1

THE HISTORY OF AFRICA FOR G.C.E. ‘O’ LEVEL

1884 - 2004

MUNANG Richard CHIAMBAH

G.B.H.S. Jakiri
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Table of content
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

I am highly indebted to my dear wife, Nawain Stella Mbuh for the wonderful
encouragement, comfort and food she provided to enable me realize this project. I equally
express my gratitude to all the authors whose works I consulted as well as to the following
friends and colleagues who took their time to read through the manuscript for necessary
corrections. Mr Mbeng Kenneth of G.S S Nkar, Mr Wimgo Emmanuel D. Dughana,
GBHS Jakin, Mr Mbeng Johnson Ndim of GBHS Bamenda, Mr NGO D. Cyprian of St.
Sylvester Catholic High School Sop, Laila Austine, Afoni Elvis History students, E N.S
Annex Bambili. It is difficult to mention all the names of all the people who contributed in
the realization of this prefect. But appreciate them for all the technical advice and the
support they gave me especially the History students of GBHS Jakiri.

Contact address:

MUNANG Richard CHIAMBAH

GBHS Jakiri
P.O Box 06 Jakiri
Call No: 677 94 96 38
674 29 48 08
 Dedication iii

I DEDICATE THIS WORK TO A GREAT

HISTORIAN AND MY MENTOR, MR NSOM
MARTIN NTOH OF BLESSED MEMORY.

‘’If you are wise and understand god’s ways, live a life of steady goodness so that
only good deeds will pour forth. And if you don’t brag about the good you do, then you will be
truly wise! But if you are bitterly jealous and there is selfish ambit1on in your hearts, don't brag
about being wise. That is the worst kind of live. For jealousy and selfishness are not goo’s kind
of wisdom. Such things are earthly, unspiritual, and motivated by the devil.’’
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PREFACE

The G.C.E Ordinary level programme for history is too broad and it is very difficult for a

teacher to effectively cover it in three years. With the introduction of Multiple Choice Questions

(M.C.Qs) in paper one, all the elements of the syllabus are to be tested. This innovation makes the

challenging task in ordinary level history even more difficult for both the students and the teachers.

For a student to make a good pass in the subject, he or she is required to have good mastery of all

the sections of the paper. But the students cannot depend only on the teacher because of the broad

nature of the programme. For this reason the students must work on their own to assist the teacher

and increase their chances of passing the subject. Unfortunately it is difficult to find a single text

which covers the African History syllabus for the ordinary level GCE. Even if found, they are too

expensive for the student to buy. As such this book is intended to provide a solution to the

challenges brought by the M.C.Qs, enable the students to have a simplified document which can

help them even in the absence of a teacher, make them have an easy pass in the ordinary level

history paper and to make them have a sound foundation for the Advanced Level African History.

The text has maps and pictures and every topic has past GCE or sample GCE questions at the end.
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CHAPTER ONE
THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA
The Scramble for Africa refers to the rush by the Europeans to colonize or to acquire
territories in Africa for their economic, political and social interests. It is difficult to say with
precision when the scramble started, but 1879 is generally accepted as its year. Before this
period the Europeans knew very little about Africa. This was because their trade with the
Africans concentrated only along the coast. But by 1879, much about Africa had been
revealed by missionaries and explorers such as David Livingstone, Henry Morton, Stanley,
Mungo Park, etc. Some of these missionaries and explorers wrote books, newspapers and
even gave lectures about Africa. At this time also the Belgian King Leopold II set out to
establish exclusive control over the Congo for himself thus frightening other European states
like Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal to rush for territories. As a result these
European powers partitioned Africa among themselves with such haste like players in a rough
game that the process has been called the Scramble for Africa.

Africa 1914

WHY THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA ONLY BEGAN IN 1879

1. Other areas such as Australia, India, and Canada etc. appeared richer and provided
 better markets and sources of raw materials to the Europeans than Africa. / . ,
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2. Most of Africa especially the intenor was unexplored and little known about its riches
before 1879.
3. Germany and Italy that became major actors in the scramble were not united and strong
enough to go out for colonies until 1870. France on her part became stable only in 1879
when the Monarchists were ousted by the Republicans who favored colonial expansion.
4. The tropical diseases especially malaria was a major cause of death among! Europeans
on the African coast. This frightened the Europeans away from active territorial
acquisition in Africa. It was only after 1857 when quinine was discovered as an
effective cure against malaria that serious thought and action was given by the
Europeans to territorial acquisition in Africa.
5. By the 1870s, European powers were pre-occupied with the unstable situation in
Europe caused by the introduction of new traditions like democracy, socialism,
nationalism and liberalism.
6. Before this period, industrial revolution was still a British affair. As such the need for
African raw materials and markets was not serious. Therefore, there was no need for
colonies in Africa.
7. Poor transport system equally helped to delay the scramble for Africa as only sea
transport was at the disposal of the Europeans. But the sea was high and roughA/ery
few Europeans were prepared to take the risk of traveling to Africa for colonies by boat
8. Before 1879, only Britain was politically and economically stable and could carry out
her legitimate trade and cultural penetration policy in Africa withopt political control.
This was because no European power was competing with her/But when eventually
other European powers became strong enough to compete with Britain in the African
trade, the policy of legitimate trade without political control collapsed and the scramble
began.
9. European countries such as Portugal, Holland, France, Britain and Denmark were
interested in Africa before the 19th century chiefly because of the slave trade. But
when it was abolished at the beginning of the 19th century these countries except
Britain saw nothing again in Africa that interested them. Therefore, most of them
decided to withdraw. For instance, Denmark and Holland sold their forts on the Gold
Coast to the British at a very low price.

WHY EUROPEANS SCRAMBLED FOR

TERRITORIES IN AFRICA
A. ECONOMIC FACTORS

1. The spread of the industrial revolution from Britain to Germany, France, Belgium etc.
led to the massive production of goods that could not be consumed by Europeans alone. As
a result, it was necessary to look for markets in Africa.
2. Europeans also scrambled for colonies in Africa to secure sources of raw materials
such as gold, ivory, timber, rubber, coffee and cocoa.
3. As more and more profit accumulated in the European countries due mainly to
industrialization, there arose the need for new areas where surplus capital could be more
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profitably invested.
4. Fierce and dangerous competition among the European traders along the coast obliged
European governments to scramble for new and secured territories for their trade
especially in the interior.
5. There was a lot of pressure from the European merchants, industrialists and trading
companies in Africa upon their home governments to give them protection or to acquire
colonies in Africa, which would provide raw materials, markets and investment
opportunities, e.g. the Liverpool Merchants and the Royal Niger Company in the Oil River
and Niger territory respectively.
6. In 1886, the largest gold deposit in the world was discovered in the Rand in South
Africa. As a result the European powers scrambled to carve out territories for themselves
to discover and control the still undiscovered mineral resources of such territories.
7. I he discovery of more fertile soils in the interior made Europeans to scramble for
territories in Africa in order to set up plantations to grow tropical crops such as cocoa,
banana, rubber, coffee etc. needed by many industries back in Europe.
8. I he scramble for colonies in Africa was also motivated by the capitalist greed to use
the cheap African labour in the exploitation of tropical raw materials and mineral
resources.
9. By 1879, there was mark improvement in the transport system in the world with the
invention of the steamship. As a result trade between the Europeans and Africans was
made easier thus the scramble for territories to secure trading areas.
10. The early explorers and missionaries exposed the navigable rivers that linked the
interior of Africa and the coast e.g. Congo, Zambezi, Niger, and Nile etc. This revealed the
trading possibilities with the interior of Africa. >
B. POLITICAL FACTORS
1. It was for prestigious reasons i.e. they scrambled for territories in Africa to acquire a
big empire so as to become big nations, feared and respected.
2. European powers wanted to control strategic areas which were to serve as
springboards for their military and commercial activities in other areas.
3. The struggle for political strength and supremacy in Europe contributed to the
scramble, this was because the number of territories possessed in Africa and else
Where became one of the criteria for measuring such strength.
4. It is generally believed that King Leopold II of Belgium sparked off the scramble by
his activities in the Congo. In 1879, he sent out Stanley to prepare the way for his
occupation of the Congo by concluding treaties with the rulers. As a result, other
European powers especially France feared this could be extended to more territories.
This started the race for colonies.
5. When France lost Alsace-Lorraine in 1871 to Germany in the Franco-Prussian war of
1870 -1871, she eventually scrambled for territories in Africa as a substitute in order to
exploit minerals from them.
6. The Berlin West African Conference of 1884-1885 gave legal recognition to the
European occupation of territories in Africa by laying down the conditions for such
occupation; it encouraged the scramble and partition of Africa.
7. The British occupation of Egypt in 1882 speeded up the scramble for Africa. This was
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because France became very angry and rushed to control territories in Central Africa
and the Sudan with the hope to control the Upper Nile to the discomfiture of Britain in
the Lower Nile in Egypt.
8. Intensive nationalism in Europe in the second half of the 19th century showed itself in many forms.
One of the forms was to urge for colonization, thus the scramble for territories in Africa.

C. SOCIAL FACTORS
1. The Europeans were out to export their civilization to Africa which they termed the
"Dark Continent".
2. The Europeans scrambled for territories in Africa to spread Christianity in these
areas.
3. They also scrambled for territories to settle their surplus population as the industria 1
revolution led to improved medical conditions and rapid population growth in
Europe.
4. The persistence of slavery and slave trade as well as other inhuman practices such as
twin murder and human sacrifices urged European philanthropists to encourage their
governments to scramble for territories in Africa to put an end to such malpractices.
5. Some European powers scrambled for territories in order to spread their culture to as
many people as possible e.g. France.
6. European powers also scrambled for territories in Africa for adventure and scientific
findings.

METHODS USED BY THE EUROPEANS TO

ACQUIRE COLONIES IN AFRICA
1. In most areas the African traditional rulers were not willing to give their land to the
Europeans and decided to put up stiff resistance against colon ization.^ln this case,
military force was used to acquire such areas eg, extensive military force was used
by the French to acquire Ivory Coast just like did the British to colonise most of
Nigeria.
2. The Europeans also used Gunboat Diplomacy or threat of war. This entailed the use
of intimidation whereby the Europeans fired shots in their ships along the coast to
simply frighten the Africans. Some brought giant boats and ships that impressed the
Africans who out of fear accepted to surrender their territories to them.
3. The protectorship method was also used by the Europeans to colonise Africa, to the
1880s there were serious inter-tribal conflicts to Africa. As a result treaties were
 signed between African kingdoms and Europeans to protect them against foreign
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invaders. But the protectorates were often treated and governed as colonies.
Europeans refused to withdraw even when the African kingdoms wanted the
protection to end.
4. European diplomacy was used to have African chiefs sign fake treaties of “Free
Trade", protection and friendship with the Europeans. The terms of the treaties were
most often not understood by Africans especially as they could not read and write.
Such treaties were used to colonise territories in Africa.
5. In some cases, the Europeans purchased extensive lands in Africa and established
colonial rule. In some situations they bribed African chiefs with gifts such as rum,
beads etc to accept colonial rule over their kingdoms.
6. European missionaries acted as forerunners in the process of territorial acquisition in
Africa. They believed that the Africans were savage and barbaric simply because
they had no knowledge of God. Thus, believed that with the use of religion they will
change and soften their minds to welcome the white man e.g. the flag followed the
cross.
7. The developmental projects like roads, schools, hospitals, churches etc carried out
by the missionaries helped to show the better side of the Europeans. As a result,
Africans were convinced to accept colonization.
8. Company rule was used to acquire territories in Africa. Trading houses like the
Liverpool merchants in the Oil River, the Royal Niger Company in the Niger
territory and the French House of Regis on the coast of Dahomey were greatly
responsible for European occupation of West Africa. These trading companies
actually controlled these areas before mounting pressure on their home governments
to take over so as to give them protection against the hostile African middlemen and
to provide peaceful conditions for trade by extending their political control over
African states.
9. After the First World War, the League of Nations was formed to maintain world
peace and security. However, there was need to determine the future of the former
colonies of the defeated Central Powers. As a result, the mandate commission was
set up under the League to take care of these colonies. Thus, Britain and France
acquired former German colonies in Africa as mandates of the League of Nations.
10. In some areas, African resistant leaders were killed such as King Msiri of Katanga
 in 1891 by the Belgians or deported such as King Jaja of Opobo (Niger Delta Basin)
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who was exiled to the West Indies by the British in 1887. As soon as the resistant
leaders were removed it became easier to gain control over the territory.

THE BERLIN WEST AFRICAN CONFERENCE

(NOV. 1884- FEB-. 1885)
The Berlin West African Conference was an international conference held in the
German capital of Berlin (1884-1885) on colonization in Africa as a whole. The main aim of
the conference was to settle problems resulting from the European scramble over territories
such as the Congo, Egypt, and Niger Basin etc. Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Portugal, Italy
and Belgium attended it. Observers from the USA and the Turkish Empire also attended. The
German Chancellor, Otto Von Bismarck and the French Prime Minister Jules Ferry convened
this conference The haste to acquire territories in Africa by the Europeans resulted in serious
clashes even among Europeans themselves e.g. the Anglo-French rivalry in West Africa and
Egypt, Anglo-German clashes in South West Africa over Angra-Penquena and the Franco-
Belgian-Portuguese clashes in Congo. In 1879, the French became suspicious of Leopold II’s
intentions and concerned for the safety of their trading interest on the coast of Gabon. As a
result, they sent Count Savorgnan De Brazza to Congo to sign treaties with Chief Makoko of
4
Bateke. Portugal was as well disturbed as she saw in all this activity a threat to her interest in
Angola. Consequently, she now claimed to control the mouth of the Congo River which gave
her power over the commercial activities of Leopold and the French. Portugal asked Britain to
support her claim and a treaty was drawn up where Britain guaranteed Portuguese control of
the Congo mouth.

The actions of Portugal and Britain caused a bitter situation in France. As a

result the French Prime Minister Jules Ferry asked Bismarck to help in their struggle against
Britain and Portugal. Bismarck therefore suggested a conference to meet in the German
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capital Berlin (Berlin Conference) that would settle existing disagreements and established
the principles on which any future colonization of Africa would be based. However,
Bismarck knew that it would be difficult for him to dominate the coming conference if he
had.no colonial interest himself and so encouraged German agents to set up colonies in
Africa, "'us led to German claims being made for Togoland and Cameroon in West Africa,
part of East and South West Africa

WHY THE BERLIN WEST AFRICAN

CONFERENCE WAS ORGANISED
1. Bismarck organised the conference in order to placate or calm France whom she had
defeated in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871.
2. It was to solve the Congo crisis. The rivalry over the Congo was the major issue that a
sparked up the scramble. Portugal’s claim over the Congo territory and river,
supported by Britain was opposed by France and Belgium, which were involved in a
treaty signing competition. To stop the issue from degenerating into open war,
Bismarck of Germany summoned a conference of all European powers concerned with
the scramble in Berlin so that they could find ways of establishing international control
over the Congo.
3. The. Berlin Conference was also organised to lay down the rules and agree on
modalities for the partitioning of the African continent in a peaceful manner.
4. There was the need to guarantee freedom of trade and navigation on the River Niger
and Congo. These were the main waterways into the interior of West and Central
Africa, respectively and were key centers of conflicts.
5. It was to limit arbitrary expansion in Africa through vague claims of spheres of
influence and to ensure an "Open Door Policy" on the African coast not yet .under
European control.
6. The German Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck wanted to use the conference to
consolidate Germany’s position in Cameroon and other parts of Africa, like Togo,
German South West Africa.
7. Bismarck also organised the conference to assert the leadership of his recently united
country in Europe.
THE MAIN DECISIONS OR RESOLUTIONS OF 12

THE CONFERENCE
1. It was decided that the European nations must not resort to war in resolving any
territorial dispute. This provision was adhered to throughout the period of the scramble
and partition.
2. European nations were also forbidden from entering into military alliance with any
African, power for the purpose of confronting a fellow. European nation. This was to
keep African states out of the partition.
3. Also: it, was, decided that for a colony to be recognized, there must be. Effective
occupation. This meant that nationals of the European nations must be present in the
area and a form of government must have been established .over; the area. The area
must either be conquered outright or a treaty extract from the ruler agreeing, to place
their territory under the protection of the European nation.
4. Rivers Congo and Niger were to become international waterways opened, to all nations
for free navigation and trade.
5. Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo) was given to King Leopold of Belgium and
named the Congo Free State.
6. All European nations were to join hands to destroy slavery, and slave trade wherever it
existed. To implement this, the conference decided that all European traders,
missionaries and other agents who would want to go to the interior, be given free
access and protected by the occupying powers.
7. The hinterland clause was introduced which recognized any European power that
showed prove of effective occupation of the Coast as the immediate owner of the
interior or hinterland of the state in question so that they can sell their manufactured
products as well as gather their raw materials in these areas.
8. It was decided that any European power wishing to colonise any territory in Africa
must formerly notify the others. This was intended to avoid secret colonization, which
often resulted in conflict when two or more powers secretly colonized an area in
Africa.
9. European possessions or territories colonized in West Africa and elsewhere in the
continent before the conference were confirmed with little or no modifications. It had
to be so because it was feared alterations could bring about hostilities which the
conference sought to avoid.
On the 26th February 1885, the Berlin Act containing these decisions was signed
by the participating powers.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE BERLIN

CONFERENCE
1. The conference recognized the area claimed by King Leopold II of Belgium and his
International African Association. From this period, the area was internationally
recognized as the Congo Free State. [This succeeded to put an end to the conflict
which was going on in this area.
2. The effective occupation theory compelled the European nations to set up direct or
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indirect administration through chartered companies over the areas claimed by them.
The material and moral benefits of European civilization were extended to Africans
e.g. hospitals, schools, roads and railways as well as the maintenance of law and order
were put in place. With effective occupation, it was easier for the European powers to
easily identify the spheres of influence of a particular European power. As such could
not go to claim a similar area.
3. As a result of the effective occupation theory,, the era of vague spheres of influence
created by Britain and France along the coast came: to an end: This prepared' the way
for .new comers into the scramble such as Italy and Germany.
4. This conference laid down the modalities for the acquisition of colonies. This was
helpful because the European nations carried out the scramble and partition of Africa
without engaging each other in open war.
5. The conference speeded up the partition of Africa. It declared a kind of “Open Door
Policy” in some parts of Africa by declaring free trade and free navigation in the
Congo and the Niger. Before the Berlin conference George Goldie and King Leopold
of Belgium had established monopolies on the Niger and the Congo respectively. As a
result, these areas were always in conflict because there were no means of movements
into the interior except by' these rivers. Allowing them open to all European powers
enabled the areas around the rivers to be colonized without conflicts.
6. Thanks to toe Berlin conference slavery and internal slave trade was brought to an end.
To achieve this goal, toe conference decided that all European traders, missionaries >
and other agents who would want to go to toe interior of Africa to help stop the slave
trade, .should be given free access and protected by toe occupying powers.
7. The cooperation shown by toe European powers in the course of the Berlin conference
continued to toe end of the scramble because no European power allied with' a
resistant African kingdom against another European power in the course of the
scramble.
8. Many bilateral agreements were signed over the years between European powers.in
Africa defining the frontiers of their territories. These agreements prevented open
conflicts between toe European powers over the scramble for Africa.

FAILURES OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

1. The conference, declared freedom of trade and navigation in the Niger and Congo but
 there was no instruments or guidelines to enforce this decision. As a result King
14
Leopold of Belgium arid George Goldie established monopolies on the Congo and
Niger Rivers respectively and never allowed any trader from rival nations to penetrate
toe areas.
2. The principle of effective occupation before recognition was limited to the coast, most
of which had already been occupied by one European power or the other. Thus the
rush for territories continued In the Interior and made war very likely between the
European powers.
3. The signatories to (he Berlin Act took no practical steps to see that freedom of access
to the Interior was realised. In actual fact, most of the powers restricted this freedom to
their nationals.
4. The conference took decisions concerning Africa but Africans wore not.invited nor
consulted. As a result their opinion was not considered which explains why there was a
lot of resistance against the Europeans.
5. The conference to a larger extend only confirmed the activities of tho early Europeans
in Africa. As a result some European powers had so many colonies while others had
very few.
6. The Berlin conference was not followed by rapid elimination of inhuman practices In
Africa such as slavery by some African chiefs, human sacrifices and twin killing. This
was allowed by the British in some areas in order to secure the collaboration of chiefs.
7. Little was done by the European powers to ensure moral and material development of
Africa as agreed in Berlin. They were more interested in the exploitation of raw
materials than development.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE BERLIN

CONFERENCE
1. The conference hastened the colonization of Africa and the destruction of African
independent kingdoms and empires.
2. The Berlin conference led to the hasty delimitation of colonial boundaries which
divided African kingdoms and tribes with the same language, culture and ancestral
origin between different colonial masters e.g. the Yorubas were divided between the
British-Nigeria 9 and the French Dahomey.
3. The Berlin Conference led to an influx of European manufactured goods into Africa
e.g. hoes, cutlasses etc. which killed the initiative of the Africans from manufacturing
 such goods themselves.
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4. The conference encouraged European traders to penetrate into the interior of Africa and
buy directly from the people of this area. This made Africans to lose their profitable
positions as middlemen in the former coastal trade between the whites on the coast and
the people of the interior.
5. Europeans penetrated into the interior of Africa as a result of the conference and
greatly helped to eradicate slavery and slave trade, inhuman practices such as twin
murder, human sacrifices etc.
6. Also, European trade in Africa increased as a result of the conference e.g, people of the
interior were able to enjoy European manufacture goods like clothes, hats, alcohol etc.
7. European penetration into the interior of Africa was accompanied by the setting up of
more plantations. As a resuit, thousands of Africans gained employment in such
plantations.
8. The setting up of European colonial administration in Africa encouraged by the policy
of effective occupation was accompanied by the provision of some social facilities such
as schools, hospitals, roads etc. This contributed to improve the welfare of the
Africans.

THE EUROPEAN PENETRATION INTO THE

INTERIOR OF AFRICA
Since the 15th century Europeans have been trading in slaves and thereafter-
legitimate trade with the Africans along the coast Thus, for over 300 years the Europeans
stayed at the coast without penetrating into the interior of Africa where most of the slaves
and raw materials came from. During the Berlin conference, the European powers which
had interest for colonies in Africa agreed that all claims to territories in Africa must be
backed by effective occupation i.e. by signing treaties with the local rulers and setting up
an administration in the area. They also agreed that any European power making claims to
any part of the African coastline should immediately be the owner of the interior or
hinterland of the state in question. As a result, European powers sent out officials who by
force or bribery or persuasion got African chiefs in the interior to sign agreements in
which they ceded in most cases innocently their territories.
WHY EUROPEAN PENETRATION INTO THE 16

INTERIOR OF AFRICA ONLY BEGAN IN

THE 1880s
1. Trade between the Africans and the Europeans were carried out through the middlemen.
These middlemen combed the interior in search of what the Europeans needed for their
own profits and all their transactions were carried out only along the coast. For this
reason, in the period of slave trade and legitimate trade almost all that the Europeans
wanted along the coast was readily available. As a result they saw no need to penetrate
into the interior.

2. There was always fierce opposition to European penetration into the interior from the
African slave dealers who were middlemen in the trade. They feared European
penetration to buy from the interior could lead to the loss of their huge profits.

3. Transportation problems made most European governments to oppose territorial

acquisition in the interior of Africa e.g. Britain opposed territorial gains in the interior
until 1860s.

4. The high mortality rate' among Europeans along the coast frightened them from
penetrating into the interior. The tropical diseases like malaria were strange to these
Europeans and killed most of them along the coast. As a result, most of the whites were
griped by fear to take the risk into the interior of Africa.

5. The riches of the African interior that could have attracted Europeans were not well
known at this period since proper exploration .to discover them was still being carried
out by the European explorers.

6. The Europeans were disturbed by the climate and geographical hindrances which
needed a lot of time and energy to overcome.

7. The coastal areas of Africa were covered by thick forest, hilly topography and fast
running rivers which made movement into the interior extremely very difficult
especially as there were no roads and railways at this time.

WHY EUROPEANS DECIDED TO PENETRATE

INTO THE INTERIOR OF AFRICA IN THE
1880s AND 1890s
1. The exploration of the African interior led to the discovery of extensive fertile areas and
 minerals, which were written in books and lectures given to attract Europeans to Africa
17
e.g. when Livingstone returned to Britain in 1864 he was able to provide his
countrymen with yet more information about the “Dark Continent" in lectures and his
book “Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambezi and its Tributaries “. As a result
Europeans penetrated into the interior to set up cocoa, coffee and banana plantations as
well as to exploit the minerals in the interior.
2. The discovery of the largest gold deposit then in the world in the Rand in South Africa
in 1886, made Europeans to penetrate into the interior of Africa with the hope to
discover more mineral deposits.
3. As the industrial revolution spread in Europe there was the need to look for more
sources of raw materials. The African interior was a good source of tropical crops as
well as minerals for the European industries.
4. The expanding and surplus production of goods from European industries needed
markets which the African interior provided. For this reason, it was necessary for the
Europeans to penetrate into the interior to secure markets for their goods.
5. The European businessmen wanted to avoid the African middlemen so as to buy
cheaper from the interior.
6. Penetration into the interior was in respect to the Berlin hinterland theory which gave
them the right to expand their coastal territories into the interior.
7. By the 1880s and 1890s most of the African resistance against European middlemen
was crushed. As a result, it was easier for the Europeans to penetrate into the interior
than was the case in the past.
8. European philanthropist wanted to end the persistence of slave trade and other inhuman
practices in the interior of Africa like twin killing, human sacrifices etc.

THE PARTITION OF AFRICA ON THE GROUND

AND AFRICAN RESISTANCE
After the Berlin West African Conference, European powers sent out officials who by
persuasion, force or bribery got African rulers to sign agreements in which they ceded in most
cases innocently their territories. These treaties were necessary because these powers wanted to
comply with the Berlin Act which stated that any claim to African territory should be backed
by protectorate treaties with African chiefs and by effective occupation. Therefore, it is
important to note that the outline partition accomplished by 1885, was to a large extent only on
paper. This was obtained by mostly consuls from African chiefs who had very little idea of
what they were doing and who’s authority usually extended over very small parts of the areas
18
claimed. But after 1885, Europeans were out to define their African territories on the ground
based on the paper partition. Most of the African rulers who signed away their power
ignorantly realised the full significance of these agreements during this period and rose up in
rebellion in order to reassert their independence.

GENERAL CAUSES OF AFRICAN RESISTANCE

TO EUROPEAN PENETRATION AND
ANNEXATION
1. African states fiercely resisted European colonial conquest and rule because they did not
cherish the disappearance of their middlemen monopoly of trade.
2. A greater majority of Africans resisted the seizure of their land for railway construction
or plantations as the Germans and French were doing in South West Africa and Ivory
Coast respectively.
3. In some cases resistance to colonial conquest was a result of some natural disasters with
adverse effects on the populations. For instance the rinderpest epidemics which swept
through Africa from Somalia to the Kalahari Desert in the late 1890s destroying cattle,
the main wealth of most African communities was blamed on the colonial masters.
This was evident in a number of revolts against the Germans in East Africa.
4. The Europeans were a threat to the African traditional and cultural values e.g. the
French policy of assimilation was out to destroy the African culture to replace it with
the French culture.
5. To maintain the colonial administration the Africans were heavily taxed. Hatred for the
tax payment led to resistance against the Europeans.
6. Most African states were not ready to abandon their independence in favour of
European colonial control. Samori Toure and Jaja of Opobo, resisted the Europeans for
this reason.
7. European violation of treaties or the misunderstanding over treaty interpretation to
European colonial conquest and rule provoked native resistance e.g. the Ucciali Treaty
signed between Italy and Ethiopia (1889).
8. The colonial policies introduced by the European powers equally caused resistance. For
instance, the French had a lot of trouble in most of her colonies because of her policies
of assimilation, indigenat and prestation.
 9. The use of force to have Africans cultivate cash crops also led to resistance against
19
penetration and colonial rule in Africa e.g. Southern Tanganyikans revolted against the
Germans partly because the Germans brutalized those who were unwilling to cultivate
cotton.
10. The low prices offered in exchange for African raw materials also led to the resistance
against the European penetration and colonial rule e.g. the Maji Maji revolt against the
Germans.
11. The creation of new nations in Africa by the Europeans led to the loss of the status of
the African kingdoms. As a result, the kings ’ positions were reduced leading to
resistance.
12. The Europeans humiliated the African chiefs and kings infront of their subjects which
led to resistance.
13.

EXAMPLES OF AFRICAN RESISTANCE

A. THE RESISTANCE OF SAMORI TOURE
CAUSES
1. Samori Toure wanted to protect his trade monopoly in the Mandinka Empire.
2. He wanted to ensure the independence and sovereignty of his great Mandinka Empire.
3. Samori Toure was determined to protect and conserve Islam in his empire which was
threatened by the French Christians.
4. He was frightened by the French policy of assimilation already introduce in Senegal.
5. Europeans seized Land which was so vital to the Africans from their owners with little
or no compensation.
6. He wanted to challenge the heavy taxes imposed on West Africans by the French.

COURSE OR EVENTS OF SAMORI’S REVOLT

Samori Toure was a trader who later became a professional soldier and a warrior. He
raised an army called Sofas. The army was well equipped. Through military conquest he
carved out for himself an empire which extended from Sierra Leone in the West to Ivory
Coast in the East and from a point near Bamako in the North to the Liberian frontier in the
south
 20

For having built such a great empire he was called the “Black Napoleon” or “Bonaparte
of the Sudan". Making Bissandugu his capital as early as 1866, the success he achieved
frightened the French in Senegal who saw him as a threat to their interest in Western Sudan.

Samori’s first military clash with the French occurred in 1882 near Kemiera village in
present day Guinea Conakry. In 1886 Samori signed the Treaty of Bissandugu. By this
agreement zones of expansion of both the French and Samori’s empire were clearly defined.
This treaty was advantageous to -Samori because he had not completed the process of empire
building. The French too were having serious problems with the Senegalese State and the
Tukulor Empire. As such peace with Samori was an advantage. Here after he became a great
impediment to colonial expansion in the Western Sudan.
He resisted successfully for more than 15 years French imperial penetration into most of
Guinea, Mali and part of the Ivory Coast. He also delayed the British expansion in Ghana in the
area North of Asante. However in 1891, serious war broke out between the French and Samori.
Each accused the other of breaking the Treaty of Bissandugu. The main reason was that France
was now determined to conquer Samori’s territory for fear that a rival European power might
take it. The French captured the capital of his empire, Bissandugu and believed that it was to be
a matter of a few weeks to bring Samori under control but Samori and his men moved east
where he established a new capital at Dabakala. Here he continued to resist the European
imperial penetration and rebuilding his empire anew. However, because of the European arms
embargo he was weakened and eventually captured by the French In 1898. He was exiled to the
Island of Ogowe off the coast of Gabon where he died two years later in 1900. This marked the
end of Samori and his empire.

CONSEQUENCES
1. He delayed for more than 15 years French imperial penetration into most of Guinea,
 Mali and part of the Ivory Coast.
21
2. Samori was defeated by the French in 1898, captured and forced into exile off the
coast of Gabon in the Island of Ogowe where he died two years later in 1900.
3. So many people lost their lives in the resistance on both sides as well as property.
4. It created famine and total misery to the people of Western Sudan who spent more
than 15 years fighting.

WHY SAMORI RESISTED THE FRENCH FOR SO

LONG
Samori Ibn Lafiya Toure offered one of the stiffest and longest resistances against
the French imperialist expansion and colonial rule in West Africa because of the
following reasons.
1. Samori Toure had a large standing army, the Sofas made up of 3000 men, well
trained, disciplined and led by competent leaders He had also set up an efficient
system of calling up reserves who themselves had received a year intensive training.
2. He had an efficient trade network for getting firearms from the coast. Some of these
arms were bought from the coast. As if not enough Samori supplemented his arms
supply by setting up his own factories to repair his weapons and make effective copies
of them.
3. Samori had also set up an efficient administration for his empire so that when he was
defeated in battle he could move his headquarters without too much disruption. In the
face of French successes he successfully moved the whole empire eastward to a
completely new capital called Dabakala.
4. He used the scorch earth policy to hold off French advances while he rebuilt his
empire This meant that as his army retreated all crops on the path of the French were
destroyed to starve them and retard their progress.
5. Samori used guerrilla tactics by harassing French columns from the bush and avoiding
open battles The task of his soldiers was facilitated by their better knowledge of the
environment than the French.
6. The fighting force of France was divided to other areas. They were fighting war with
the Senegalese State and the Tukulor Empire of Ahmadu Sefu. As a result they did not
have a free hand to deal with Samori.
7. To preserve the independence of his empire Samori used diplomacy to play off the
 British against the French e.g. in 1885 he indicated to the British Governor of
22
Freetown that he was ready for British protection. Frightened by this, the French
rushed to sign treaties of Friendship with him in 1886 and 1887, yrfnch prevented his
empire from French attack until 1891.
8. As a devoted Muslim with the titto of imam, the Muslims in his empire considered his
war of resistance as a jihad. As a result, they massively enrolled into his army and
fiercely fought to protect Islam against Christianity.

WHY SAMORI WAS FINALLY DEFEATED BY

THE FRENCH
1. Samori’s military strategy enabled him to hold for so long against the French but it also
led to the suffering of his people who had to change territory every year for more than
15 years. The cumulative effects of this continuous mobility helped to break their
resistance.
2. Samori also failed to cooperate with other African leaders particularly with Ahmadu
Sefu against the French.
3. He was equally defeated because of the French superior armaments and techniques
4. To make things even more difficult for Samori the Europeans passed an arms embargo
on Africa during the Brussels Conference of 1890 which deprived Samori of European
guns.
5. Samori committed tactical errors in the course of the resistance e.g. his attack on the
Sikasso kingdom provoked them to collaborate with the French against him, which
contributed to his defeat.
6. Samori alienated many of his subjects by his policies. During his expansionist campaign
thousands of Africans were enslaved by his troops. In many places the existing
politico-religious structures were overthrown. This antagonized many who were ready
to welcome the French imperialists.

B.THE RESISTANCE OF KING JAJA OF

OPOBO CAUSES
1. King Jaja resisted the British because he wanted to preserve for himself the monopoly
of trade in the districts around Opobo.
2. He did not want to lose his independence to the British. This explains why he refused to
sign any treaty of protection and demanded to know first the full meaning of the word
 “Protection”. By this he wanted to be sure that protection would not imply the loss of
23
the government of his territory.
3. The British were against the continuation of the trade in slaves. But this trade was very
lucrative to King Jaja. As a result he feared that if he allowed the British to occupy his
land they would put an end to slave trade.
4. The British were seen by King Jaja as a threat to the Opobo traditional and cultural
values.
5. He feared to lose Opobo land to the British as it had happen In the Lower Niger.

COURSE OR EVENTS OF KING JAJA’S

RESISTANCE
Jaja was the richest African trader in the Oil River in Nigeria. In 1873, he became the
king of Opobo. He fought to preserve his kingdom and its sovereignty by refusing to sign any
treaty of protection and demanded to know first the full meaning of “Protection. He wanteo to
be assured that protection would not imply the loss of the government of his territory. In the
treaty with Britain in 1884, he insisted that the article provided for free trade be removed and
he was granted this demand.

Jaja of Opobo dressed in ceremonial

However, Jaja’s powerful position could not remain for long. From 1885 when Britain
declared a protectorate over the Oil River, steps were taken to break down Jaja’s opposition to
British incursions into the hinterland markets. To achieve their objective the British brought
false accusations on king Jaja. He was accused of making moves to sell his country to th
French, slave trade, blocking available trade routes into the interior and of terrorising the
natives of the hinterland. In 1887, the acting British consul, Johnston treacherously lured Jaja
into a warship and deported him to the West Indies on a pension of 1600 Nairas annually.
 Back at home, the Opobo people continued the resistance by refusing to buy or sell to
24
the British until Jaja was brought back and reinstated. This action disrupted trade in the Delta
area and forced the British traders in the area to join in the demand for the repatriation of Jaja.
When he was allowed to return in 1891, he mysteriously died on the way.

CONSEQUENCES
1. Jaja succeeded in frustrating the British initiative to establish a trade monopoly in
Opobo land for a very long time.
2. He equally delayed the British imperial rule not only in Opobo but also in the Delta area
as a whole for about a decade.
3. His resistance helped to disrupt trade in the Delta area. This was because the Opobo
people refused to buy or sell to the British until Jaja was brought back.
4. It led to the death of Jaja in 1891 mysteriously on his way back to Opobo.

C. THE ABYSSINIAN RESISTANCE CAUSES

1. The Italians violated the treaty of Ucciali by claiming to control Abyssinia, which
caused the Abyssinians to put up stiff resistance against them.
2. Menelik II was determined to maintain the independence and sovereignty of his empire.
3. He was equally determined to expand the Abyssinian Empire.
4. Menelik wanted to maintain the native land rights of Abyssinians.
5. The Abyssinians also feared the harsh tax policy of Europeans to raise money to finance
administration.

COURSE OR EVENTS OF THE ABYSSINIAN

RESISTANCE
Italy was one of the late comers in the race for territories in Africa. Unlike the other
European powers, she was less successful as she was only able to lay claims to Libya, Eritrea
and Italian Somaliland on either sides of Ethiopia. Her attempt to conquer Abyssinia ended in
defeat in 1896.
Italians had begun scheming to occupy Abyssinia after 1885, by trying to encourage
 division among Abyssinian leaders. On 2nd May 1889, the Treaty of Ucciali was signed
25
between Emperor Menelik II and the Italians. This treaty defined the boundary between
Ethiopia and Italian Eritrea. In return Italy agreed to supply modem arms to Abyssinia, as
well as allowed Menelik to use Italian diplomatic channels for his foreign policy if he wished.
However, Italy interpreted this to mean that Abyssinian sovereignty and independence has
been surrendered to her as a colony. As a result, the Italian foreign office two years later
(1891) notified the powers, which had taken part in the Berlin Conference of Italy’s claim to
a protectorate over Ethiopia.
In response Menelik in 1891 wrote to the European governments that the Treaty of
Ucciali involved no surrender of sovereignty on his part and that he was not in favour of the
partition of Africa. He stated, “I would not sit idly while distant powers come to partition
Africa”. As a result he claimed very wide frontiers for the Ethiopian Empire including
Khartoum and Lake Rudolf.
In 1893 Menelik cancelled the whole Ucciali Treaty on the grounds that the Italian
government had attempted to cheat him. The Italians were not prepared for this humiliation. As
such invaded Abyssinia in 1895 to force Menelik to accept their protection. Menelik quickly
mobilised a united Ethiopia against the invaders. At the Battle of Adowa in March 1896 the
Italians were shamefully defeated with heavy losses. Most of their armaments fell into the
hands of Ethiopians and large numbers of their troops were taken prisoners.
 REASONS FOR THE ITALIAN DEFEAT IN 26

ABYSSINIA
1. The Abyssinian army had a lot of experience in warfare because it fought many wars
that unified the country especially under Theodore and John IV from 1855-1889.
2. Menelik had the support of the local population of Eritrea whose patriotism stemmed
from the fact that they had been part of Ethiopia and because the Italians were seizing
their land.
3. In terms of numbers, the Ethiopians were far more superior to the Italians. Menelik had
a standing army of about 80 000 to 100 000 men armed with firearms. On the other
hand, the Italians numbered less than 20 000.
4. The Italians were aware of their numerical inferiority but hoped to balance the
Ethiopian superior number by making surprise attacks from carefully selected
positions. But the Ethiopians were alerted and as such expected the attacks long before
it finally came especially because they knew their land very well.
5. The Italians underestimated the Ethiopians strength. The Italians failed to appreciate the
number of men that the emperor could successfully assemble for battle. They did not
also realise that the invasion would be opposed by the whole mass of the Ethiopian
people.
6. The geographical conditions of Ethiopia were also a favourable factor to the Ethiopian
people. The mountainous nature of the kingdom made things very difficult for the
Italian invaders.
7. Italians were deceived by rumours that the Ethiopian Emperor had died suddenly of
snake bite. Knowing that the death of the Emperor always create internal conflicts and
confusion as contenders struggled for the throne, the Italians hoped to take advantage
of this situation. As such, they hurriedly invaded Ethiopia only to discover that at
Adowa the Emperor personally commanded the whole Ethiopian army.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE ITALIAN DEFEAT IN

THE BATTLE AT ADOWA
1. Italy was forced to recognise Ethiopia’s independence. In the peace treaty, which
followed, Italy was forced to admit that the Ucciali Treaty of 1889 was void and that
Ethiopia was an absolutely independent state.
2. The Italian defeat at Adowa was the greatest humiliation ever suffered by a European
 power in Africa. This explains why Mussolini invaded and occupied Ethiopia in 1936
27
so as to avenge and wipe out the memories of the Adowa disgrace.
3. The defeat of the Italians at Adowa changed the attitude of European powers almost
overnight. Ethiopia appeared once more on European maps and European powers
hurried to establish diplomatic relations with the Ethiopian leader.
4. The victory of Ethiopia over Italy helped to project the image of the country in the
international scene As a result Abyssinia became a member of the League of Nations as
far back as 1923 and she hosted many important post independent conferences in her
capital, Addis Ababa.
5. Ethiopia survived the European scramble and escaped partition. Instead, some boundary
arrangements were made between Menelik and the European powers.
6. After this victory Menelik continued with his policy of consolidating and extending his
rule. In a series of campaigns, the frontier of the empire was pushed outwards. It is said
that during his reign, the territory under effective Ethiopian control was more than
double.
7. It helped to intensify the native resistance against the Europeans in other parts of Africa
eg. the Maji Maji resistance of 1905-1907 against Germany was provoked also by the
Ethiopian victory over the Italians

D.THE MAJI MAJI REVOLT CAUSES

1. The Germans forced the natives of German East Africa (Tanganyika) to work on their
plantations and railways leading to so many deaths and a lot of suffering among the
natives.
2. The Germans forced the people of Tanganyika to plant cotton at the expense of
subsistence crops and those who refused were maltreated by the Germans.
3. The Germans also heajily taxed the people of German East Africa and their tax policy on
the people was very harsh.
4. The Germans paid very low pnces for cotton to the natives thus making the people very
miserable.
5. The Germans humiliated *the African chiefs and kings in front of their subjects.
6. Land which was so vital to the Africans was seized from African owners TO, plantations
with little or no compensation.
7. The Tanganyikans were encouraged by the defeat of the Italians by the Abyssinian? In
 1896 to revolt against the Germans so as to register their own victory.
28

COURSE
The most serious uprising of all was the famous Maji Maji rising of 1905-1907. This
revolt began among the Matumbi in July 1905 and rapidly spread to the Pogoro and Gindo
areas of Tanganyika where medicine men urged the warriors on by providing them with magic
water which they claimed would give protection from the German bullets by melting them to
water. This gave the rising its name Maji Maji (Kiswahili word for water).
With the aim of defeating the Germans and ending colonial rule in the area, Southern
Tanganyika collectively rose against the Germans in 1905. Some German officials in the area
were attacked and killed forcing the rest to escape. German property and homes in the area
were also attacked and destroyed especially the coastal town of Samanga. This revolt led to the
collapse of the German administration in Southern Tanganyika, between July and September
1905 it also extended to the outskirts and threatened the colonial capital of Tanganyika called
Dar-es-Salaam.
German reinforcement had to be brought from Europe. Even then it took the Germans
over a year to break the united African resistance The German methods were terrifying,
villages were destroyed and crops burnt. By so doing the Germans slowly restored their
authority by 1907.

CONSEQUENCES
1. The revolt left some Germans and thousands of Tanganyikans death.
2. It left Southern Tanganyika in a very depressed state and contributed to famine and
misery in the area.
3. The destroyed homes and property became breeding grounds for tsetse flies making
the area difficult for settlement for long.
4. Though it ended in failure, the Maji Maji revolt is remembered, for it was a great
she** of African strength and solidanty which presented a real threat to Germar
imperial rule in Tanganyika.
5. It gave the people of Tanganyika the spirit of nationalism as they discovered the
weakness of the Germans during this period.
6. The Germans were forced to introduce reforms or revise their colonial policies.
7. As a result of the Maji Maji revolt trade was completely disrupted in the area.
GENERAL CONSEQUENCES OIF THE AFRICAN 29

RESISTANCE
1. It delayed or stopped colonial penetration and rule in many areas e.g. the Samori
resistance delayed the French imperialism in West Africa while the Adowa resistance
prevented the Italian attempt to colonise Abyssinia in 1896.
2. The resistance reduced the African population as hundreds of thousands of Africans
were killed in the various resistance.
3. The African resistance against the Europeans made them to adopt very harsh and brutal
military administrative policies in their colonies.
4. It made the occupation of Africa very expensive for the Europeans as they had to train
and station large armies in Africa for the suppression of resistance.
5. African resistance made the Europeans to intensify forced labour. This was because the
African captives were sent to the European plantations for this purpose
6. The ruling class in Africa was often targeted and destroyed by dethronement, killing,
imprisonment, and deportation since resistance were often led by them.
7. Some resistant villages were completely burnt down and others resettled and kept under
military surveillance in order to end resistance such as in Ivory Coast
g. One major effect of the African resistance was the imposition of the arms
embargo on Africa by the European colonial powers in the Brussels conference of
1890.
9. As a result of African resistance, Europeans were forced to construct roads to
facilitate the movement of their troops to the rebellious areas.

WHY THE NATIVE RESISTANCE TO EUROPEAN PENE1 RATION FAILED EXCEPT

THAT OF ETHIOPIA
1. Africans often used out-dated weapons such as spears, Dane guns etc while the
Europeans used modem and effective arms such as the maxim guns, rifles etc.
2. Many African kingdoms were involved in inter-tribal wars, which weakened them. The
weakened kingdoms were easily beaten and colonial rule established.
3. The struggle for succession, in many African kingdoms also divided and weakened
them thereby easing the European colonial conquest.
4. The European arms embargo on Africa which was formally agreed upon in 1890
 during the Brussels Conference deprived the Africans of modern arms for resisting
30
them. As a result the resistance was bound to collapse.
5. Africans failed to form a united front against the European colonisers. Hence one
kingdom was easily defeated after.another. The situation, could have been different if
the people collectively fought against the Europeans.
6. Many African kingdoms lacked the funds or resources that could be use to sustain wars
of resistance. Many depended on the export of raw materials which were often too low
to enable Africans to buy enough arms for resistance:
7. Slave trade deprived Africa of its very healthy population that could have successfully
challenged the Europeans in Africa.
Most African kingdoms were small in size and population and as such had
inadequate manpower to fight against colonial rule and penetration into Africa by the
Europeans.
Some African tribes collaborated with, the Europeans to defeat other African kingdoms. As a
result native resistance was bound to fail.
9. Before the colonial conquest, European missionaries succeeded to convert many
Africans into Christians. As a result of this, most of the Christians acted as spies for the
Europeans against the Africans.
10. The lack of defensive natural harpers made it difficult for Africans to resist the
European assault for colonial rule and penetration. This was the case in most of West
Africa found in the Savannah belt which presented no problem of movement to the
invading Europeans.
11. The African superstition contributed to their defeat by the Europeans. Some performed
certain traditional rites and went to the war front without arms believing that European
bullets against them would be turned into water. This was the case with the Maji Maji
revolt of 1905 against the Germans in Southern Tanganyika.
RESULTS OF THE PARTITION OF AFRICA
By 1900, the whole of Africa with the exception of Liberia and Ethiopia had
come under the rule of various European nations, which took part in its partition. The
division has remained exactly as it was in 1900 except for the German colonies of
Togo land and Cameroon which were divided between France and Britain, German
South West Africa given to the Republic of South Africa and German East Africa
given to Britain. The partition of Africa was a most momentous episode in its history
 and no doubt it has had far-reaching, political, social and economic results on the lives
31
of the peoples. While in many respects, the peoples of Africa were adversely affected
by the partition, in some respects too, it has proved to be a blessing in disguise as can
be seen below:- <
A. NEGATIVE IMPACT OR BAD RESULTS OF PARTITION
1. The partition definitely altered the course of the political history of Africa. It brought to
an end the long period of independence of African states and replaced it with European
foreign rule.
2. In many areas, European occupation was accompanied by the elimination of African
oilers by death, deportation or their replacement with stooges who tried to cooperate
with the occupying power.
3. The partitioning powers ignored ethnic groupings while ,carving out Africa among
themselves. The result was that people with the same ancestors were divided into two
or more states e.g. the Yorubas were divided between French Dahomey and British
Nigeria.
4. The partition of Africa led to the depopulation of many African states e.g. in the Congo
the cruelty and bad government of King Leopold reduced the population from 20
million to 10 million in just over 20 years.
5. The superiority of European weapons of warfare such as the Maxim gun inspired
Africans with profound respect for the European and all he stood for. The result was
that Africans developed an inferiority complex and began to copy blindly European
cultures and way of life and despise African traditions and customs.
6. The imperialist powers regarded their colonies as possessions to be used mainly for
economic benefits of the powers that owned them. This led to the ruthless exploitation
of African labour, land and other resources for the benefit of the imperial power.
7. African fertile land was seized with little or no compensation to set up plantations and
African slave labour was used to work in these plantations.
8. In many parts of Africa the colonial armies carried out a systematic destruction of chiefs
palaces and whole villages and towns. A lot of very valuable property was destroyed
and Africans were impoverished.
Also in many African palaces valuable property was looted especially after the collapse
of a resistance e.g. after the collapse of Benin in 1897 the British looted 2500 bronze plaques
and ornaments worth millions of pounds from the Obas palace.
 POSITIVE IMPACT OR GOOD RESULTS OF PARTITION
32
The occupation of Africa by the European powers helped in bringing to an end the era
of tribal wars, fear and insecurity, which had plagued many communities for long.
Many African tribes that had long remained separate and hostile to one another were
brought together under one government by the colonial power e.g. the Asante and the Fante
states were brought together by the British in Ghana.
3. The partition of Africa put an end to the evil ghost of internal slave trade and slavery.
4. In the field of health, Africans gained a lot from the European rule. Europeans brought
scientific methods of healing, preventing diseases through the establishment of hospitals,
dispensaries and through inoculation and vaccination.
5. The greatest contribution of the colonial powers was perhaps the introduction of
western education into Africa. The imperialists to train Africans who could help them in their
exploitation mission, opened so many schools. The adoption of French or English introduced
by the Europeans have helped Africans not only to communicate with other peoples of the
world but also with fellow African peoples
6. The establishment and development of towns or urban communities was another contribution
of the colonial powers. Such towns as Dakar, Accra and Abidjan etc owe their origin to the
partitioning powers.
7. To facilitate the movement of their troops, officials and trade goods, the colonial
powers developed transport and communication by building railways, roads and ports. The
role, which these means of transport and communication have played in the development df
trade and in opening up the countries to modem d vilization, cannot be over emphasized.

8. In the development of agriculture, the colonial powers contributed immensely in

promoting the production of cash crops such as groundnuts, palm oil and kernel cotton,
coffee cocoa etc. They established schools for teaching improved methods of agriculture and
introduced new varieties of crops and animals.
9. Among the valuable economic changes introduced by the colonial governments, was
the coin currency. This replaced the barter system, and the'cumbersome currency of iron bars
and cowries which had prevailed for long in Africa. \
REVISION QUESTIONS
*1. Why did the scramble for Africa only begin in 1879? Describe the various methods used by
the European powers to acquire territories in Africa.
33
2. What attempts were made by Africans to resist European penetration into the African
continent? Show how and why by 1914, this resistance had collapsed?

3. What major issues led to the summoning of the Berlin West African Conference of
1884-85. Describe the major agreements reached at this conference and what were the effects
of the conference on Africans?
4. For what reasons did European powers scramble for the control of African territories in
the late 19th century? In what ways did the Africans benefit from European colonial rule?
5. What do you understand by the scramble for Africa? B) What economic factors, led to
the scramble? C) What were the effects of the partition on the people of Africa?
6. Explain briefly why there was a rush for the acquisition of colonies in Africa by
European powers in the last two decades of the 19th century? Why was the Berlin West African
Conference of 1884-85 summoned and how did it try to resolve the problems caused by the
scramble and partition?
7. What were the main economic and social causes of the European scramble for and
partition of Africa in the last quarter of the 19th century? Why were the European powers able
to establish control over Africa by 1900?
8. What were the economic causes for the. scramble and partition of Africa? Describe the
main features of the partition of Africa. What economic and social benefits did Africa and
Africans derive from the partition and colonisation of the continent from 1900-1940?
9. Why did some European powers become interested in the African continent after the
1880s and describe the results of their action on the continent? „
10. Write short notes on the importance of any four wars of African resistance to colonial
rule

a. Maji Maji rebellion of 1905

b. Mau Mau revolt of 1950s

c. Ashanti war of resistance (1902)

d Libyan resistance (1912)

e. Algerian war of independence of the 1950s

11. Write short notes on the causes and historical importance of any two. of the following
resistance movements in Africa during the period 1880s to the 1950s.
34
i. Maji Maji rebellion (1905 -1907)
ii. Mau Mau movement (1950s)
iil Samori Toures Revolt (1880s-1890s)

iv. The Abyssinian Revolt of Emperor Menelik II (1890s). How successful

were these revolts against the imperialist powers?
12. Explain why resistance put up by most African territories against the European powers
failed by the 1890s, but that in Abyssinia (Ethiopia) succeeded.

CHAPTER TWO
THE FRENCH COLONIAL RULE IN BLACK AFRICA
6. ADMINISTRATIVE SET UP
French black Africa was divided into two huge federations - the Federation of French
West Africa with its capita! at Dakar (Senegal) and the French Equatorial Africa with its capital
at Brazzaville. A Governor- Genera! who was directly answerable to the Minister of Colonies
in Paris headed each of these Federations. Unlike the British counterpart, he had no power to
make laws. But he could only propose laws to the Minister of colonies who enacted by decree
after consultation with the cabinet. Also the Governor General had to take his orders from Paris
where all important decisions were taken. A council of government which consisted of the
governors of the various colonies in the federation, advised the Governor-General of each
federation in his administration. The council met once in a year to hear government policy as
well as the budget of each colony m turn

Each of the colonies that made up a federation was headed Dy a Governor divided into
Cycles or Provinces under a Provincial Commissioner Each Cycle was broken into Divisions,
each under a District Officer Each Governor was aby a counct. w^htch he was expected to
consult on certain Issues touching Ine colony espvaaHy on guesoons of fixing income and
expenditure of the colony He was ?T.J_ / concerned wfth vx political situation in the colony and
with the Implementation or economic pc-i '-*•$ ta*o down by the Governor. They had limited
freedom of ection eapeciell, the Gc
*enor-General
controlled his budget and most Important services
 The chiefs were merely agents of the government oflbue* mede to perform certain
35
defined duties like tax collection, supervision of force labour 'neirrur < ance cf peace in the
area. They were not to exercise either executive or as
native rulers
However, the top-grade chiefs (Chef de Canton) were roe*y ompieif o’ me French,
administration They were normally chosen hum among Vw www elWoen. clerks and
interpreters in the government soivico rather than on herodtary pnnoptes The Frencn officials
were not bound to respect the African customs and rtad the powem to d.sm.ss and appoint
African native chiefs without the knowledge of the Africans
B ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
i TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE
Since the federations were thought of as part of France. economc twveiopmjjnf ass
seen in terms of French interest. To encourage trade and the manspcirtaison oi gooes to the
coast for shipment, railways were built to link the coastal areas edh the The first railway was
built in 1880 to link Senegal to the port of Dakar But Uks line not penetrate far enough into the
interior. As a result, the Dakar-Niger line was cmstrucred from Dakar to Koulikoro (Mali) a
distance of 1200km Attempts were equally made to fink the coastal ports of Conakry in
Guinea, Abidjan in the Ivory Coast and Cotonu m Dahomey w?th the Niger Basin. So, a
railway line began in 1903 to Bobo Dioulasso (Burkrna-Fasso), a distance of 800 km, while the
line from Cotonu stopped at Panskou Reads wen? equally constructed to supplement the
railway as well as seaports like Dakar, Conakry. Abidjan and Cotonu.
it is clear that the railways and roads helped in the evacuation of agricultural products
arid promoted plantation farming. It also helped to foster unity in the West African federation
as the various colonies were linked by either railways or roads. But the construction of these
roads and railways was done under inhuman conditions. As if this was not enough, transport
development influenced the exploitation of the raw materials of .Africa to develop Fiance at the
detriment of the Africans.

6. CASH CROPS

The main stay of the economy espeaaHy in the interior was agriculture. Groundnuts
were the most important cash crop and tha centra of production was Senegal. However,
cultivation soon began to spread, palm oM eleo became e good export commodity from
Dahomey The activities of French planters encouraged the growth of coffee and cocoa in Ivory
Coast and banana in Guinea Ail these prodiMts ceuM be exported only to France, as
 The significance of the development of these urban centres should be noted. They
36
became the centres of economic, social and political life in French Africa and played a
leading role in the development of transport and communication, unemployment, pollution,
crime wave, prostitution and nationalism.
Hi. HEALTH AND SANITATION
Hospitals, dispensaries and health centres were built. Vaccination and inoculation
were also introduced. Research in tropical diseases was not left out. France established the
Institute Pasteur in Dakar in 1896. French doctors assisted by African auxiliary doctors went
out into rural areas to track down sick people who were suffering from diseases like small pox,
sleeping sickness etc. This effort was very Important in that it reduced death rate, checked the
spread of epidemics e.g. small pox and increased life expectancy of French Africans. It equally
encouraged research in tropical diseases.
THE FRENCH COLONIAL POLICIES IN AFRICA
A. THE POLICY OF ASSIMILATION
The policy of assimilation was the main colonial policy of the French in Africa which
was aimed at transforming the African people into Frenchmen and to make the colonies
identical to the mother country. The French introduced assimilation base on the belief that the
African culture was inferior and that of the French superior. Thus the policy advocated the
destruction of the culture, customs and institutions of the Africans to be replaced with the
superior French culture and civilisation. There were two main kinds of assimilation-personal
and non-personal assimilation. With personal assimilation, Africans were to be transformed to
black French men in thought, dressing, eating, walking and talking habits. On the other hand,
non-personal assimilation consisted of administrative, political and economic identity with
France. Those Africans who accepted assimilation and were assimilated were known as the
French citizens (Crtoyen Franpaise). Those who were not assimilated were known as the
French subjects (Sujets Frangaise).
According to the French, an African had to be above the age of 18, had shown genuine
interest in the French way of life and culture, had been in French employment for at least 10
years, should marry only one wife and must be a Christian, must show proficiency in the
French language in order to attain assimilation status. However, the easiest ways for a subject
to become a citizen were to marry a French woman and become a father of a child of mixed
blood or distinguished himself in a French military service. However, the four communes of
Senegal were exempted from these conditions of assimilation.
 WHY FRANCE ADOPTED THE POLICY OF ASSIMILATION
37
1. The ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity bom during the French Revolution (1789-
1815) were regarded as applicable to all men everywhere. Therefore assimilation was an
attempt to attain this objective
2. The French stron$y believed that their civilization was the best in the world and should
be imposed on or copied by people of other lands 'whose civilization and cultures were
considered as inferior The African "Inferior* civilization had therefore to be suppressed
through assimilation.
3. The French regarded their colonies not merely as areas for imperial exploitation but as
overseas provinces or extensions of France. The French strongly believed that France and her
colonies were completely indivisible. As such it was necessary to establish a superior common
culture through assimilation.
4. Assimilation was to encourage Africans to work hard to assist the French in the
development of their territories e.g. the policy stipulated that the subjects should have some
proficiency in the French language, show genuine interest in the French way of life and culture,
be employed by the French for at feast 10 years.
5. Assimilation was adopted because of the French desire to integrate the resources of the
colonies to those of France in order to ease the exploitation of the African resources.
6. It was also intended to frenchify the African natives so that they could easily consume
French goods and provide a lucrative market for French products.
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