at home spoken
by their mother, father or other family members, but due to
living in another country begins to adopt the language spoken
in their interactions in groups or school. But if the child comes
back home continually to another language, this is impact can
be lessened.
Mother tongue for a child involves more than just language
and includes the child’s personal, social and cultural identity.
The choice of words and expression carry different meaning
across cultures and where in one language asking direct
questions is considered intrusive, in another it is inquisitive.
This means that the language chosen when speaking is thought
about before it is delivered.
MOTHER TONGUE IN EDUCATION
Mother tongue in education refers to when a school or
educational institution integrates the language a child is most
familiar with (their mother tongue) into the classroom lesson
along with the school’s lesson (such as English). This is
normally the language that the child speaks at home with their
family.
Some children (particularly those that grow up in a mixed
race parent household or those living abroad) already know
two or more languages by the time they reach school age,
which in education terms means that their mother tongue is the
language most spoke at home.
If this is two languages, then the child is lucky enough to
have two mother tongue languages since their ability in both
languages is equal. However, this is very rare as most commonly
in households, one of the languages is predominantly used
over another.
Research shows that children learn better when taught in
their mother tongue, however it is not always possible.
The importance of mother tongue
The importance of mother tongue is studied because when
children develop their mother tongue, they are simultaneously
fostering a whole host of other essential skills, such as critical
thinking and literacy skills. It is these skills that they take with
them into formal education, and research tells us that any skills
and concepts gained in the learner’s home language don’t have
to be re-taught when they transfer to a second language.
For example, if a child has developed the ability to guess
the meaning of a word through its context, or to infer meaning
by reading between the lines, these skills are easily transferred
when they begin studying in a second language. It is much
harder, however, to teach these abstract skills directly through
a second language.
Role of mother tongue in child development
It’s also well known that a strong mother tongue foundation
equips children with the skills they need to learn additional
languages, allowing them to transfer their understanding of the
structure of language to several new languages. The intuitive
understanding of grammar that develops when children learn
their first language can easily be passed on to other languages.
With multilingualism becoming an increasingly sought-
after attribute within the workplace, this advantage cannot be
overstated; globalization and increased co-operation between
nations mean that, in many organizations, it has become a
requirement to have language skills in addition to being a
specialist within a particular field.
Language and mother tongue also play a huge role in the
development of personal, social and cultural identity. Children
with a strong foundation in their first language often display
a deeper understanding of themselves and their place within
society, along with an increased sense of wellbeing and
confidence. Naturally, this flows down into every aspect of
their lives, including their academic achievement.
Mother tongue plays a huge role in the development of
personal, social and cultural identity
This is, of course, one of the reasons why bilingual
education systems are growing in popularity around the world
and many international schools are focusing their resources on
establishing strong mother tongue programmes.
Parent workshops outlining the importance of the mother
tongue are becoming increasingly popular because many
parents mistakenly believe that they should only speak to
their children in the school’s language of instruction, often
contributing to children not gaining complete fluency in either
their first or second language.
In Cambodia, for example, our EAL (English as an
Additional Language) specialists regularly invited parents
into school for evening workshops. They outlined research
showing how children learn languages, discussed the school’s
teaching methodology for language learning, and, most
importantly, explained the importance of a strong mother
tongue foundation and the vital role that parents play in
developing and maintaining this.
When I taught in Bratislava, we encouraged children
to bring in books written in their home language(s) and to
share these with the class. Sometimes, children chose to read
small extracts out loud, allowing them to demonstrate more
developed reading skills, whilst simultaneously building pride
in their own culture and developing respect for all cultures
within the school. This was just one small part of the jigsaw
that made up our in-depth mother tongue programme.
Irina Bokova, UNESCO director general, said on the
role of mother tongue in education: “Mother languages in a
multilingual approach are essential components of quality
education, which is itself the foundation for empowering
women and men and their societies.”
Advantages of mother tongue in education
There are many benefits to a child learning in their mother
tongue language in the classroom:
• Mother tongue makes it easier for children to pick up
and learn other languages.
• Mother tongue develops a child’s personal, social and
cultural identity.
• Using mother tongue helps a child develop their critical
thinking and literacy skills.
• Research shows that children learning in mother tongue
adopt a better understanding of the curriculum.
• Skills learnt in mother tongue do not have to be re-taught
when when the child transfers to a second language.
• Children learning in mother tongue enjoy school more
and learn faster due to feeling comfortable in their
environment.
• Self-esteem is higher for children learning in mother
tongue.
• Parent child interaction increases as the parent can assist
with homework.
• Studies show that children that capitalise on learning
through multilingualism enjoy a higher socioeconomic
status earn higher earning
Evaluation
1. What do you mean by integrated curriculum
2. explain the revised integtated curriculum
3. describe the characteristics of integrated curriculum
4. explain briefly level of integrate curriculum
5. explain the models of curriculum integration
6. write short notes on spiral curriculum
7. explain the recognition of mother tongue
8. explain the reason for importance of mother tongue
9. what are challenges of mother tongue learning
10. write a short notes on role of mother tongue in child
development
11. describe the coyles’s 4c ‘s curriculum
12. How to improve mother tongue learning
UNIT-4
THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Psychological theories of language learning differ in

terms of the importance they place on nature and nurture.
Remember that we are a product of both nature and nurture.
Researchers now believe that language acquisition is partially
inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our
linguistic environment (Gleitman & Newport, 1995; Stork &
Widdowson, 1974)
4.1 Plato’s problem theory of language
Best known as the famous student of Socrates and one of

the greatest philosophers, Plato is where we begin our journey
to understanding the nature of language learning (~400 B.C.).
One of his more predominant ideas was that human beings
are born with innate knowledge (a priori knowledge). In short,
people come into the world knowing things they aren’t taught.
Human beings don’t live a long time (they certainly
didn’t 2000 years ago) and yet they accomplish so much in that
limited time. This is known as, “Plato’s Problem”. Plato be-
lieved that some knowledge, including language, was innate.
This was why most people can talk early on in life.
Plato set it off from the start. From this point, linguists
go back and forth trying to figure out whether or not we’re
actually already born with the abilities to speak a language or
if we have to learn everything on our own. As you will see, the
debate is not clear cut.
4.2. Cartesian theory of language production
You may have heard of famous the French philosopher
and mathematician Descartes. And if you haven’t, you may be
familiar with this famous saying, “Cogito ergo sum,” otherwise
known as, “I think, therefore I am.” As a philosopher, Descartes
spent a great deal of time trying to understand what we can
say we know with absolute certainty. At the end of the day, he
mused, the only thing we know for certain is that we exist. And
we can prove that with our ability to think.
Descartes didn’t write Cartesian Linguistics. In fact, he
wasn’t really concerned with language-learning other than
the fact that it was something people did naturally. His ideas,
however, influenced later language theorists, mainly, Noam
Chomsky (who we’ll discuss in a moment).
Descartes believed humans to be largely rational creatures

that needed language to interact. Our ability to use language
creatively sets us apart from the communicative elements of
other species. We can rationalize and communicate our position
in the world to each other as thinking, speaking beings, no
matter where we exist on the planet.
To Descartes, learning a language meant finding similarities
between your own and the target language. Then, you merely
are manipulating already existing structures in your minds
through external experiences to learn a language.
While there’s some truth in these views, it doesn’t account
for languages that vastly differ from Western ones. And his
thoughts detail little on the best way to go about learning a
language.
4.3. Locke’s theory of tabula raja
Tabula Rasa, aka, the blank slate, is one of philosopher
John Locke’s more popular ideas (1690). In it, he argues
against innate knowledge (or knowledge from birth). Instead,
he believed that we’re all born as blank slates. And as we go
through life, our experiences write knowledge on that slate. He
also argued that we learn everything through our senses.
If you’re learning a language right now, you probably feel
this way. Every lesson, every step in your journey towards
fluency may feel like writing new information into your mind
as if it were a blank slate…
However, as you soon see, there are many ideas of thought
that differ greatly from this idea. Still, when you consider how
we learn some ideas through school and experience, there may
be some truth in this Think about how you study subjects like
History, Algebra, Philosophy. Some of the concepts may have
seemed so alien that when you discovered them, they were like
little epiphanies.
While these 3 philosophers mostly talked about language-
learning in passing, our next 4 theories focus directly on
language-learning.
4.4. Skinner’s imitation theory of language acquisition
B.F. Skinner agreed with Locke built his Theory of
Behaviorism onto his concepts and behavioral psychology.
His language acquisition theory says that all behavior is
in response to surrounding stimuli. And he applied this to
language learning through something operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning may be familiar to you. Pavlov’s

Dogs is a famous example of this. Pavlov rang a bell and then
fed dogs. Soon, the dogs associated the sound of a bell ringing
with food and would salivate (whether or not they were actually
given food).
4.5. Chomsky’s universal grammar theory
Famously, Noam Chomsky argues against many of
Skinner’s Theory of Behaviorism with his own Theory of
Universal Grammar (the 1950s). This was pretty much the
antithesis of Skinner’s theory. Chomsky believed in at least
some innate ability in humans for language and a limited
number of ways to organize language in our minds. His proof
was the fact that there are some universal elements in all
languages.
Essentially, we’re all born with the ability to learn
languages as a result of a Language Acquisition Device (LAD).
This is a theoretical component of the mind that allows anyone
to acquire a language. Building off of the nativist theory of
language and some of the previous ideas of thought covered
here, it shows that people have a capacity to learn a language
in everyone from birth.
There is some truth to this. Babies, for instance, have the

ability to hear and make any sounds made from any language
up until a certain point in development. Also, babies are
language-learning machines. They acquire an exceptional
amount of knowledge about language in the first years of their
lives compared to other topics (like math, reading, abstract
thought, etc.). And young children can develop accent-free
language abilities up until a certain point as well.
There’s the issue of the poverty of stimulus, or that
children simply cannot be exposed to every aspect of language
in their environment. Despite this, there are some grammatical
mistakes children never make. For instance, you’ll never hear
a child mix up word order like this, “Doing are you how?”
Instead of, “How are you doing?” These mistakes simply don’t
happen.
While his language acquisition theory definitely goes
further than Skinner’s theory in explaining how to learn a
first language, it really doesn’t apply to secondary language-
learning. Instead, it simply reinforces that there are similar
elements involved in learning a language. And there are issues
with its application to non-western languages as well.
4.6. Schumann’s cultural theory
John Schumann looked specifically at how immigrants learn
a new language once they relocate to his Acculturation Model.
The Acculturation Model (1978) looks at the sociological and
psychological impact of relocation on language learners.
Instead of thinking about language-learning in terms of
learning for pleasure, he examined it when it was a necessity.
Immigrants, migrant workers, and their children learned a new
language with far more pressure from social and psychological
areas. And this pressure either resulted in succ4.7ess or failure.
Cultural identification, he argues, is vital to the individual.

And if an immigrant’s language was roughly equal socially
to the language of their new home, they were more likely to
learn the language. The same was true if the cultures were
similar. Schumann points out 8 different factors that influence
how immigrants evaluate just how closely their culture
connects with another.
Schumann’s 8 factors:
• Attitude Factor: If cultural groups have a positive
attitude towards each other, there’s a greater chance for
language-learning to occur.
• Cohesiveness: The larger the group of similar language
speakers, the more they interact with each other, and the
less likely language-learning is to occur.
• Cultural Congruence: The more similar two groups
are, the greater the chance of repeat contact between
them that promotes language-learning.
• Enclosure: If there are more opportunities for learners
to interact with native speakers (through schools, jobs,
clubs, etc.), there will be a greater chance of language-
learning.
• Integration Pattern: Is there a desire to integrate or
resist the new language?
• Intended Length of Residence: The longer the stay, the
increased likelihood of language-learning.
• Size Factor: If the language-learning group is too large,
they will tend to group together, reducing the likelihood
of language acquisition.
• Social Dominance: How important is it to learn this
language?
He also points out the importance of attitude, culture
shock, and motivation for influencing the psychological
aspects of language learning. His theories were vastly different
than previous language acquisition models because he looked
at the individual person and not humanity as a whole.
As a language-learner, you can tie his theory to the
importance of motivation behind language-learning. The more
motivated you are, the more you want to learn a language, the
more likely you are to succeed.
4.7. Kraghen’s monitor theory
Stephen Krashen offers the most practical out of all these
theories because his position gives you an actual strategy
you can use to learn a language. The Monitor Model (1970s
– 1980s) is a set of 5 hypotheses that build off of each and
outline the process everyone goes through to learn a language.
While parts of the language acquisition theory have been
disproven or argued against, overall, modern language-learners
and instructors gravitate toward these views.
Krashen’s 5 theories on language acquisition:

• The Acquisition-learning Hypothesis: Speech isn’t
the priority. Listening is. Learners begin to understand
a language by listening in an immersive environment.
Only once a learner has had enough exposure to the
language can they begin to speak it.
• The Input Hypothesis: Language-learning comes from
having access to comprehensible input, or material that’s
challenging but still understandable. If it’s too complex,
people don’t learn. If it’s too easy, people get bored.
• The Monitor Hypothesis: As we develop, we build
an internal filter designed to prevent us from making
mistakes. This filter can interfere with the language
learning process because learning happens through
mistakes.
• The Natural Order Hypothesis: Language has layers
and complexities. People cannot understand complex
syntax and grammar structures before people acquire
the necessary abilities beforehand. An understanding of
grammar happens naturally.
• The Affective Filter Hypothesis: Stress inhibits
learning. To maximize language learning results, people
should learn in a near-zero/zero stress environment. This
will allow learners to be at ease to explore the language.
This theory lays out the differences between language
learning and language acquisition. Krashen argues that we all
learn language subconsciously and universally. He compares
it to seeing, eating, and other uniform human activities. As a
result, learning is a far more conscious effort that needs formal
correction.
His theories appeal to new language-learners because it
removes boring drilling and memorization along with stressful
performance requirements of traditional language-learning
classes off the menu for students. And in the end, it makes
learning a language feel more organic and smoother than
what most people remember from their high school and other
language classroom experiences.
4.8 Piaget’s views on language learning
Language development occurs in all children with
normal brain function, regardless of race, culture or general
intelligence. In other words, the capacity to acquire language
is a capacity of the human species as a whole. So any theory of
language acquisition must account for what children do and do
not do in the course of achieving adult linguistic competence.
Children clearly need to be exposed to linguistic data in order
to eventually attain adult competence. The relation of human
language to other cognitive and social kind of knowledge, and
how it changes during development is an important issue in
discussing language acquisition theory. Just as lot of current
work on language acquisition is influenced by Chomskyan
theory of language, so Jean Piaget’s views on child development
cast a powerful shadow over the area.
Piaget describes himself as a genetic epistemologist
who has a desire to specify the way in which children come
to understand the workings of physical world or of logico-
mathematical systems.
He believes that the child constructs an understanding
of the way the world works, largely by his own actions. His
intelligence at any time is a product both of his environment
and of certain mental structures interacting with each other.
He is concerned with human behavior as it reflects underlying
organization. Piaget’s discussion of organization is especially
useful in helping to resolve the conflict between the two
traditional views of the infant:
1. The view of the newborn child as an amorphous lump
waiting to be manipulated by his environment.
2. The view of him as a complex device carrying within
himself a Lull blueprint for his future development.
Piaget concluded that the child passes through a series of
stages. Each stage is characterized by certain properties of the
child’s thought and each child has to pass through the stages in
a fixed order, although the rate at which he does so may vary
from one child to y another. The major stages are:
1. The sensorimotor stage (from birth to 18 months)
2. The pre-operational stage (18 months to 7 years)
3. The stage of concrete operations (7years to 11 years)
4. The stage of formal operations (11 years and over)
Through these stages the child develops his cognitive ability
which plays an important role in language acquisition. If, as
Chomsky claims, special structuring capacities are necessary
for acquiring language, Piaget would see them as product of
development during the first years or two of life, rather than
as inherited complete. Piaget would regard language learning
as sharing the general features characteristic of all learning, as
the behaviorist do. Unlike the behaviorists, however, he would
not describe learning as consisting of the formation of simple
habits.
4.9. Vygotsky’s cultural tools for language learning
Cultural tools shape cognitive development and can
include both technical tools, which act on the environment,
and psychological tools, which are tools for thinking. Discuss
Vygotsky’s belief that language is the most significant of the
cultural tools. Do you agree or disagree? Examine the given
images of other psychological tools. Discuss how time may
influence cognitive development from the perspective of the
sociocultural theories.
Vygotsky believed that cultural tools (including real tools
and symbolic tools) play very important roles in cognitive
development. He emphasized the tools that the culture
provides to support thinking so that all higher-order mental
processes, such as reasoning and problem solving, are mediated
by psychological tools, such as language, signs, and symbols.
Adults teach these tools to children during day-to-day activities
and the children internalize them, so later the psychological
tools can help students advance their own development.
Ex: Children engage in activities with adults and they
exchange ideas and ways of thinking about or representing
concepts. These co-created ideas are internalized by children,
thus, children’s knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and values
develop through appropriating the ways of acting and thinking
provided by their culture and by the more capable members of
their group.
Children begin to create a “cultural tool kit” and transform
the tools given to them into their own representations,
symbols, patterns, and understandings. Piaget informed us
that children’s constructions of meanings are not the same
as adults, so in the exchange of signs and symbols, children
create their own udnerstandings, which gradually change as
they engage in social activities and try to make sense of the
world. In Vygotsky’s theory, language is the most important
symble system in the tool kit, and it is the one that helps to fill
the kit with other tools.
Evaluation
1. what is the plato’s problem theory of language
2. describe the cartesian theory of language production
3. write a short notes on educational theory of tabula rasa
4. explain the theory of language development
5. describe the skinner’s imitation theory of language
acquisition
6. write a short notes on schuman acculturation theory
7. describe the limitations of the acculturation model
8. difference between acquisition and language learning
9. what are the criticism of skinner theory of language
acquisition
10. explain limitation of Piaget approach
11. describe the vygoisky cultural tools for language learning
12. explain the major stage of Piaget cognitive development
UNIT – V
LANGUAGE RELATED ISSUES
5.1. Bilingualism
Bilingualism as an individual condition is nested within
a distribution of broader societal circumstances that cause
language contact. There are many different manifestations of
this variability. Bilingualism may be the result of growing up
in a bilingual community, such as a bilingual neighborhood
of an immigrant community in New York. However, that is
different from bilingualism that results from growing up in
an officially bilingual country such as Canada, where its two
official languages are separated by geographical regions.
Bilingualism that is accompanied by literacy in both languages
is different from bilingualism in which schooling is available in
one language (the one that also carries social prestige) but not
the other. Although the interest of the cognitive neuroscientist
in bilingualism may be in understanding the neural bases of the
distribution of the two linguistic systems in the bilingual, the
reality is that research subjects and clinical patients invariably
come from a sampling from the social distribution. It is thus
necessary to begin an understanding of bilingualism from its
social bases.
Effects of Bilingualism
Earlier researches pointed out that exposing children to
more than one language during their childhood leads them to
semi-bilingualism and confusion. Crowding their brain with
two or more languages, this research suggested, not only
leads children to linguistic deficiency, both in competence and
performance levels (semi-lingualism, stuttering, etc.), but also
to a wide variety of cognitive and psychological impairments
such as low intelligence, mental retardation, left-handedness,
and even schizophrenia.
Research by Peal and Lambert (1962), however, put to rest
such a negative view of bilingualism: their findings and the
work of succeeding researchers provide ample evidence that
these negative conclusions of earlier research were premature,
misguided (biased toward immigrant communities), and
unnecessarily pessimistic. Solid on methodological grounds,
Peal and Lambert’s study revealed a positive view of
bilingualism, including the conclusion that bilingual children
demonstrate more cognitive flexibility than monolinguals.
Contrary to previous studies, bilinguals performed better than
monolinguals in both verbal and non-verbal measures. The
study, which was conducted in Montreal, was revolutionary
in its own right, changing the face of research on bilingualism
forever (see Hakuta, 1985:). This study has been replicated
in a number of countries confirming the positive effects of
bilingualism.
Language Learning - Categories
1. Simultaneous acquisition occurs when, for example, a
child learns several languages simultaneously within its
social environment. Also called Compound bilingual
(amalgamated).
2. Successive acquisition means. that different languages
are learned at different stages during different phases of
life. Called Coordinate bilingual when the two languages
are equally used / important or Subordinate bilingual
when one language (usually the Mother/Native tongue)
dominates the daily life.
3. Natural acquisition means that a language is learned
without formal instruction.
4. Guided acquisition means that the knowledge of a
language is acquired by means of instructions (e.g.
learning at school).
5. Symmetric acquisition means that several languages are
equally mastered with a similar proficiency.
6. Asymmetric acquisition means that one language
dominates the other.
This set of categories is somewhat arbitrary. A specific
bilingual person is not necessarily “completely” coordinated,
compound or subordinate. Indeed, a bilingual can be
coordinated for certain parts of the linguistic system, at the
level of syntax and semantics, for example, but subordinate to
the phonological level. It has a strong accent in its L2, while
having impeccable syntax and a rich lexicon.
Thus, an ideal coordinated bilingual would have two
completely separate linguistic systems and there would never
be a mix of languages at any level. It should also be noted that
the organization of the linguistic system and thus the state of
bilingualism of a person can change depending on his or her
experiences during life.
5.2 MULTILINGUALISM
Multilingualism is the ability of an individual speaker or
a community of speakers to communicate effectively in three
or more languages. Contrast with monolingualism, the ability
to use only one language. A person who can speak multiple
languages is known as a polyglot or a multilingual.
Multilingualism refers to an individual speaker, who uses
two or more languages or to a community of speakers, where
the use of more than one language is common. To understand
more about the context of multilingualism, let us analyse what
experts in the field of language and linguistics say about this
situation. According to these authorities, multilingualism is
not an abnormality. It is a natural situation. In multilingual
countries, many languages are a fact of life, any restriction on
the choice of language is not only wasteful, it is absurd. India
being a land of linguistic diversity, multilingualism is a norm.
In a plurolingual environment, no single language can cater to
all the needs of the people. Let us understand the situation of
language diversity in India from the information below in the
table.
This situation has led to children speaking different
languages in the school context. There are a good number of
children who do not speak the languages used in the schools
and therefore, have no voice in the classroom. They can neither
understand the languages used in the school nor are able to
express in their own language, resulting in low achievement.
It is sad that this is not taken seriously either by the school
authorities at the grass root level or by the government at the top
level. This situation is true in the case of tribals and minorities
as a result of migration, as well as scheduled castes and tribes,
and religious minorities like Urdu speaking Muslims all over
India, ethnic minorities, and many more. The existence of
these categories of children will give an idea of the magnitude
of the problem. This will help us to understand the multiplicity
and complications present in our regular classes, which is
overlooked by the policymakers and curriculum frameworks,
and also by the school personnel. This scenario has led to the
Kothari Education Commission (1964-66)to propose the three-
language formula. It states that a child who comes to school
with proficiency in his/her mother tongue must be taught to
read and write in that language so that he/she learns better. To
promote unity and national pride, the second language must
include Hindi/regional/state language from Class III onwards.
The third language must include a language that enables him/
her to communicate with the larger community beyond the
national boundaries. Three languages are the minimum number
of languages that a child must know and use by the time he/she
graduates from the school system. It implies that our teachers
and the school system must be strengthened to be able to cater
to the needs of all children.
Multilingualism serves the necessity of effective
communication and for that, it is not necessary to have
competence in all the languages. So, multilingualism can be
categorised according to the degree of acquisition and manner
of acquisition.
Degree of Acquisition: By degree means the level of
competency that a person has in other languages which
he knows. If a person has native- like command of all the
languages that he knows, then it is known as ambilingualism,
and if a person has equal degree of competence in the language
he uses, it is known equilingualism.
Manner of Acquisition: By manner of Acquisition means
how a person is becoming multilingual. This also takes into
account the stage at which a person acquires or learns other
languages. When a child acquires more than one language
naturally at home, it is termed as natural bilingualism. This
situation generally happens in children. When a person learns
other languages in an artificial or classroom setting, it is known
as artificial multilingualism.
The original language a person grows up speaking is
known as their first language or mother tongue. Someone who
is raised speaking two first languages or mother tongues is
called a simultaneous bilingual. If they learn a second language
later, they are called a sequential bilingual.
Pattanayak, (1981) gave some special features of Indian
Multilingualism as follows:
1. Multilingualism is sustained in India by social
institutions.
2. Linguistic features transcend genetic boundaries.
3. Multilingualism is the result of nationalism.
4. Change in linguistic codes or their mixing in
communication does not create problems of identity,
conflict and crisis.
5. It is possible to become multilingual without being
multicultural.
6. Language boundaries because of regular contact are fuzzy.
7. Indian multilingualism is bifocal, existing both at mass
and elite levels.
8. The functional relation between languages is not linear
but hierarchical.
Multilingualism is caused by many reasons. It happens
because of migration of people, who come / go in search of
employment. People of two different cultures living together,
or coming into contact also may result in multilingualism. It
may result also because of political invasions, development in
technology, scientific discoveries, annexation and colonization,
commercial interaction, and many more reasons.
In our Indian context, different languages like local
language/regional language or national language or
international language are used as media of instruction in
schools. While selecting languages for medium of instruction,
there should be a specific focus in terms of developing degree
of proficiency in different languages. For example, where
the medium of instruction is English, the focus should be to
enable children to become fluent and literate in English as
early as possible. The selection of a language as a medium
of instruction will have different implications. For example,
if English is to be used as a medium of instruction, children
will not develop interest and respect for their own regional
languages/mother tongue. Children will think that their
language and community are not valued. When they are taught
in English at the time when they are not ready to comprehend
it, they cannot normally understand what the teacher is
teaching and this results in under achievement of students.
Therefore, at the early stages, proper decision should be taken
about the language to be used for teaching purposes. Given the
situation of multilingual education in India, and the benefits of
multilingualism as pointed out in the previous section, there
are implications for practice. This implies that instruction in
schools needs to address linguistic, metalinguistic, and socio-
cultural factors. Researchers suggest that, in terms of linguistic
and meta-linguistic factors, the need is to use texts that can
aid the process of comprehension. There is also the need for
vocabulary development in the native and second language.
Specific Strategies to Use Multilingual Context as a
Resource in the Classroom: Multilingual context results in
maximum benefits if used deliberately in a classroom. Below
you will find specific strategies to use to get effective outcomes.
• basically, allow students to speak in their languages;
• develop a positive attitude among students to listen to
different languages;
• create a multi- language friendly environment in the
classroom;
• take special care to develop a feeling that all languages
are important and equally beautiful;
• allow students to share stories from their community
whenever there is an occasion for it;
• ask examples from students’ community cultures as and
when there is scope for it;
• analyse the tradition and customs of different linguistic
groups in science and social science classes;
• find situations to explore and share more about different
groups’ cultures and languages;
• promote interest among students to learn the language of
other students;
• get materials (newspapers / journals) of languages
spoken by the students;
• appreciate the answers given in a regional language or
mother tongue, even in an English medium class;
• take care not to look down upon students not using
language of power;
• encourage students to answer in their language and help
them to translate the same into the language of power
(English); and appreciate the writing of varied types like
scientific fictions, civic tips, poems, stories, etc. in the
language of the students’ choice and encourage them to
share it either in English or local language.
Strategies for Promoting Multilingualism
Research supports the notion that multilingualism may be
an advantage (Hakuta and Bialystok, 1994). Consequently, the
following points are for making learning multiple languages
an additive process:
1. Language specialists should make learning English in
the classroom and in social environments a positive
experience in which both languages are valued. High-
level language and thinking should be involved.
Multilingual children should be encouraged to participate
in verbal and literacy problem-solving tasks. Speech-
language pathologists (SLPs) should verbalize how they
solve problems to provide a cognitive model.
2. Multilingualism should be promoted both at home and
in the school. Children should be allowed to speak either
Spanish or English when it facilitates their communication
(Brice and Perkins, 1997). The children’s comfort level
for using English should be allowed to mature and not be
a forced issue.
3. Children should have well-developed Spanish skills
before learning English (Wong-Fillmore, 1992).
4. Opportunities for reading and writing in both Spanish
and English should be provided. Parents should be
encouraged to read to their children in Spanish. Emergent
literacy skills, knowing about the written word and
books, are generalizable across languages. Appreciation
of books is not language specific.
5. Ample opportunities to interact with native Spanish
speakers should be provided to maintain L1.
6. The children should receive appropriate instruction
in English. Learning English should reflect natural
language usage.
7. Children should be allowed to make errors in English as
this is a natural phenomena.
5.3 Multicultural education: definition,

goals and problems
Examples of
current causes in
the Multicular
Classroom
Trust Problems
Low with self as well as
Academic the New Culture
Achievement
Adjustment to
a New Cultural
Environment
The educational process is known as multicultural if

there are two or more students in one classroom have come
from other countries or were raised in different customs and
traditions.
Its main goal is to provide equal opportunities for

school learning to students of different gender, race, social
class, coming from different cultures and ethnic groups.
There are also some more specific goals of multicultural
education:
 Promote cultural democracy in the society and schools
in particular;
 Improve academic achievements of all students;
 Develop skills, attitudes, and knowledge necessary for
functioning in the community;
 Gain cultural competency etc.
It goes without saying that these goals are very important
for all members of society but it is a fact that it will take years
to achieve them with all those challenges faced by teachers in
the multicultural classrooms.
Unlike customary classrooms, issues in multicultural
education make the teaching and learning process a real trial
for both teachers and students. All that happens due to the
challenges faced by a teacher and influencing the learners.
Language barrier
The main thing that differs multicultural classrooms from
ordinary ones is a language barrier. Coming from different
countries and even city districts children can speak the same
language but never understand each other. This might be the
influence of parents, environment, dialects etc.
However, the situations when students do not know the
language of studying happen even more often. Young people
get into the environment where a teacher speaks a foreign
language they do not understand at all and their task is not only
to understand what a teacher says but also gain new knowledge
– twice harder than in customary classrooms.
Domination of different learning styles
Despite the fact that students may differ in race, religion
or family background, these young people can also absorb
information in a variety of ways. They can be accustomed
to other teaching approaches, methods, ways of material
presenting so it will take time to get used to everything new.
A teacher should offer his students all the learning styles
(auditory, visual, tactile etc.) for learners to grasp information
better. Moreover, it is necessary to consider cognitive
styles of particular concern like field-dependent and field-
independent cognition, reflectivity and impulsivity, tolerance
and intolerance for ambiguity
The cultural difference can also be noticed in the poorly
formed speaker-listener relationships and diverse patterns of
cooperation and competition. As a result, students might not
know how to behave when a teacher is speaking, have no idea
of group or pair work, will not understand the rules of games
introduced.
One more important aspect is a prevalence of visual
learning materials. As students can hardly understand the
language, images can be more effective in acquiring new
knowledge.
Non-verbal behavior
Sometimes it is much easier to understand a foreign
language than a body language of another ethnic group. If a
teacher is not aware of the non-verbal behaviors characteristic
of the society where his students are from, that might bring
about a variety of troubles and difficulty of right interpretation.
Such customary non-verbal behaviors as raised hands, eye
contact, head nods can have a completely different meaning in
another country let alone any other body signs.
Presenting one topic from different perspectives
Every teacher should present a topic from different
prospective independent on the pupils’ nationality in the
classroom. Of course, it would be great but a restricted number
of school lessons does not always provide this opportunity.
In multicultural classes the situation is different. It
especially concerns history lessons as some events can be
defined by different populations as opposite ones. For example,
some movements should be called not only an expansion of
one country but also the displacement of another nation.
A teacher should be very careful in his formulations
and expressions not to offend feelings of some
students. Moreover, he should not try to persuade in the
unquestioned truth of his words and views as it may
result in a struggle or disappointment among students.
History should be presented as accurately as possible. There
is no need to downplay any negative aspects but a task of the
teacher is to avoid stereotypes and offer evidence from the
primary sources to sound objective.
Diversity of extracurricular activities
As children from other cultures have appeared in the
classroom that differs from theirs it means that they should
also get accustomed to new traditions, a way of life, and
relationships in this new society. In most cases, it is teacher’s
job to show and tell about that. It is usually done in different
extracurricular activities. Whether it is a holiday or some
important date children should learn about it.
Teaching communication skills
Apart from difficulties in using a foreign language
students may feel shy or unable to express their viewpoint
because of the horror not to be understood. In some Muslim
countries, boys will avoid socializing with girls while in
the new environment it is an absolutely normal experience.
Teachers should encourage students to discuss different issues,
speak up their mind on a variety of topics and promote a
pleasant atmosphere in the classroom.
Constant work with parents
Every teacher should understand how a student feels in
an absolutely new environment and communication with his
parents can be helpful in that. It is important to understand
how a child has been raised from the childhood, what traditions
influenced his view of the world or what is absolutely
inadmissible for him. This knowledge will help teachers to
build their lessons more effectively and help students to find
their place in the classroom.
5.4. Linguistic interdependence and the educational
development of bilingual and multicultural classroom
The linguistic interdependence hypothesis suggests that
an individual who is involved in language learning is like a
dual-iceberg, which describes the first language and second
language being the two tips of the iceberg that we can see
above the surface, with a common basis that connects the two
languages below the surface. The tips of the iceberg are related
to BICS, and the basis is related to CALP.
The proposed theoretical framework emphasizes the
interaction between sociocultural, linguistic, and school program
factors in explaining the academic and cognitive development
of bilingual children. It is theorized that bilingualism that is
cognitively and academically beneficial can be achieved only
on the basis of adequately developed first language (L1) skills.
This position is based on two hypotheses. The “developmental
interdependence” hypothesis proposes that the development of
competence in a second language (L2) is partially a function
of the type of competence already developed in L1 at the
time when intensive exposure to L2 begins. The “threshold”
hypothesis proposes that there may be threshold levels of
linguistic competence that bilingual children must attain both
in order to avoid cognitive disadvantages and to allow the
potentially beneficial aspects of bilingualism to influence their
cognitive and academic functioning. This model of bilingual
education explains educational outcomes as a function of the
interaction between background, child input, and educational
treatment factors. Attention is also directed to problems with
bilingual education program evaluations that fail to consider
these potential interactions. A review of relevant literature and
studies is included.
Linguistic Factors
Early attempts to explain the poor
academic achievement of many minority
language children tended to attribute a major role to linguistic
explanatory factors. This “linguistic mismatch” hypothesis
is exemplified in the well-known UNESCO
statement that “it is axiomatic that the
best medium for teaching a child is his
mother tongue” (UNESCO 1953, p. 11) On
the basis of his study of bilingualism in Irish primary
schools, Macnamara (1966) also argued that instruction
through the medium of a weaker language led to
retardation in subject matter taught Assumptions similar to
those of the “linguistic mismatch” hypothesis underlay
much of the impetus for the development of bilingual
education in the United States. However, recent research
points clearly to the inadequacy of both the “linguistic
mismatch” hypothesis and the hypothesis that
bilingualism itself is a source of academic and cognitive
retardation. A large number of recent studies suggest that,
rather than being a cause of cognitive confusion, bilingualism
can positively influence both cognitive and linguistic
development (Cummins, 1976, 1978).
Socio-Cultural Factors
Two recent reviews (Bowen, 1977; Tucker, 1977)
of linguistic perspectives on bilingual education have
argued forcefully for the primacy of social factors over
specifically linguistic or pedagogical factors in explaining
the academic progress of bilingual children. Both Bowen
and Tucker reject the generality of the “vernacular
advantage theory” on the basis of the high levels of academic
and linguistic skills attained by children in immersion
programs.
Language and Thought in the Bilingual Child
Paulston (1978) points out that there has

been little exploration of the relationships
between language and cognition. When language is
recognized as the means for representing thought and as the
vehicle for complex thinking, the
importance of allowing children to use and
develop the language they know best becomes obvious.
The lack of concern for the developmental
interrelationships between language and thought in the
bilingual child is one of the major reasons why evaluations and
research have provided so little data on the dynamics
of the bilingual child’s interaction with his educational
environment. A direct determinant of the quality of
this interaction is clearly the level of LI and L2 competence
which the bilingual child develops over the course of
his school career. It is impossible to avoid questions
like the following if one wishes to explore the assumptions
underlying bilingual education.
5.5. Nature of reading comprehension in the content areas
The Nature of Reading is described as the ability to
make meaning from a written discourse. When one reads a
written discourse, s/he considers the words are composed
of graphemes, phonemes, and morphemes; sentences have
syntactic composition, propositions, and stylistic features.
In addition, deep comprehension of the sentences needs
the construction of referents of nouns, a discourse focus,
presuppositions, and plausible inferences. In short, the reader
needs a lot of skills and a good deal of knowledge to recognize
what is new information and what is already known in the text.
There is a distinction between silent and reading aloud.

While silent reading requires much of the learner’s attention
and the teacher’s guidance in order to check and reinforce
comprehension, reading aloud aims rather at developing some
oral aspects such as pronunciation, rhythm, stress, intonation,
etc. (Al Mutawa & Kailani, 1989).
Reading comprehension instruction often includes
strategies for tackling certain, discrete skills, like vocabulary,
identification of main ideas, and comparisons within and
between texts. What makes reading comprehension such a
complex thing is that understanding what you’re reading
is a completely personal and almost totally internal task.
Students can discuss their ideas after they’ve read something,
but it’s almost impossible to track reading comprehension in
the exact moment it’s happening. Comprehension of a text
is made up of smaller pieces, all of which must come together
in perfect harmony: background knowledge, interest in the
topic, vocabulary skills, and the ability to make inferences and
judgments are all required, along with many other skills.
Reading Strategies for Young Readers
Elementary school teachers often have the difficult jobs of
teaching all subject areas. While this means having to know a
lot of information about a lot of different topics, it also means
that elementary level teachers are more likely to easily employ
reading comprehension strategies across all areas. The same
activities teachers use with their class during reading can be
recycled for science, math, and social studies.
• Think Aloud: When reading content-related texts,
students can learn a lot from teachers who stop to vocalize
their thinking. Young readers aren’t always aware of
when their comprehension has broken down, so hearing
teachers talk about their internal thought processes can
help students mimic the strategy.
• Mimic Literature Circles: Many teacher assign roles for
students during book discussions. Each student is given
a task like clarifier, connection-maker, questioner, and
summarizer. These same roles can be assigned while
reading nonfiction texts in the content areas. They’ll help
students deepen their comprehension using a familiar
technique.
• Important Words: Identifying context clues helps
students in decoding unknown words. But going beyond
that vocabulary strategy and having students identify the
most important words in a text can help them process the
topic and further understand the content area subject. One
way to do this might be to have each student nominate
an important word found directly in the text. Together,
the class can rank the words in order of relevance and
importance to the text.
• Main Idea and Details: It’s important to have students
interacting with text at a young age. Encourage
underlining and highlighting of main ideas and details.
Adding the physical component engages different parts
of the brain and allows students to think critically about
a text.
• Rereading: Many students reread their favorite picture
and chapter books over and over, which deepens their
comprehension of the story. This same skill should be
applied to nonfiction content area texts. Rereading a text
will familiarize the students with the subject matter and
help them pick up on new ideas they didn’t notice in
prior readings.
• Ask Why? and How?: These two questions get at
the analytical and inferential thinking important for
mastering comprehension of subject-matter texts.
Usually questions that begin with “why” and “how”
have multiple correct answers that require an overall
understanding of a historical event or scientific process
in order to answer. For example, “Why do people adopt
animals?” or “How do tadpoles become frogs?”
Reading Strategies for Older Students
Teachers of middle school and high school students
are usually departmentalized. They teach classes within a
particular discipline. Teachers of any subject can use the
following strategies, however content area teachers may find
them most beneficial for getting students to comprehend
complex, academic texts.
• 2 Column Notes: This strategy asks students to respond
to a text (or film or audio recording) by organizing
notes and thoughts into two columns. The left
column is labeled “Key Ideas” and the right is labeled
“Responses.” The “Key Ideas” section includes traditional
notes from the text, like main ideas, details, people, and
events. The “Responses” section is a place for students to
record questions, inferences, assumptions, and connections
they’ve made. By linking the key ideas with responses,
students can better internalize the information from the text.
• Important Words versus Word Clouds: Before class,
enter a section of the text into a word cloud generator to
emphasize the most important words in the selection.
After reading the text, ask students to list the most
relevant words. Compare the word cloud to the students’
choices and analyze why there may be some disparity.
Asking students to identify important words helps them
determine the main ideas and key details of academic
texts.
• Build Academic Vocabulary: Words are the building
blocks to comprehension. If a student skips over or
misunderstands an important content-area word, he or she
will likely fall behind in comprehension. The Marzano
6-Step Vocabulary process is still widely regarded as
one of the best ways to introduce and teach academic
vocabulary.
• Free-form Mapping: This strategy allows students
to create visual representations of their ideas and
understand without having to fit their thoughts into a
prescribed graphic organizer. Free-form maps include
main ideas, relationships, interconnections between
topics, side topics and thoughts, and whatever else a
student perceives as important and relevant to the topic.
No two free-form maps will be alike, which promotes
excellent discussion amongst students.
The essential components of reading are phonemic
awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and
comprehension. Phonological and phonemic awareness,
phonics and decoding, fluency, and print concepts are widely
recognized as foundational reading skills.
Phonemic Awareness
Phonemes, the smallest units making up spoken language,
combine to form syllables and words. Phonemic awareness
refers to the student’s ability to focus on and manipulate
these phonemes in spoken syllables and words. According to
the National Reading Panel, teaching phonemic awareness
to children significantly improves their reading more than
instruction that lacks any attention to phonemic awareness.
Phonics
Phonics is the relationship between the letters (or letter
combinations) in written language and the individual sounds
in spoken language. Phonics instruction teaches students how
to use these relationships to read and spell words. The National
Reading Panel indicated that systematic phonics instruction
enhances children’s success in learning to read, and it is
significantly more effective than instruction that teaches little
or no phonics.
Fluency
Fluent readers are able to read orally with appropriate
speed, accuracy, and proper expression. Fluency is the ability to
read as well as we speak and to make sense of the text without
having to stop and decode each word. The National Reading
Panel’s research findings concluded that guided oral reading
and repeated oral reading had a significant and positive impact
on word recognition, reading fluency, and comprehension in
students of all ages.
Vocabulary
Vocabulary development is closely connected to
comprehension. The larger the reader’s vocabulary (either oral
or print), the easier it is to make sense of the text. According
to the National Reading Panel, vocabulary can be learned
incidentally through storybook reading or listening to others,
and vocabulary should be taught both directly and indirectly.
Students should be actively engaged in instruction that
includes learning words before reading, repetition and multiple
exposures, learning in rich contexts, incidental learning, and
use of computer technology.
Comprehension
Comprehension is the complex cognitive process readers
use to understand what they have read. Vocabulary development
and instruction play a critical role in comprehension. Young
readers can develop text comprehension through a variety
of techniques, including answering questions (quizzes) and
summarization (retelling the story).
Spelling
Spelling is also one of the essential components of reading.
Phonemic awareness and phonics instruction had a positive
effect on spelling in the primary grades and that spelling
continues to develop in response to appropriate reading
instruction. The reader should always aware about the correct
spelling of words either for good pronunciation and also
comprehension. Because incorrect spelling leads to incorrect
pronunciation and misunderstanding in comprehension
5.6. Developing writing skills in specific content areas
Writing in the Content Areas

At one time, writing instruction was only completed in
a language arts classroom. These days, teachers of all subjects
are required to weave concepts of reading and writing into the
content areas - social studies, science, and even math. Content
area writing, then, is writing that is completed in these and
other subjects. There can be two ways to look at this.
One way is what is referred to as learning to write.
Just as it sounds, when teachers use instruction to teach the
mechanics and craft of creating writing, they are using this
method. Teachers use what is called writing to learn, as a time
when students use writing to better understand content area
material. Though similar, different strategies are used for each.
Let’s take a look.
Learning to Write
Think back to when you were taught writing skills.
You probably started off learning the basics about writing
conventions, or those things students do to make what they
write understandable, such as grammar, spelling, and sentence
structure. You may have been taught the craft of writing as
well - how to hook an audience with a great lead, or how to
write in different genres depending on your purpose. These are
all examples of learning how to write.
Though the bulk of instructional writing still remains in
the language arts classroom, content area teachers can scaffold
students in several ways:
• Demonstrate how and when different types of writing
are used. For example, most content area writing is
nonfiction, or instructional. Why is this? Teachers can
show students how different genres are used for specific
purposes, such as an autobiography on Abe Lincoln in
social studies or a report on the solar system in science.
• Teach and reinforce the steps of the writing process, or
prewriting, drafting, revising, editing and publishing.
Going through these steps is important when producing
most types of writing.
• Instruct the specific skills necessary when writing
content area pieces. Students will likely need to research
and collect data to write the informational texts found
in content area writing. Teachers will need to spend
instructional time dedicated to teaching students how
to use a variety of texts as resources, and check the
reliability of facts.
5.7. Strategies for developing oral language for promoting
learning across the subject areas
The development of infants’ oral language begins as
caregivers socially interact with them (Honig, 2007). Oral
language includes speaking and listening. Young children
learn about their world as they communicate with others. Oral
language skills are an important predictor of later language
and literacy development (NELP, 2010).
Children begin to develop language as they babble and coo.
Soon they are repeating sounds such as da da and then they
speak their first word. One-word utterances lead to multiple
words, followed by more complex sentences. Oral language is
a process that is developed by using spoken language.
Language greatly increases during the preschool years.
Starting at the age of 3 years old, children should be learning at
least 2,500 new words each year (Roskos, Tabors, & Lenhart,
2004). Therefore, they need to be exposed to new words every day.
Oral language is used for many purposes. Children use
language as they engage in social exchanges and playful
encounters. Language is used to make requests, share
information, and ask and answer questions. Thus, children’s
comprehension of language increases during daily interactions.
Children’s vocabulary expands as they share their
experiences. One powerful way for children to increase their
oral language is through hearing the spoken word through
meaningful conversations. The more words children hear and
comprehend, the faster their language develops (Honig, 2007).
Ways to Promote Language Development
Infants and toddlers learn language as adults talk, recite

nursery rhymes, tell stories and sing songs. Adults should
imitate the sounds infants say and engage in two-way
conversations by taking turns listening and speaking (Morrow,
2012).
Infants and toddlers benefit when caregivers describe
feeding, toileting and napping routines. “It is time for lunch.
I see that you are telling me that you are hungry. I am going
to carry you over to your high chair. Then I am going to bring
you some bread, cheese, and a banana to eat.”
As teachers and parents playfully and purposefully interact
with children throughout the day, they promote language
development. For example, caregivers can use communication
props such as toy telephones and puppets to expand
conversations. They can read frequently and expressively.
These activities will facilitate infants and toddlers language
development.
1. Give children opportunities to talk. Ask open-ended
questions to promote discussion. Actively listen to
children and then clarify and extend the conversation.
2. Promote speaking and listening throughout the day.
As children arrive, model greetings and appropriate social
exchanges. During play, scaffold children’s language by
asking purposeful questions, embedding new words into
conversations, and defining new and challenging words.
3. Read often, even to very young children. Children
develop comprehension skills during read aloud,
especially if they are involved in exploring and discussing
the story and illustrations.
4. Be a language model and describe children’s actions.
During outside time, give children opportunities to learn
rules and problem-solve as they play new games.
5. Promote peer-to-peer conversations and make home-
school connections during meals and snacks. Encourage
children to take an active role in conversations by sharing
their thoughts and ideas with others.
6. Sing songs together. Children enjoy music. As they
listen and sing the words in songs they are developing
their receptive and expressive language skills.
7. Use show-and-tell to build oral language skills. With
small groups of children, teach them how to share the
“who, what, where, when and why” of their object.
Children can learn to point and describe the main features
of their item. This will promote a more focused showing
and telling and build oral language skills.
8. Retell stories. Storytelling can teach children many
language skills, including oral language comprehension.
Hearing a story requires children to be active listeners.
Teachers can ask children to make predictions and answer
meaningful questions. After telling a story, encourage
children to retell the story.
Children develop expressive language as they retell a
story. As they recount the details of a story, the complexity of
their vocabulary and spoken word increases. Retelling stories
also helps improve a child’s comprehension of a story.
Children can retell stories in many different ways. They
can act out a story or use props, flannel boards or sequence
cards to tell the tale.
• Select books that have topics of high interest.
• Use props. Have the children help create the props for
stories’ retell.
• Work with small groups of children.
• Retell the story multiple times.
• Support and demonstrate as needed.
5.8. Reading in the content areas
Content Area
Content area reading is the reading that a person (usually
a student) needs to complete and understand in a particular
subject area. The content areas typically included in this
definition are science, social studies/history and math, but
any area outside of English literature instruction constitutes a
content area. The reading associated with content area courses
reflects not only the concepts and ideas important to these
subjects, but also the text structures used by those practicing
the field.
Reading in content areas is also referred to as subject
matter reading and disciplinary reading and embodies what
educators call “reading to learn.” These terms refer to reading,
understanding, learning, and using content area, subject
matter, or disciplinary texts such as texts in science, history,
or literature, for the purpose of gaining, demonstrating, and
possibly creating knowledge in that discipline. Proficiency in
reading content area materials is influenced by:
1. The dispositions of individuals who read in the
disciplines (including such influences as their levels of
background and strategy knowledge, their understanding
of the discipline, their attitudes and interest in the subject
matter, and their ability levels);
2. The goals that students adapt for learning and the degree
to which those goals are similar to the goals that their
teachers have for their learning;
3. The structure, difficulty level, and tone of the texts;
4. The level of understanding required of the individuals
(for example, memorization versus critical thinking);
and
5. The form in which that understanding is displayed (such
as written versus oral or recall versus recognition).
Thus, reading content area materials involves complex
processes.
Level of background knowledge, interest, goals, and
other student characteristics make a difference in how well
students are able to understand and use the information in
texts, but content area reading specialists disagree about the
degree to which the approach to reading differs depending
upon the discipline. Strategies for understanding and applying
what is read will have some commonalties across disciplines;
generally, however, the understanding of disciplinary texts is
inextricably tied to understandings of the discipline.
How are Content Area Texts Different than Literature?
Since most of the texts used in these subject areas are
expository (informational) they require their readers to use
different strategies for reading and comprehending them than
they employ when reading literature. Consider the differences
between a novel and a social studies textbook. Novels are
usually set up so that there are distinct chapters, but each page
of text looks the same. It features sentences in paragraphs.
There may occasionally be a few illustrations, but they are few
and far between. Now think about a textbook. While there are
chapters and text in paragraphs textbooks also use sidebars,
illustrations, headings, footers and colored text to “tell” their
“stories”. If the reader focuses only on the components of a
textbook that are like a piece of literature, she will end up
missing a large portion of the information on the page.
In addition to looking different, content area texts may
be written differently than literature. Literature is written in a
narrative form which relies on a plot and character dialogue to
convey its message to the reader. Content area texts are usually
expository meaning that are written to inform, persuade,
describe or explain information for the reader. There is no
action to tell a story in an expository text. The reader needs to
use strategies for harnessing and synthesizing the information
in this type of text.
Beyond these general differences specific content areas may
use particular text structures or styles of writing. For example,
lab reports written by scientists (and science students) follow
a certain format that their writers and readers must understand
in order to convey information.
How do Readers Go About Understanding Content Area
Texts?
Readers need to choose and revise their choices of reading
strategies depending on the type of content area text they are
reading. Each genre of text requires its readers to use a different
set of strategies for accessing its information. The reader must
first identify the text’s structure and use his knowledge of
this genre to read the text. While reading the text, he must
use general reading strategies such as questioning, making
inferences and connections and activating prior knowledge
and content specific strategies including drawing on subject
specific information to make meaning of the text. During this
process he is (hopefully) making meaning on three different
levels: literal (understanding the information written on the
page), inferential (reading ‘between the lines’) and evaluation
(making judgments and conclusions about the information).
These abilities develop from good content area reading
instruction and practice.
5.8. Reading in the content areas - Social sciences, science
and mathematics
Social sciences can be defined as the group of fields that
study human society and social interactions.
Mathematics is a fundamental part of human thought and
logic, and integral to attempts at understanding the world and
ourselves. Mathematics provides an effective way of building
mental discipline and encourages logical reasoning and mental
rigor. In addition, mathematical knowledge plays a crucial role
in understanding the contents of other school subjects such as
science, social studies, and even music and art.
The purpose of this TSG is to investigate the role of
mathematics in the overall curriculum. Due to the wide range
of possible issues that could be addressed in this TSG, we plan
to organize the papers and accompanying discussions into
three key strands.
Firstly, we ask the question: why does mathematics hold
such an important and unique place among other subjects? That
is, what is the significance of mathematics in the overall school
curriculum? As a point of departure we offer a few thoughts on
why mathematics should be treated as an important subject in
overall curriculum.
Mathematics has a transversal nature. If we reflect on the
history of curriculum in general, then mathematics (geometry
and algebra) were two of the seven liberal arts in Greek as well
as in medieval times. This historical role supports the notion
that mathematics has provided the mental discipline required
for other disciplines.
Mathematical literacy is a crucial attribute of individuals
living more effective lives as constructive, concerned and
reflective citizens. Mathematical literacy is taken to include
basic computational skills, quantitative reasoning, spatial
ability etc.
Mathematics is applied in various fields and disciplines,
i.e., mathematical concepts and procedures are used to solve
problems in science, engineering, economics. (For example,
the understanding of complex numbers is a prerequisite to
learn many concepts in electronics.) The complexity of those
problems often requires relatively sophisticated mathematical
concepts and procedures when compared to the mathematical
literacy aforementioned.
Mathematics is a part of our human cultural heritage, and
we have a responsibility to develop that heritage.
Secondly, since mathematics provides foundational
knowledge and skills for other school subjects, such as sciences,
art, economy, etc., the issue of how mathematics is intertwined
with other school subjects deserved to be addressed. In some
curricula, mathematics is offered independently to support the
study of other school subjects as an ‘instrumental subject’,
and in other curricula, integrated courses which combine
mathematics and other fields are offered.
Thirdly, we may wish to reflect on the number of hours
(proportion of hours) and/or courses allocated to mathematics
when compared to the other school subject in the curriculum
of each country. In addition to this quantitative analysis,
information about the qualitative description of school
mathematics in relation to other subjects also needs to be
gathered. Although this comparison won’t show us the whole
picture of why different countries attach the importance that
they do to mathematics, the comparison may nonetheless
provoke further discussion.
Use in the Social Sciences
Social sciences can be defined as the group of fields that
study human society and social interactions. Indeed, it’s a vast
field of study and includes a multitude of study areas. In this
lesson, we will explore the use of mathematical models in
each of these areas. However, seeing as social sciences deal
with human behavior, it isn’t always possible to quantify and
mathematically represent the parameters involved in these
studies. Let’s take a closer look at how the different fields of
social sciences make use of mathematical models.
1. Economics
Economics includes the study of macroeconomics, which
focuses on aggregate economy conditions, and microeconomics,
which focuses on the behavior of individuals.
Mathematical models are used extensively in economics
for representing relationships between various quantities,
such as price, production levels, demand, employment, and
investment.
The demand-supply model represents how the economy
behaves with the change in demand and supply of goods. The
demand-supply model states that with the increase in demand
of a good, its price increases; with increase in production, the
price decreases. The model can also reveal ways in which the
economy is interconnected (i.e., how the change in price in
one market affects other markets). It also helps to analyze the
equilibrium state of the economy, which is the state at which
demand equals supply.
Mathematical models are also widely used in economic
forecasting. These models are used for predicting economic
cycles or trends in economic parameters such as GDP, inflation
rate, unemployment rate, and interest rates, based on historical
data. There are mathematical models that can help predict
consumption behavior.
2. Sociology
Sociology is the study of social systems and behavior of
humans in a society. Sociological studies involve extensive use
of statistical analysis. Regression models are typically used to
study the relationships between various social parameters to
conclude how or why a social phenomenon occurs.
Mathematical models in sociology include game theory
models used to study social phenomena. Examples include
coordination games, which are used to study the behavior of
two individuals, forming the basis for social conventions. It’s
also used to study racial segregation in the population with
the help of Schelling model, which examines the individual
choices and behaviors that lead to collective segregation.
Mathematical sociology
Mathematical sociology means the use of mathematics
for formulating sociological theory more precisely than can
be done by less formal methods. The term thus refers to an
approach to theory construction rather than to a substantive
field of research or a methodology of data collection or
analysis; it is also not the same as statistical methods, although
it is closely related. Mathematical sociology uses a variety of
mathematical techniques and applies to a variety of different
substantive research fields, both micro and macro.
Theory involves abstraction from and codification of
reality; formulation of general principles describing what
has been abstracted; and deduction of consequences of those
formulations for the sake of understanding, predicting, and
possibly controlling that reality. When social phenomena
can be described in mathematical terms, the deductive power
of mathematics enables more precise and more detailed
derivations and predictions based on original premises.
Mathematical expression also enables sociologists to
discover that the same abstract forms and processes sometimes
describe what seem to be diverse social phenomena. If the same
type of formulation describes both the spread of a disease and
the adoption of an innovation, then a common type of process is
involved and the theorist can search further for what generates
that commonality. Ideally, therefore, mathematics provides the
basis for very general and powerful integrative theory.
Evaluation
1. define bilingualism
2. explain types of bilingual education
3. what do you meant by multilingualim
4. difference between individual and social multilingulism
5. what are challenges of teaching language in multicultural
classroom
6. explain the reading problems factors related poor reading
comphrensive
7. explain the different types of writing
8. explain briefly strategies for developing oral language in
the classroom the promotes learning the subject areas
9. explain role of teacher in reading comprehension in
content area
10. explain an objective of a reading comprehension
Model question paper I
Part A
Answer all the question 5 X1=5
1. language word is derived form
a) latin
b) Greek
c) english
2. Use of more than two language is called as
a) bilingualism
b) Multilingualism
c) monolingual
3. leaning mother tongue is type of
a) third language acquisition
b) first language acquisition
c) second language acquisition
4. what are the types of text structures
a) descriptive text
b) expository text
c) both of them
5. problem in language across the curriculum
a) teacher attitude
b) considering language merely medium
c) a&b
Part B
Answer any 3 question 3 X 5 = 15
6. Explain benefits of LAC
7. explain about language and their meaning concept and
function
8. describe the characteristic of integrated curriculum
9. explain plato problem theory of language
10. explain the types of bilingual education
Answer to each question carries 10 marks 5 X 10 = 50
11. Write a short notes on principle of LAC
or
explain briefly linguistic education
12. tell about basic tenets of lac
or
describe the strategies for enhancing language proficiency
13. explain briefly linguistic education
or
describe the characteristics on an integrated curriculum
14. explain the major stages of the Piaget cognitive
development
or
explain types of bilingual education
15. explain the different types of writing
or
explain skinner imitation theory of language acquistion
Model question paper II
Part A
Answer all the question 5 X1=5
1. What are the types of learning
a) Comprehensive listening
b) discrimintisve listening
c) critical listening
d) all the above
2. which are the skills of listening
a) hearing
b) understanding
c) rembering
d) all the above
3. the right order of linguistic skills?
a) Listening – speaking – reading – writing
b) speaking – listening – writing – reading
c) speaking – reading – listening – writing
d) listening – writing – reading – speaking
4. The study of words and their meanings is known as
(a) semantics
(b) linguistics
(c) phonetics
(d) syntax
5. Children can best learn a language when they having
(a) a good textbook
(b) a proficient language teacher
(c) inhibition
(d) motivation
Answer any 3 question 3 X 5 = 15
6. Listout the importance of LAC
7. what is meant by nature of expository text
8. explain the recognition of mother tongue
9. describe cartesian theory of language production
10. what are the benefits of bilingual education
Answer to each question carries 10 marks 5 X 10 = 50
11. explain modes of human activities involving language
or
describe pluailingualism and their importance
12.
describe the strategies for enhancing language
proficiency
or
explain transactional vs reflexive text
13. describe the national curriculum framework
or
describe the coyels’s 4c curriculum
14.
explain the major stages of the Piaget cognitive
development
or
explain types of bilingual education
15. write about chonsky universal grammar theory
or
explain the theories of tabula rasa
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LANGUAGE ACROSS THE

BACHELOR OF EDUCATION (B.ED.,)

Assistant professor in Physical Science, CK College of Education,

Sri Manakula Vinayagar Publications

Address for Communications:

Contact: 9080514201, 9600841441, 8807421809

UNIT – I: CONCEPTUALIZATION AND PRINCIPLES OF

Language across the Curriculum, meaning, concept goals,

Language: meaning, concept, definitions, aims, objectives

Integrated Curriculum types, meaning, key features,

UNIT – IV: THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

Plato’s problem theory of language – Cartesian theory of

UNIT –V: LANGUAGE RELATED ISSUES

Bilingualism – Multilingualism – Challenges of

3.1. Integrated curriculum types, meaning, key 113

4.1 Plato’s problem theory of language 147

UNIT –V: LANGUAGE RELATED ISSUES

5.9. Reading in the content areas - Social sciences, 193

CONCEPTUALIZATION AND PRINCIPLES OF

As a concept: It accepts the fact that language education

i) Language develops mainly through its purposeful

i) To support language development in the children;

There are eight modes of human activities involving

Considering language and literacy as developmental is

The introduction of Language across the Curriculum is

The meaning of curriculum integration varies from source

1. Create a concept map for the separate subjects in

1.8.4.3. Curriculum knowledge

Primarily, student teachers have to be aware of CI as

ACADEMIC AND SOCIAL LANGUAGE

Language is an amazing feature unique to human beings.

i) enable the student to use language(s) effectively as a

1. Informational function: “Informational function which

A language is a communication tool between friends,

There was a time when it was very difficult to express

One of the major differences between human beings and

It has been proved that people with language skills have

The need to connect with others has resulted in the creation

Firstly learning does not begin in school. Learning starts

Home Language School Language

Begins with telegraphic Can begin with full

6 Doesn’t require instruction It’s require instruction

Different types of text require the students to use for

Expository text is information-based text, which it’s, exists

S.No Date Topic Resource Person

5 19.2.2021 Introducing Your- Ln.Dr. K. N. Sharmila

6 20.2.2021 Effective Dr. N. Mahalakshmi

My father had been suffering of gangrene for more than

While some might think of a teacher reading aloud in

Technology has become a huge part of our everyday

3. Service-learning or trans disciplinary

The true objectives of integrated education are to:

3.3 MODELS OF CURRICULUM INTEGRATION

Curricular approaches also focus on differentaspects like

A National Academies report titled Facilitating

A convergence approach to research integrates insights

With small but distinct differences, it may be helpful to

• CLIL is complex and context-sensitive.

The miniskirt is a skirt whose hemline is high above

3.1. Integrated curriculum types, meaning, key 113