CHAPTER II

Definition of terms

 Learning:

Considering traditional definitions, the concept of learning refers to a step-by-step

process out of which a person experiences long-lasting changes in behavior, knowledge and

ways of making sense of the world. The concept of learning is complex and it varies

according to the focus different disciplines have, however, the characteristics outlined in

Brown´s work (2000) will serve as the basis of this paper. The author claims that:

 Learning is acquisition or “getting”.

 Learning is retention of information or skill.

 Retention implies storage, systems, memory, and cognitive organization.

 Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon events outside or

inside the organism.

 Learning is relatively permanent but subject to forgetting,

 Learning involves some form of practice.

 Learning is a change in behavior.

 Teaching:

Teaching is an umbrella term which makes reference to the process of guiding and

facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn, setting the conditions for learning (Brown,

Principles of language learning and teaching, 2000). Personal understanding about the nature of

teaching and learners affects educator´s teaching style. It is possible to distinguish between two

teaching styles (HKU, 2014):

On the one hand, student-centered approaches are characterized by the following features:

 Teaching is viewed as a process of facilitating students' learning.

 The teacher is viewed as a facilitator to support students' learning.

 Knowledge is constructed by the students

On the other hand, teacher-centered approaches feature the following characteristics:

 Teaching is viewed as a process of imparting information and knowledge from one end

to another.

 The teacher is viewed as presenter of information and knowledge.

 Students are considered as passive receivers of information.

 Knowledge is possessed by the teacher.

 Second Language Acquisition (SLA):

Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to both the study of individuals and groups who

are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one (L1) as children and the

examination of the process of learning that language, known as Target Language (TL) or

Second Language (L2) (Saville-Troike, N/D).

This field of study looks into three scenarios in which learning takes place. First, informal

L2 learning which occurs in natural contexts and by means of interaction usually during

childhood. Second, formal L2 learning which takes place in the classroom and is guided by a

teacher. Third, a mixture of both which combines formal instruction and external interaction

with other members of the group where the target language is employed.

 Communicative competence

According to Yule (1985) the term communicative competence can be defined as the

ability to use the L2 accurately, appropriately and flexibly. The communicative competence is

built up by three main components:

 Grammatical competence which is connected to the accurate use of words and

structures in the L2.

 Sociolinguistic competence which refers to the understanding of the sociocultural rules

for usage of language.

effective way and to compensate the different gaps in the use of L2 with

communication strategies.

 Affective Domain:

The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally

(Krathwohl, 1973). It constitutes the emotional side of human behavior. The term was first

coined in Bloom´s work “Taxonomy of the educational objectives”, published in 1956, referring

to the objectives concerned with feelings such as emotion, rejection or acceptance in English

courses which could serve as a basis for internally consistent qualities of character.

Research on this field is challenging SINCE learners are hugely different from one another

and there are multiple definitions depending on social or cultural factors. Consequently, even

though teachers recognize the importance of affective factors it is still difficult to carry out

specific research.

 Affective Learning Strategies

Affective strategies are those concerned with managing emotions, both negative and

positive ( British Council, 2016). Nowadays, teachers are aware of the fact that the emotional

side of students has a strong influence on language development and may shape the results in

the process of learning.

For language learners, being capable of managing one´s feelings can certainly enhance

one´s posibilities, as learning is not merely intellectual but also depends on social and emotional

factors. As far as teachers are concerned, they should help learners to overcome these situations

by implementing some affective learning strategies in their lessons. In this regard Oxford (1990)

introduces a set of affective strategies which suit different situations:

Lowering anxiety

 Using laugher
  Using music
 Using progressive relaxation

Encouraging oneself

 Making positive statements

Taking emotional temperature

 Listening to the body

 Rapport:

According to the British Council webpage, rapport in language learning refers to the

relationship between the teacher and the learners (British Council, 2016). Fostering a

relationship of trust and respect with learners makes them feel capable, competent and creative.

Possible problems within the classroom may be caused due to the lack of a good rapport

inherited from a wrong conception of teaching and learning. In order to create positive rapport

Brown (2007) advises:

 Showing interest in each student as a person.

 Giving feedback on each person´s progress.

 Openly soliciting students´ ideas and feelings.

 Valuing and respecting what students think and say.

 Laughing with them not at them.

 Working with them as a team not against them.

 Developing a genuine sense of vicarious jo when they learn something or otherwise

succeed.

 Personality factors:
 Personality factors are referred to the qualities, traits, preferences, styles and strategies

which are interconnected in language teaching and learning. It is important to know about

personality factors as this enables educators to provide students with assistance, opportunities,

direction and responsibilities that fit well with their needs and motivations (Zahra Sepehri,

N/D).Personality factors also include the following elements: Inhibition, self-esteem, empathy,

extroversion, risk-taking, motivation and anxiety.

 Anxiety:

It is related with feelings of uneasiness, self-doubt, or apprehension before, during or even

after a task. Three components of foreign language anxiety have been identified (Brown, 2000):

 Communication apprehension arising from the learner´s inability to adequately express

mature thoughts and ideas.

 Fear of negative social evaluation, arising from a learner´s need to make a positive

social impression on others.

 Test anxiety or apprehension over academic evaluation.

 Motivation:

It is often associated with feelings of enthusiasm and it may be defined as the cause of a

determined behavior which ultimately “determines the direction and magnitude of human

behavior or, in other words, the choice of a particular action, the persistence with it, and the

effort expended on it.” (Dornyei, 2014).

 Risk Taking:

It refers to students’ willingness to gamble, and make guesses based upon their prior

knowledge or personal ideas. Fostering students to explore new ideas, ways of expression and

be confident upon them is a challenge for teachers, students especially teenagers as they want

the approval of their classmates, and many are not willing to risk that approval to engage in
intellectual exploration. It is probably not “cool” to ask a question, even if the answer helps

them with their learning (Smith, N/D).

 Self-esteem:

Self- esteem is understood as ideas and feelings towards oneself and one´s worth over a

number of situations. The influence of self-esteem is more evident in oral tasks as learners do

not have the time to check pronunciation or correct use of language; this may result in

misunderstandings or negative feedback from the teacher which may harm students´ fragile

language ego and prevent them from participating in activities that involve overt

communication.

 Empathy:

Empathy is concerned with one´s ability to understand and tolerate other´s feelings and

perspectives. More specifically, Catapano (N/D). “Empathy is foundational for building bridges

between individuals, understanding each other’s’ complex emotions, gaining a diverse

perspective, and leveraging relationships for collaboration and progress”. Empathy is to be

taken into consideration when providing feedback to learners, as it constitutes an important

point in the development of communication skills.

 Inhibition:

It is often regarded as feelings of worry that prevent learners from expressing their opinions,

also known as the barrier that protects their language ego. On this issue, the author Chong

(2012) asserts that “The process of Second Language Learning could pose internal threats, such

as learners judging themselves harshly for their mistakes, and external threats, where learners

perceive others as judging them”.

 Extroversion:
Extroversion has to do with curiosity and students´ appetite for learning and exploring their own

cognitive and emotional conceptions. Extrovert learners may be more willing to speak out,

participate and also encourage peers to do so. However, the fact that a student is extrovert does

not mean they have a higher communicative competence over their classmates. Some

researchers suggest that extrovert learners are less self-secure than introvert ones and look for

ego enhancement in the approval of others.

 Affective filter:

This term was coined by Stephen Krashen who claims that affect may either facilitate or

prevent comprehensible input from reaching the language areas of the mind. In this regard Yule

(1985) adds that the term is often used to describe a kind of barrier to acquisition that results

from negative feelings or experiences.

 Language ego:

In general terms, the language ego can be considered as the personal nature of second

language acquisition and learning, that is, “The language ego is the identity a person develops in

reference to the language he or she speaks” (Polyglossic, 2012). When learning a second

language, students assume a new identity to the teacher and his /her peers who they want to be

approved by. An adaptative language ego is helpful for learners as it enables to lower the

inhibitions that impede success.

The rise of humanistic approaches in language teaching paved the way for the

establishment of research on affective variables as one of the most prominent areas of study. In

fact, mirroring the new trends in general linguistics, language learning is not concerned only

with knowledge but also with the process and the circumstances behind this ultimate goal. In

this sense, scholars now claim that success or failure in language courses can be accounted by

the role assigned to affective factors. However, understanding, systematizing and

operationalizing affective factors can be an arduous task even for investigators.

In a quite uncertain scenario, the contributions made by Encarnacion and Ruggeri

(2023) clearly delimit the scope of what affective variables are. According to the authors, even

though the terms emotion and feelings are used as synonyms; it is important to draw the line

between them. Differently from feelings, emotions are quite complex as they involve

physiological and non-verbal changes. Moreover, emotions are intricately connected to

physiological, cultural and cognitive dimensions mainly (Encarnacion and Ruggeri,2023).

One of the most insightful claims by these authors resides on the assertion that emotions

are relational. That is to say, they are connected to the type of relationships we have developed

and the communication climate. As regards the latter term, there are spaces and participants

around which people feel they can be true or authentic. However, other spaces can force

somehow people to use a “mask” to conceal certain aspects of their personality (Encarnacion

and Ruggeri,2023). In this scenario, subjects must learn to differentiate and deal with facilitative

and debilitative emotions to become effective communicators. Whereas facilitative emotions

allow people to progress in their daily tasks; debilitative emotions often lead to destructive

behavior (Encarnacion and Ruggeri,2023).

Specifically connected to language teaching, the author Bao (2021) asserts that affective

factors include not only emotions but also the affect learners feel for their peers and also with

the teacher (Bao,2021). The author goes on to make a brief historical account of the findings
and concerns about affective factors. The most important of his remarks are connected to the

implications that awareness on affective variables has for language learning. For the author,

affective factors have three main implications in the classroom: they help to build students´

confidence, they stimulate students´ motivation and they help students to lower anxiety.

As regards the first point, Bao (2021) claims that some students divert from interaction

in classes in an attempt to avoid embarrassment. Thus, teachers´ praise and encouragement is of

vital importance so that learners do not adopt a negative attitude towards learning. As for the

second point, the author affirms that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can promote

learning as they are mutually influenced. On this point, he also mentions that it is important to

learn not only about the language itself but also about its culture (Bao,2021). Last but not least,

a relaxing atmosphere is of utmost importance to promote learner participation in the classroom

(Bao,2021).

On the same line the author Ni (2012) makes a critical revision of the history of

research on affective variables in SLA. In her work, she mentions that applied linguistics is no

longer concerned with a mere surface-level description but also with the search of deeper

psychological factors influencing the process of learning (Ni, 2012). That said, the author

focuses on three main affective factors: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. The

conclusions of the study she carried out reveal that students overall feel positive about the

guidance received by the teacher but they are really concerned the specific ways in which

corrective feedback is provided (Ni, 2012). This latter fact, makes it clear that teachers also

determine, to a certain extent, the general climate and students´ mood in the classroom.

As a closure to this section, Trezise´s (2017) stresses the importance of not neutralizing

emotions as classrooms themselves are emotional settings. The author calls for action by

advising readers to “target” emotions (Trezise,2017) engaging teachers and students in

interventions that help them explore and understand emotions and learning better. The author

summarizes the benefits of adopting this approach in the classroom by stating that the learning
model of neutral emotion is unrealistic, emotional states may be result of classroom factors

which might need adjustment, external factors may influence emotional state and even though

schools are limited in their ability to change situations they can help students minimize the

impact (Trezise,2017).