CHM012
Chemistry for
Engineers
Topic 6:
Liquids and Solids
Tel.
| Page
States of Matter
❖ The fundamental difference between states of matter
is the strength of the intermolecular forces of
attraction.
❖ Stronger forces bring molecules closer together.
❖ Liquids and solids are the condensed states of matter
because they are formed by forces that may involve:
✔ Covalent
bonding
✔ Ionic
bonding
✔ Intermolecular
forces
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 2
Intermolecular Forces
They
are
forces
that
occur
between
molecules.
The
attractions
between
molecules
are
not
nearly
as
strong
as
the
intramolecular
attractions
(bonds)
that
hold
compounds
together.
Many
physical
properties
reflect
intermolecular
forces,
like
boiling
points,
melting
points,
viscosity,
surface
tension,
and
capillary
action.
Types
of
Intermolecular
Forces,
IMFs
(Weakest
to
strongest
forces)
❖ dispersion
forces
(or
London
dispersion
forces)
❖ dipole–dipole
forces
❖ hydrogen
bonding
(a
special
dipole–dipole
force)
❖ ion–dipole
forces
Note:
The
first
two
types
are
also
referred
to
collectively
as
van
der
Waals
forces.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 3
London Dispersion Forces
✔ They exist among noble gas atoms and nonpolar
molecules.
❖ Instantaneous dipole that occurs accidentally in a given
atom induces a similar dipole in a neighboring atom which
instigates weak and short-‐lived interatomic attraction.
❖ The tendency of an electron cloud to distort is called its
polarizability.
Factors
that
Affect
Dispersion
Force
in
a
Molecule
1. number
of
electrons
in
an
atom
(more
electrons,
more
dispersion
force)
– large
atoms
easily
polarizable.
2. size
of
atom
or
molecule/molecular
weight
3. shape
of
molecules
with
similar
masses
(more
compact,
less
dispersion
force)
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 4
Dipole–Dipole Forces
Exhibited
by
molecules
with
polar
bonds
that
behave
in
an
electric
field
• Attract
each
other
electrostatically
• Also
called
dipole–dipole
attraction
Dipoles
find
the
best
compromise
between
attraction
and
repulsion.
Characteristics:
✔ Only
1%
as
strong
as
covalent
or
ionic
bonds
✔ Forces
grow
weaker
as
distance
between
dipoles
increase
a. The
electrostatic
interaction
of
two
polar
molecules
b. The
interaction
of
many
dipoles
in
a
condensed
state
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 5
Dipole–Dipole Forces
Note:
For
molecules
of
approximately
equal
mass
and
size,
the
more
polar
the
molecule,
the
higher
its
boiling
point.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 6
Hydrogen Bonding
❖ Strong
dipole–dipole
forces
can
be
noticed
when
H
is
bound
to
lone
pairs
on
highly
electronegative
atoms
like
N,
O,
and F.
❖ Strength
of
interactions
can
be
characterized
by:
• Polarity
of
the
bond
• Close
approach
of
the
dipoles
• Small
size
of
the
hydrogen
atom
❖ Such
bonding
affects
the
physical
properties
of
elements
• Important
in
organic
molecules
Note:
Blue
dotted
lines represent
intermolecular
forces
between
the
water
molecules
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 7
The Boiling Points of the Covalent Hydrides of the
Elements in Groups 4A, 5A, 6A, and 7A
Which
Have
a
Greater
Effect:
Dipole–Dipole
Interactions
or
Dispersion
Forces?
✔ If
two
molecules
are
of
comparable
size
and
shape,
dipole–dipole
interactions
will
likely
be
the
dominating
force.
✔ If
one
molecule
is
much
larger
than
another,
dispersion
forces
will
likely
determine
its
physical
properties.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 8
Ion–Dipole Interactions
❖ Ion–dipole
interactions
are
found
in
solutions
of
ions.
❖ The
strength
of
these
forces
is
what
makes
it
possible
for
ionic
substances
to
dissolve
in
polar
solvents.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 9
Intermolecular Forces – Summary
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 10
Example
1.
Based
on
the
following
Lewis
structures,
which
molecule
has
a
higher
boiling
point?
Why?
2.
Which
gas
would
behave
more
ideally
at
the
same
pressure
and
temperature?
Why?
CO N2
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 11
Characteristics of Liquid
Liquids exhibit low compressibility, lack of rigidity,
and high density
Surface tension is the resistance of a liquid to an
increase in its surface area – Liquids with large
intermolecular forces tend to have high surface
tensions
Capillary action is a spontaneous rising of a liquid
in a narrow tube -‐ involves adhesive and cohesive
forces
✔ Adhesive
forces
attract
the
liquid
to
the
wall
of
the
tube.
✔ Cohesive
forces
attract
the
liquid
to
itself.
❖ Water
has
stronger
adhesive
forces
with
glass;
mercury
has
stronger
cohesive
forces
with
itself.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 12
Characteristics of Liquid
Viscosity refers
to
the
measure
of
a
liquid’s
resistance
to
flow.
Liquids
with
large
intermolecular
forces
or
molecular
complexity
tend
to
be
highly
viscous
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 13
Phase Change
Conversion from one state of matter to another is
called a phase change.
Energy is either added or released in a phase change.
Phase changes:
✔ melting/freezing -‐ the heat of fusion (ΔHfus) is the
energy required to change a solid at its melting
point to a liquid.
✔ vaporizing/condensing -‐ the heat of vaporization
(ΔHvap) is the energy required to change a liquid
at its boiling point to a gas.
✔ subliming/depositing -‐ the heat of sublimation
(ΔHsub) is the energy required to change a solid
directly to a gas.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 14
Heating Curves
❖ A
plot
of
temperature
vs.
heat
added
is
called
a
heating
curve.
❖ Within
a
phase,
the
amount
of
heat
needed
to
raise
the
temperature
of
a
substance
is
the
product
of
specific
heat,
sample
mass,
and
temperature
change.
Heat
=
m
x
Cp x
ΔT
❖ The
temperature
of
the
substance
does
not
rise
during
a
phase
change
because
the
added
energy
is
used
to
overcome
the
attractive
forces
between
molecules.
❖ During
the
phase
change,
the
product
of
mass
and
the
heat
of
fusion
or
vaporization
is
heat.
Heat
=
m
x
ΔHvap
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 15
Vapor Pressure
At any temperature, some liquid molecules have
enough energy to escape the surface and
become a gas.
As the temperature rises, the fraction of
molecules that have enough energy to break
free increases.
As more molecules escape the liquid, the
pressure they exert increases.
The liquid and vapor reach a state of dynamic
equilibrium: liquid molecules evaporate, and
vapor molecules condense at the same rate.
The vapor pressure present at equilibrium is also
called equilibrium vapor pressure
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 16
Estimation of Vapor Pressure Using a Simple Barometer
Vapor pressure can be
determined principally by the
size of intermolecular forces in
the liquid.
Liquids with large intermolecular
forces have relatively low vapor
pressures -‐ molecules need a
higher energy to escape the
vapor phase.
Substances with large molar
masses have low vapor
pressures -‐ attributed to larger
dispersion forces.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 17
Boiling Point
✔ The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at
which its vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
✔ The normal boiling point is the temperature at which
its vapor pressure is 760 torr or 1 atm.
✔ Normal melting point: Temperature at which solid
and liquid states have identical vapor pressure, and
total pressure = 1 atm
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 18
Clausius–Clapeyron Equation
❖ The natural log of the vapor pressure of a liquid is
inversely proportional to its temperature. This relationship
is quantified in the Clausius–Clapeyron equation.
❖ When the values of ΔHvap and P vap at constant temperature
are known, it is easy to calculate the value of Pvap at
another temperature.
Note: R
=
8.3145
J/mol
K
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 19
Example
The
vapor
pressure
of
water
at
25°C
is
23.8
torr,
and
the
heat
of
vaporization
of
water
at
25°C
is
43.9
kJ/mol.
Calculate
the
vapor
pressure
of
water
at
50°C.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 20
Phase Diagrams
❖ A
convenient
way
of
representing
the
phases
of
a
substance
as
a
function
of
its
temperature
and
pressure
❖ Triple
point:
The
temperature
at
which
all
three
phases
exist
simultaneously
❖ Critical
point:
The
critical
pressure
and
critical
temperature,
together,
define
this
point
✔ Critical
pressure:
Pressure
required
to
produce
liquefaction
at
critical
temperature.
✔ Critical
temperature:
The
temperature
above
which
a
liquid
cannot
be
liquefied,
irrespective
of
pressure
applied
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 21
Phase Diagram of Water
❖ At
point
X
on
the
phase
diagram,
water
is
a
solid
❖ As
the
external
pressure
is
increased
while
the
temperature
remains
constant,
the
solid/liquid
line
is
Liquid
crossed
and
the
ice
melts
❖ The
solid/liquid
boundary
line
is
a
negative
slope
✔ Melting
point
of
ice
decreases
with
increased
Solid
external
pressure
❖ At
the
melting
point,
liquid
and
solid
are
in
dynamic
X
equilibrium
✔ When
pressure
is
applied,
the
volume
is
reduced Gas
✔ A
given
mass
of
ice
has
more
volume
at
0°C
than
the
same
mass
of
water
in
liquid
state
✔ Freezing
point
of
water
is
less
than
0°C
when
pressure
is
greater
than
1
atm
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 22
Phase Diagram of Carbon dioxide
❖ The
liquid
state
does
not
exist
at
a
pressure
of
1
atm
❖ The
solid/liquid
line
has
a
positive
slope,
since
the
density
of
solid
carbon
dioxide
is
greater
than
that
of
liquid
carbon
dioxide
Interpretations:
• Solid/liquid
line
is
a
positive
slope
• Triple
point
occurs
at
5.1
atm
and
−56.6°C
• Critical
point
can
be
noticed
at
72.8
atm
and
31°C
• Sublimation
occurs
at
−78°C
Applications:
• Dry
ice
-‐ A
convenient
refrigerant
because
it
does
not
undergo
the
liquid
phase
under
normal
atmospheric
conditions
• Liquid
form
is
used
in
fire
extinguishers
at
25°C
under
high
pressure
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 23
Concept Check
As
intermolecular
forces
increase,
what
happens
to
each
of
the
following?
a. Boiling
point
b. Freezing
point
c. Viscosity
d. Vapor
pressure
e. Surface
tension
f. Heat
of
vaporization
g. Enthalpy
of
fusion
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 24
Classification of Solids
❖ Amorphous
solids
have
disordered
structures.
Example
-‐ Glass
❖ Crystalline
solids
have
a
highly
regular
arrangement
of
components.
Positions
of
components
are
represented
by
lattice(s).
A
three-‐dimensional
system
of
points
that
designates
the
position
of
the
components
of
a
substance.
Unit
Cell
• The
basis
of
a
repeating
pattern
is
the
unit
cell.
• The
structure
of
a
crystalline
solid
is
defined
by:
✔ the
size
and
shape
of
the
unit
cell.
✔ the
locations
of
atoms
within
the
unit
cell.
Lattice
Points
• Positions
that
define
the
overall
structure
of
the
crystalline
compound
are
called
lattice
points.
• Each
lattice
point
has
an
identical
environment.
• Lattice
vectors connect
the
points
and
define
the
unit
cell.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 25
2-D Lattices
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 26
3-D Lattices
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 27
Primitive vs. Centered Lattices
Primitive
lattices have
atoms
only in
the
lattice
points.
Centered
lattices have
atoms
in
another
regular
location,
most
commonly
the
body-‐center
or
the
face-‐center.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 28
Cubic Structures
Not
every
part
of
an
atom
on
a
lattice
point
is
completely
within
that
unit
cell.
One
can
determine
how
many
atoms
are
within
each
unit
cell.
Eight
cubes
meet
at
a
corner,
therefore
only
1/8
of
that
corner
atom
is
within
any
one
unit
cell
meeting
there.
Two
cubes
meet
at
a
face,
therefore
only
1/2
of
that
face
atom
is
within
any
one
unit
cell
meeting
there.
A
body-‐centered
atom
is
entirely
within
the
unit
cell.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 29
X-Ray Analysis of Solids
❖ X-‐ray
diffraction
is
used
to
determine
the
Bragg
Equation
structure
of
crystalline
solids.
Where:
n - is
an
integer
❖ Diffraction
occurs
due
to:
λ -‐ is
the
wavelength
of
the
X-‐rays
✔ Constructive
interference
when
parallel
beam
d -‐ is
the
distance
between
atoms
waves
are
in
phase
θ -‐ is
the
angle
of
incidence
and
reflection
✔ Destructive
interference
when
waves
are
out
of
phase
❖ Distance
traveled
by
waves
depends
on
the
distance
between
the
atoms.
❖ A
diffractometer
is
used
to
carry
out
X-‐ray
analysis
of
crystals
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 30
Example
X-‐rays
of
wavelength
1.54
Å
were
used
to
analyze
an
aluminum
crystal.
A
reflection
was
produced
at
θ =
19.3
degrees.
Assuming
n
= 1,
calculate
the
distance
d
between
the
planes
of
atoms
producing
this
reflection
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 31
Types of Crystalline Solid
❖ Ionic
solids
possess
ions
at
the
points
of
the
lattice
that
describe
their
structures
❖ Molecular
solids
have
discrete
covalently
bonded
molecules
at
each
lattice
point(s)
❖ An
atomic
solid
has
atoms
at
the
lattice
points
that
describe
its
structure
✔ Metallic
solids
✔ Network
solids
✔ Group
8A
(18)
solids
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 32
Structures of Metals
Closest
packing
is
an
arrangement
that
assumes
that
metal
atoms
are
hard,
uniform
spheres.
• These
spheres
are
packed
in
layers.
• Each
successive
layer
is
formed
when
spheres
occupy
a
dimple
formed
by
the
spheres
of
the
previous
layer.
Forms
of
closest
packing:
aba
packing
abc
packing
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 33
aba Packing
❖ The
2nd layer
is
like
the
1st,
but
it
is
displaced,
so
that
each
sphere
in
the
2nd layer
occupies
a
dimple
in
the
1st layer
❖ The
spheres
in
the
3rd layer
occupy
dimples
in
the
2nd layer.
Spheres
in
the
3rd layer
lie
directly
over
those
in
the
1st
layer
❖ The
resultant
structures
are
called
hexagonal
closest
packed
(hcp)
structures
• The
spheres
in
every
layer
occupy
the
same
vertical
position
• When
the
spheres
are
aba
closest
packed,
the
unit
cell
is
a
hexagonal
prism
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 34
Hexagonal Closest Packing, hcp
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 35
abc Packing
❖ The
spheres
in
the
3rd layer
occupy
dimples
in
the
2nd layer
❖ Spheres
in
the
3rd layer
do
not
rest
above
spheres
in
the
1st layer
❖ The
4th layer
is
like
the
1st
❖ The
resultant
structure
is
termed
a
cubic
closest
packed
(ccp)
structure
• The
spheres
in
every
fourth
layer
occupy
the
same
vertical
position
• In
abc
packing,
the
unit
cell
is
face-‐centered
cubic
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 36
Cubic Closest Packing, ccp
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 37
Common Characteristics of the hcp and the
ccp Structures
✔ Each
sphere
in
both
structures
possesses
12
equivalent
nearest
neighbors
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 38
Example
Silver
crystallizes
in
a
cubic
closest
packed
structure.
The
radius
of
a
silver
atom
is
144
pm.
Calculate
the
density
of
solid
silver.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 39
Concept Check
1. Determine
the
number
of
metal
atoms
in
a
unit
cell
if
the
packing
is:
a. Simple
cubic
b. Cubic
closest
1. A
metal
crystallizes
in
a
face-‐centered
cubic
structure.
Determine
the
relationship
between
the
radius
of
the
metal
atom
and
the
length
of
an
edge
of
the
unit
cell.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 40
Bonding Models of Metal
A
successful
bonding
model
for
metals
must
consider:
✔ Malleability
✔ Ductility
✔ Efficient
uniform
conduction
of
heat
and
electricity
Bonding
models
for
metals
include:
✔ Electron
sea
model
✔ Band
model
(Molecular
Orbital
model)
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 41
Electron Sea Model
❖A
regular
array
of
metal
cations
are
considered
to
be
in
a
sea
of
mobile
valence
electrons
❖Mobile
electrons
conduct
heat
and
electricity
❖Ions
can
freely
move
around
when
the
metal
is
hammered
or
drawn
into
a
wire
❖The
electrical
and
thermal
conductivity,
ductility,
and
malleability
of
metals
is
explained
by
this
model.
a. Representation
of
an
alkali
metal
(Group
1A)
with
one
valence
electron
a. Representation
of
an
alkaline
earth
metal
(Group
2A)
with
two
valence
electrons
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 42
Molecular Orbital Model
❖ As the number of atoms in a
chain increases, the energy gap
between the bonding orbitals
and between the antibonding
orbitals disappears, resulting in a
continuous band of energy.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 43
Molecular Orbital Model
Most
metals
have
d and
p
orbitals
to
consider.
Their
MO
diagrams
lead
to
more
bands
that
better
explain
conductivity
and
other
properties
of
metals.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 44
Metal Alloys
An
alloy is
a
substance
that
contains
a
mix
of
elements
and
possesses
metallic
properties
Classification
of
alloys:
1. Substitutional
alloy
-‐ where
some
of
the
host
metal
atoms
are
replaced
by
other
metal
atoms
of
similar
size.
(Ex.
Brass)
2. Interstitial
alloy
-‐ where
some
of
the
holes
in
the
closest
packed
metal
structure
are
occupied
by
small
atoms.
(Ex.
Steel)
3. Heterogeneous
alloys
-‐ components
not
dispersed
uniformly.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 45
Network Solids
Network
solids
are
those
atomic
solids
that
contain
directional
covalent
bonds
which
form
solids
that
can
be
viewed
as
“giant
molecules”
Properties:
✔ Brittle
nature
✔ Ineffective
conductors
of
heat
and
electricity
Important
elements:
• Carbon
– ex.
Diamond
and
graphite
• Silicon
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 46
Diamond
Hardest
naturally
occurring
substance
Each
C
atom
is
surrounded
by
a
tetrahedral
arrangement
of
other
C
atoms
Structure
as
per
the
localized
electron
model:
✔ Stable
structure
is
obtained
via
covalent
bonds
✔ Formed
by
the
overlap
of
sp3
hybridized
C
atomic
orbitals
Structure
as
per
the
molecular
orbital
theory:
✔ Large
gaps
between
filled
and
empty
levels
✔ Electron
transfer
is
not
easy
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 47
Graphite
Slippery,
black,
and
a
conductor
of
heat
and
electricity
Structure
is
based
on
layers
of
C
atoms
arranged
in
fused
six-‐membered
rings.
Structure
as
per
the
localized
electron
model:
• Shows
trigonal
planar
arrangement
• 120-‐degree
bond
angles
• sp2 hybridization
-‐ three
sp2
orbitals
on
each
C
atom
fuse
to
form
σ
bonds
with
three
other
C
atoms.
One
2p orbital
remains
unhybridized,
perpendicular
to
the
plane.
Structure
as
per
the
molecular
orbital
theory:
• All
orbitals
combine
to
form
π
MOs
-‐ assist
in
the
stability
of
graphite.
Delocalized
electrons
account
for
good
electrical
conductivity.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 48
Semiconductors
They
have
a
gap
between
the
occupied
MOs
(valence
band)
and
the
unoccupied
ones
(conduction
band).
Electrons
must
enter
the
conduction
band
for
electron
transfer.
Group
IVA
elements
have
gaps
between
the
bands
of
0.08
to
3.05
eV
(7
to
300
kJ/mol).
Note:
Band
gaps
over
3.5
eV
lead
to
the
material
being
an
insulator.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 49
Semiconductors
Among
elements,
only
Group
IVA,
all
of
which
have
4
valence
electrons,
are
semiconductors.
Inorganic
semiconductors
(like
GaAs)
tend
to
have
an
average
of
4
valence
electrons
(3
for
Ga,
5
for
As).
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 50
Semiconductors - Doping
Doping – is
changing
the
conductivity
of
semiconductors
by
adding
an
element
with
more
or
fewer
electrons
n-‐type
semiconductor:
A
substance
whose
conductivity
is
increased
by
doping
with
atoms
that
have
more
valence
electrons
than
those
in
the
host
crystal.
✔ n-‐type
have
more
electrons,
so
the
negative
charge
travels
in
the
conductance
band.
p-‐type
semiconductors:
A
substance
whose
conductivity
is
increased
by
doping
with
atoms
having
fewer
valence
electrons
than
the
atoms
of
the
host
crystal.
✔ p-‐type
have
fewer
electrons,
so
the
“hole”
travels
in
the
valence
band.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 51
Molecular Solids
Possess
strong
covalent
bonding
within
molecules
but
weak
forces
between
molecules.
Forces
among
the
molecules
depend
on
the
nature
of
the
molecules.
✔ CO2,
I2,
P4,
and
S8 -‐ No
dipole
moment;
possess
London
dispersion
forces.
✔ Molecules
that
possess
dipole
moments
have
greater
intermolecular
forces,
especially
when
hydrogen
bonding
is
viable.
Solid
CO2 (Dry
Ice)
Solid
H2O
(Ice)
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 52
Ionic Solids
In
ionic
solids,
the
lattice
comprises
alternately
charged
ions.
Held
together
by
strong
electrostatic
forces
between
oppositely
charged
ions.
Structure
is
based
on
closest
packing
of
spheres
so
that:
✔ Electrostatic
attraction
between
oppositely
charged
ions
is
maximized.
✔ Repulsion
among
ions
with
like
charges
is
minimized.
Ionic
solids
have
very
high
melting
and
boiling
points
and
are
quintessential
crystals.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 53
Ionic Solids
Most
favorable
structures
have
cation–
anion
distances
as
close
as
possible,
but
the
anion–anion
and
cation–cation
distances
are
maximized.
Three
common
structures
for
1:1
salts:
1. CsCl
structure
2. NaCl
(rock
salt)
structure
3. Zinc
blende
(ZnS)
structure
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 54
Effect of Ion Size on Structure
The
size
of
the
cation
compared
to
the
anion
(radius
ratio)
is
the
major
factor
in
which
structure
is
seen
for
ionic
compounds.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 55
Example
Determine
the
net
number
of
Na+ and
Cl− ions
in
the
sodium
chloride
unit
cell.
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 56
Types and Properties of Solids
Type of Solid: Atomic Molecular Ionic
Network Metallic Group 8A
Structural Unit: Atom Atom Atom Molecule Ion
Type of Bonding: Directional Nondirectional covalent London Polar molecules: Ionic
covalent bonds involving electrons dispersion dipole–dipole
bonds that are delocalized forces interactions
throughout the crystal
Nonpolar molecules:
London dispersion forces
Typical Hard Wide range of hardness Soft Hard
Properties:
High melting Wide range of melting Very low Low melting point High melting
point points melting point point
Examples: Insulator Conductor Insulator Insulator
Diamond Silver Argon(s) Ice (solid H2O) Sodium chloride
Iron Dry ice (solid CO2) Calcium fluoride
Brass
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 57
Example
Using
the
table
on
the
types
and
properties
of
solids,
classify
each
of
the
following
substances
according
to
the
type
of
solid
it
forms
a. Gold
b. Carbon
dioxide
c. Lithium
fluoride
d. Krypton
Topic
6:
Liquids
and
Solids | Page 58
