AS Level

Chapter 4

Cell Membranes and Transport

 Chapter Outline
Part 1: Cell Membrane Part 2: Cell signalling
Structure and Function
• Fluid mosaic model Part 3: Transport Across Membrane
• Roles of: 1. Diffusion
– Phospholipids 2. Facilitated diffusion
– Cholesterol 3. Osmosis
– Proteins 4. Active transport
– Glycolipids 5. Endocytosis and exocytosis
– Glycoprotein

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 CELL MEMBRANE
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
 Cell Surface Membrane
• Aka plasma membrane
• ~7nm thick

Roles:
1. Controls movement of substances
into and out of the cell
E.g. Nutrients, waste products

2. Semi-permeable
Barrier to water-soluble substances
Allow passage of lipid-soluble substances

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Plasma Membrane
And many more roles due to the many
components found at the membrane:

3. Cell signaling
4. Cell recognition
5. Cell-to-cell adhesion
6. Site for enzymes to catalyse reactions
7. Anchoring for the cytoskeleton
8. Form H bonds with water for stability
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Fluid Mosaic Model
• Fluid – phospholipids and protein molecules are able to
move about and diffuse sideways within its monolayer

• Mosaic – proteins interspersed / scattered within membrane

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

Components of the Plasma Membrane
1. Phospholipids
2. Cholesterol
3. Proteins
4. Glycolipids
5. Glycoproteins

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 1. Phospholipids Chap 2 Recap

• 1 fatty acid chain in

triglyceride is replaced by a
phosphate group

Composed of:
• 1 glycerol
• 2 fatty acids
• 1 phosphate gp
(PO4-)

• May also have other gps attached to

phosphate gp (represented by R)

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 1. Phospholipids Chap 2 Recap

a) Hydrophilic head
• Phosphate group
• Charged, polar
• Forms H bonds with water
→ Role: Stabilise membrane

b) Hydrophobic tails
• Fatty acid residues
• Hydrocarbon chains are
insoluble and non-polar
• Repels water
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 1. Phospholipids

b) Hydrophobic tails
• Point inwards facing each other
→ Form hydrophobic core
Roles:
Barrier to water-soluble substances
Allow passage to lipid-soluble substances

Only lipid-soluble, small, uncharged molecules can diffuse

through the phospholipid bilayer

• Also! Fatty acids help maintain fluidity of membrane

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 What affects membrane fluidity?
1. Temperature
• Higher temperature, higher kinetic energy, more fluid

2. Ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids

• More unsaturated FA, higher unsat:sat ratio, more fluid
→ Unsaturated FA has C=C which cause kinks
→ Phospholipids more loosely arranged
• More saturated FA, lower unsat:sat ratio, less fluid
→ No kinks, more area for phospholipids to interact

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 What affects membrane fluidity?
3. Length of phospholipid tails
• The longer the tails, less fluid
→ More surface area for interaction between tails

4. Cholesterol!

The cell can maintain fluidity during higher / lower

temperatures by changing the ratio of unsat:sat, length of tails,
and adding cholesterol!

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

2. Cholesterol

• Small molecule
• Has hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
• Fit between the phospholipid molecules
• Not found in prokaryotes’ cell membrane

Roles:
1) Regulates fluidity of membrane
2) Stabilises the membrane
esp the hydrophobic layer
3) Block passage of very small ions
through membrane
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 How Cholesterol Regulates
Membrane’s Fluidity
a) At lower temperatures, less fluid
• Cholesterol increases fluidity / decrease rigidity
→ Prevent close packing of the phospholipid tails

b) At higher temperatures, more fluid

• Cholesterol decreases fluidity
→ Reduce mobility of phospholipids

Overall, it stabilizes the membrane

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 3. Membrane Proteins
Types based on their position in the membrane:

Extrinsic / peripheral proteins

• Inner or outer surface of the membrane

Intrinsic / integral proteins

• Extend into hydrophobic core
• Maybe mobile or fixed
(attached to structures)
• Some are transmembrane proteins
→ Span across the membrane
→ E.g. transport proteins
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Structure of Intrinsic Proteins
• Have both hydrophobic
and hydrophilic regions

• Hydrophobic regions
→ interacts with hydrophobic core / fatty acids tails of phospholipids

• Hydrophilic regions
→ Extend into aqueous external environment inside/ outside the cell
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 3. Membrane Proteins
Roles:
1) Transport proteins
Passage for ions / charged / polar / larger molecules through
membrane

Two types:
• Channel proteins
→ For facilitated diffusion

• Carrier proteins
→ For facilitated diffusion /
active transport

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 3. Membrane Proteins
Channel proteins:
• Highly specific
• Channel /pore is water-filled
→ Hydrophilic R-groups on amino acids face inwards towards channel
→ E.g. aquaporins = channel protein for water

• Can be gated / can open and close

→ E.g. voltage-gated or ligand-gated

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 3. Membrane Proteins
Carrier proteins:
• Highly specific
• Conformational change occurs when it
interacts with the ion / molecule

• Binding sites that alternately open to one

side of the membrane then the other
• Constantly flip between two shapes

→ E.g. sodium-potassium pump

Pumps 2 K+ in, 3 Na+ out

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 3. Membrane Proteins
Roles:
1) Transport proteins
– channel and carrier proteins

2) Enzymes

3) Receptor for cell signalling

molecules

4) Anchoring cytoskeleton
– maintain cell shape

5) Cell-to-cell adhesion
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 4. Glycolipids
• Glyco = carbohydrate chain
• Glycolipid = carbohydrate chains
attached to phospholipids
• Glycoprotein = carbohydrate chains
attached to protein

• Carbohydrate chains face outside of cell

• Form a sugary coat on the cell = glycocalyx

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 4. Glycolipid
Roles:
1) Interacts with water to stabilize membrane structure
• Able to form H bonds with water molecules

2) Cell-to-cell adhesion

3) Cell recognition
• Acts as cell surface antigens / markers
• Macromolecules on cell surface membrane
• Antigen: foreign substance that triggers
immune response
• To distinguish self from non-self

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 5. Glycoprotein
Roles:
1) Interacts with water to stabilize membrane structure
• Able to form H bonds with water molecules

2) Cell-to-cell adhesion

3) Cell recognition
• Acts as cell surface antigens / markers
• Macromolecules on cell surface membrane
• Antigen: foreign substance that triggers
immune response
• To distinguish self from non-self

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 5. Glycoprotein
Roles:

4) Receptor for cell signalling molecules

(for glycoprotein only, not glycolipid)

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

Components of the Plasma Membrane

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 CELL
SIGNALLING
 Cell Signalling
• Cell signalling = How cells detect and respond to stimuli
• Also, how cells communicate
→ Involves ligands = specific chemicals as signalling molecules
→ Leads to specific responses

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Cell Signalling
The Process:
1. Ligands secreted from cells
(E.g. adrenaline from adrenal gland)

2. Ligands transported via bloodstream

to target cells

3. Ligands bind to cell surface receptors

on target cells (E.g. liver / muscle cell)
• Receptor is specific and complementary
in shape to ligand
• Shape of receptor changes when ligand binds
→ Signal passed into the cell (transduction)

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Cell Signalling
4. Receptor activates G protein

5. G protein triggers production of many

secondary messengers by enzyme
• 2o messengers are small and soluble

6. 2o messengers triggers enzyme cascade

• Catalysed by enzyme kinases and
phosphatases
• Cause signal amplification

7. Enzymes carry out specific response

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Examples of Specific Responses

E.g. Adrenaline

• Activated enzymes breakdown

glycogen into glucose
• More glucose available for
respiration
• More energy in the form of
ATP produced More on this in A2!

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Examples of Specific Responses
Specific response depends on the ligand!
Responses can include:
• Increase transcription of a gene
• Movement
• Change in cell shape
• Secretion
• Activation of an enzyme
• Altered metabolism
• Opening an ion channel
• Using the altered receptor directly as
a membrane-bound enzyme

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Types of Ligands
1. Water-soluble ligands
• Cannot pass through membrane
• Recognised by receptor at plasma membrane
• E.g. adrenaline, glucagon

2. Lipid-soluble ligands
• Can pass through membrane
• Can diffuse directly across the
cell surface membrane
• Bind to intracellular receptors
in the cytoplasm or nucleus
• E.g. steroids, oestrogen

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANE
 Transport Across the Plasma Membrane

5 mechanisms of transport between the cell and its environment:

1. Simple diffusion
2. Facilitated diffusion Passive process
3. Osmosis (Does not require energy)

4. Active transport Active process

5. Endocytosis and Exocytosis (Requires energy)

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 1. Simple Diffusion
Definition:
• Net movement of molecules
• From a region of high concentration to low concentration
• Down the concentration gradient
• Until equilibrium

• In cells, this occurs across a

phospholipid bilayer

• Passive transport
→ No ATP used
→ Result of random particle
movements
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 1. Simple Diffusion
Substances that can pass through the phospholipid bilayer
using simple diffusion are:

1) Non-polar/ lipid soluble

2)Uncharged
E.g. oxygen and carbon dioxide

3) Small
E.g. water molecules (osmosis)

Polar, water soluble, charged molecules are unable to pass

through the hydrophobic core of the phospholipid bilayer
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
Factors Affecting Rate of Simple Diffusion
1) Steepness of the concentration gradient
• Greater the difference in concentration,
the steeper the conc. gradient, the higher the rate

2) Temperature
• The higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of
molecules/ions, the higher rate of diffusion

3) Nature of molecules / ions

• Smaller, non-polar molecules diffuse faster +

4) Surface area to volume ratio (SA:V)

• As the object size decreases, the SA:V increases, the shorter
diffusion distance, the higher the rate of diffusion
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
Surface Area to Volume Ratio (SA:V)
• As the object size decreases, the SA:V increases, the shorter
diffusion distance, the higher the rate of diffusion

Agar block with

pH indicator
Petri dish
with acid

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 2. Facilitated Diffusion
Definition:
• Diffusion through membrane transport proteins
• From a region of high concentration to low conc.
• Down a concentration gradient

• Involves channel proteins and carrier proteins

Allow passage of ions and polar molecules

• Passive transport
→ No ATP required

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 2. Facilitated Diffusion
Polar, water soluble, charged molecules are unable to pass
through the hydrophobic core of the phospholipid bilayer

Substances that can pass through using facilitated diffusion

via transport proteins are:

1) Large or water-soluble molecules

E.g. glucose, amino acids

2) Ions or polar molecules

E.g. Na+ and Cl-

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

Factors Affecting Rate of Facilitated Diffusion
1) Steepness of the concentration gradient

2) Temperature

3) Number of transport proteins available

• Channel proteins: Open or close

4) Surface area of the membrane

• Large surface area able to fit more transport proteins

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Example Question
In an investigation, animal cells were exposed to different concentrations of
glucose. The rate of uptake of glucose into the cells across the plasma membrane
was determined for each concentration. Figure below shows the results.

Explain how the results of the investigation support the idea that glucose enters
cells by facilitated diffusion. [2]
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Example Question
It’s facilitated diffusion:
• Because the rate of uptake increases with increasing
glucose concentration, up to a plateau
• At high concentration, all transport proteins in use

If it is passive diffusion:
• Rate would continue to rise

If it is active transport:
• Rate would be independent of concentration
(except at low concentration)

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 3. Osmosis
*** There is no such thing as water concentration!***
We use the term water potential (Ψ)
Ψ = the tendency of water molecules to move from one area to
another

Definition:
• Diffusion of water
• From a region of high water
potential to low water potential
• Down the water potential gradient
• Across a partially permeable membrane
• Until equilibrium

• Passive transport
→ No use of ATP Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Visking Tube Experiment
• In control, starch cannot diffuse out
→ Water diffuse in by osmosis
→ Raised water level
→ Solution in beaker remains blue
when heated with Benedict’s solution

• In experiment, maltose diffuses out

→ Less water diffuse in by osmosis
→ Solution in beaker results in brick-red precipitate
when heated with Benedict’s solution

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Water Potential, Ψ depends on…
1. How much water there is in relation to solutes
• Concentration of the solution
• More solutes present, water more likely to move in
• Solute potential, Ψs -ve value
• Ψs of pure water = highest = 0
• As concentration increases, Ψs more negative = Ψs decreases

2. How much pressure is applied to it

• More pressure, more likely to move out
• Pressure potential, Ψp +ve value

• Esp in plant cells, bcs they have cell wall

Ψ = Ψs + Ψ p Overall -ve value

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Example Question
The diagram shows the water potential of three cells.

In which directions will there be net movement of water by

osmosis to or from cell X?

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Osmosis in Animal Cells
No cell wall, no pressure potential!
Ψ = Ψs

1) When the external solution is hypertonic to the

animal cell
• Higher concentration of solutes outside
• Water potential outside is lower (more negative)
• Water diffuse out of cell by osmosis
• Cell shrinks

2) When the external solution is isotonic to the

animal cell
• Water potential outside animal cell similar to
cell’s content
• No net gain/loss of water
• Cell maintains its shape
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Osmosis in Animal Cells
3) When the external solution is hypotonic to
the animal cell
• Lower solute concentration outside
• Water potential outside animal cell higher
(less negative)
• Water diffuse into cell by osmosis
• Cell volume increases and bursts (lyse)

P/S: words like crenation and haemolysis only apply to RBC,

not other animal cells
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Osmosis in Plant Cells
1) When the external solution is hypertonic to the plant cell

• Higher conc of solutes outside cells

→ Lower / more negative water potential outside
→ Water leaves the plant cells by osmosis
→ Water potential in cells decreases

Result:
• Protoplast shrinks, pull away from the cell wall
→ Plasmolysis occurs
• No pressure on cell wall, so Ψp = 0
External solution has
• Therefore Ψ = Ψs only passed through cell wall

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Osmosis in Plant Cells
2) When the external solution is isotonic to the plant cell

• Plant cell and solution are in the

state of equilibrium
• No net movement of water

• Protoplasm just began to shrink

away from cell wall
→ Incipient plasmolysis
• No pressure on cell wall, so Ψp = 0
• Therefore Ψ = Ψs only

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Osmosis in Plant Cells
3) When the external solution is hypotonic to the plant cell

• Low conc of solutes outside cells

→ Higher water potential outside
→ Water diffuse into cells by osmosis
→ Water potential in cells increases

Result:
• Protoplast pushes against cell wall
→ The cell becomes turgid
• Ψp or turgor pressure in cells builds up
• Increases water potential of the cell further

• Water potential in cell, Ψ = Ψs + Ψp

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Osmosis in Plant Cells

Ψp = 0 Ψp = 0 Ψ = Ψ s + Ψp
Ψ = Ψs Ψ = Ψs
Onion cells Onion cells

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Example Question
The stalk of a dandelion flower is a hollow tube. Pieces of the stalk are cut as
shown and placed in sucrose solutions of different water potentials.

Which diagram shows the piece that is placed in the sucrose solution with the
highest water potential?

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 4. Active Transport
Definition:
• Movement of molecules or ions through
carrier proteins
• From a region of low concentration to
high concentration
• Against the concentration gradient

• Using energy in the from of ATP

→ Needed for conformational change of
carrier protein

• Result in cells having a higher

concentration of ions compared to the
external environment
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 4. Active Transport
E.g. sodium-potassium pump

• Carrier protein
• Pumps 2 K+ in, 3 Na+ out
• Result: inside of cell becomes less
positively charged than outside

• Uses 1 ATP

• Carrier protein also acts as enzyme ATPase

• Has binding sites for Na+ and K+, and an active site for ATP
• ATP → ADP + Pi + energy
• Needed for conformational change of carrier protein

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 4. Active Transport
Roles:
• Sodium-potassium pumps in cells
→ Important in nerve impulses

• Transport of ions from soil via root hairs

→ Contributes to root pressure

• Hydrogen pumps in cells

→ Translocation of sucrose into phloem

• Absorption in the intestines

• Reabsorption in the kidneys

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 5. Endocytosis and Exocytosis
• Mechanism to transport large quantities of substances
• Requires energy in the form of ATP

• Endocytosis = into cell

– Phagocytosis = solids
– Pinocytosis = liquids
• Exocytosis = out of cell

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Mechanism of Phagocytosis
Membrane fuses to
form endocytic vesicle
/ phagosome.

Phagocyte is attracted The vesicle fuses with

to bacteria. Bacterial lysosomes containing
antigens binds to hydrolytic enzymes, that
receptors on the cell catalyses hydrolysis.
membrane.
Enzymes break down
protein / DNA / lipid
Membrane infolds. peptidoglycan / carb.
Pseudopodia forms.
The bacterium is
Bacteria is engulfed. killed and digested
within the vesicle.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnlULOjUhSQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iZYLeIJwe4w
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Exocytosis
• Substances packaged into
secretory vesicles
→ Fuse with cell surface membrane
→ Release contents

• E.g. Secretion of digestive

enzymes and hormones from cells

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U9pvm_4-bHg

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Chapter Outline
Part 1: Cell Membrane Part 2: Cell signalling
Structure and Function
• Fluid mosaic model Part 3: Transport Across Membrane
• Roles of: 1. Diffusion
– Phospholipids 2. Facilitated diffusion
– Cholesterol 3. Osmosis
– Proteins 4. Active transport
– Glycolipids 5. Endocytosis and exocytosis
– Glycoprotein

Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Related Videos (for fun)
Basic Components Of Cell Membrane Explained Under 9 Minutes!!!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aly7AFh46lg

Receptors: Signal Transduction and Phosphorylation Cascade (Prof Dave Explains)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VatdTJka3_M

Cell Membranes and Cell Transport: Molecules like to Move it, Move it
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ptmlvtei8hw

Osmosis and Water Potential (Amoeba Sisters)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L-osEc07vMs

An educational game lol

https://www.biomanbio.com/HTML5GamesandLabs/Cellgames/celldefensehtml5page
.html
Updated on 13/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy