NAME – DUSHYANT

CLASS – XIth A
ROLL NO. – 01
SUBJECT – CHEMISTRY
PROJECT ON:-
Study of Methods for Purification of Water

LAXMI
INTERNATIONAL
SCHOOL
SESSION – 2013-2014
 CERTIFI

This is certified that Master

Dushyant of class XIth section
‘A’ is a bonafied student of
Laxmi International School.

This is certified to be the

bonafide work of the student in
the Chemistry Subject during
the academic year
2013 – 2014.

He worked hard to complete

this project and this project is
a result of his great efforts and
attention.
Date: 20/12/2013

ACKNOWLEGEMENT

I would like to convey our

sincere gratitude to the
teacher Mrs. Preeti for letting
us to do this project .I would
like to thank my friends for
helping me in this project
and a special thanks to Mrs.
Preeti Yadav (chemistry
teacher) for guiding
 throughout the project .I
would like to thanks our lab
assistance Mr. Atar Singh for
all his help. Last but not
least I would like to thank my
classmate and parents for
their valuable suggestion
about this project.

Contents
 1 Sources of water
 2 Treatment
o 2.1 Pre-treatment

 2.1.1 pH adjustment

o 2.2 Sedimentation

 2.2.1 Sludge storage and removal

o 2.3 Dissolved air flotation

 o 2.4 Filtration
 2.4.1 Rapid sand filters

 2.4.2 Slow sand filters

o 2.5 Membrane filtration

o 2.6 Removal of ions and other dissolved

substances
o 2.7 Disinfection

 2.7.1 Chlorine disinfection

 2.7.2 Chlorine dioxide disinfection

 2.7.3 Ozone disinfection

 2.8.4 Ultraviolet disinfection

 2.8.5 Solar water disinfection

 3 Other water purification techniques

4. Demineralised water

INTRODUCTION
Water purification is the process of removing
undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants,
suspended solids and gases from contaminated water.
The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose.
Most water is purified for human consumption (drinking
water), but water purification may also be designed for a
variety of other purposes, including meeting the
requirements of medical, pharmacological, chemical and
industrial applications. In general the methods used
include physical processes such
as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation, biological
processes such as filters or biologically active carbon,
chemical processes such
as flocculation and chlorination and the use of
electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.
The purification process of water may reduce the
concentration of particulate matter
including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae
, viruses,fungi; and a range of dissolved and particulate
material derived from the surfaces that water may have
made contact with after falling as rain.
The standards for drinking water quality are typically set
by governments or by international standards. These
standards will typically set minimum and maximum
concentrations of contaminants for the use that is to be
made of the water.
It is not possible to tell whether water is of an
appropriate quality by visual examination. Simple
procedures such as boiling or the use of a household
activated filter are not sufficient for treating all the
possible contaminants that may be present in water from
an unknown source. Even natural spring – considered
safe for all practical purposes in the 19th century – must
now be tested before determining what kind of
treatment, if any, is
needed. Chemical and microbiological analysis, while
expensive, are the only way to obtain the information
necessary for deciding on the appropriate method of
purification.
According to a 2007 World Health Organization (WHO)
report, 1.1 billion people lack access to an improved
drinking water supply, 88 percent of the 4 billion annual
cases of diarrheal disease are attributed to unsafe water
and inadequate sanitation and hygiene, and 1.8 million
people die from diarrheal diseases each year. The WHO
estimates that 94 percent of these diarrheal cases are
preventable through modifications to the environment,
including access to safe water. Simple techniques for
treating water at home, such as chlorination, filters, and
solar disinfection, and storing it in safe containers could
save a huge number of lives each year. Reducing
deaths from waterborne diseases is a major public
health goal in developing countries.
 PRESENTATION
Sources of water

1. Groundwater: The water emerging from some deep

ground water may have fallen as rain many tens,
hundreds, or thousands of years ago. Soil and rock layers
naturally filter the ground water to a high degree of clarity
and often it does not require additional treatment other
than adding chlorine or chloramines as secondary
disinfectants. Such water may emerge as springs,
artesian, or may be extracted from boreholes or wells.
Deep ground water is generally of very
high bacteriological quality (i.e., pathogenic bacteria or the
pathogenic protozoa are typically absent), but the water
may be rich in dissolved solids,
especially carbonates and sulphates of calcium and magn
esium. Depending on the strata through which the water
has flowed, other ions may also be present
including chloride, and bicarbonate. There may be a
requirement to reduce the iron or manganese content of
this water to make it acceptable for drinking, cooking, and
laundry use. Primary disinfection may also be required.
Where groundwater recharge is practised (a process in
which river water is injected into an aquifer to store the
water in times of plenty so that it is available in times of
drought), the groundwater may require additional
treatment depending on applicable state and federal
regulations.
2. Upland lakes and reservoirs: Typically located in the
headwaters of river systems, upland reservoirs are usually
sited above any human habitation and may be surrounded
by a protective zone to restrict the opportunities for
contamination. Bacteria and pathogen levels are usually
 low, but some bacteria, protozoa or algae will be present.
Where uplands are forested or peaty,humic acids can
colour the water. Many upland sources have low pH which
require adjustment.
3. Rivers, canals and low land reservoirs: Low land surface
waters will have a significant bacterial load and may also
contain algae, suspended solids and a variety of dissolved
constituents.
4. Atmospheric water generation is a new technology that
can provide high quality drinking water by extracting water
from the air by cooling the air and thus condensing water
vapour.
5. Rainwater harvesting or fog collection which collects water
from the atmosphere can be used especially in areas with
significant dry seasons and in areas which experience fog
even when there is little rain.
6. Desalination of seawater by distillation or reverse osmosis.
7. Surface Water: Freshwater bodies that are open to the
atmosphere and are not designated as groundwater are
classified in the USA for regulatory and water purification
purposes as surface water.
Treatment
The processes below are the ones commonly used in water
purification plants. Some or most may not be used depending
on the scale of the plant and quality of the raw (source) water.
Pre-treatment

1. Pumping and containment – The majority of water must be

pumped from its source or directed into pipes or holding
tanks. To avoid adding contaminants to the water, this
physical infrastructure must be made from appropriate
materials and constructed so that accidental
contamination does not occur.
2. Screening (see also screen filter) – The first step in
purifying surface water is to remove large debris such as
sticks, leaves, rubbish and other large particles which may
interfere with subsequent purification steps. Most deep
groundwater does not need screening before other
purification steps.
3. Storage – Water from rivers may also be stored in bank
side reservoirs for periods between a few days and many
months to allow natural biological purification to take
place. This is especially important if treatment is by slow
sand filters. Storage reservoirs also provide a buffer
against short periods of drought or to allow water supply
to be maintained during transitory pollution incidents in the
source river.
4. Pre-chlorination – In many plants the incoming water was
chlorinated to minimize the growth of fouling organisms on
the pipe-work and tanks. Because of the potential adverse
quality effects (see chlorine below), this has largely been
discontinued.
Widely varied techniques are available to remove the fine
solids, micro-organisms and some dissolved inorganic and
organic materials. The choice of method will depend on the
quality of the water being treated, the cost of the treatment
process and the quality standards expected of the processed
water.

pH adjustment
Pure water has a pH close to 7
(neither alkaline nor acidic). Sea water can have pH values that
range from 7.5 to 8.4 (moderately alkaline). Fresh water can
have widely ranging pH values depending on the geology of
the drainage basin or aquifer and the influence of contaminant
inputs (acid rain). If the water is acidic (lower than
7), lime, soda ash, or sodium hydroxide can be added to raise
the pH during water purification processes. Lime addition
increases the calcium ion concentration, thus raising the water
hardness. For highly acidic waters, forced draft degasifierscan
be an effective way to raise the pH, by stripping dissolved
carbon dioxide from the water. Making the water alkaline
helps coagulation and flocculation processes work effectively
and also helps to minimize the risk of lead being dissolved from
lead pipes and from lead solder in pipe fittings. Sufficient
alkalinity also reduces the corrosiveness of water to iron pipes.
Acid (carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid) may be
added to alkaline waters in some circumstances to lower the
pH. Alkaline water (above pH 7.0) does not necessarily mean
that lead or copper from the plumbing system will not be
dissolved into the water. The ability of water to precipitate
calcium carbonate to protect metal surfaces and reduce the
likelihood of toxic metals being dissolved in water is a function
of pH, mineral content, temperature, alkalinity and calcium
concentration.
Sedimentation
Waters exiting the flocculation basin may enter
the sedimentation basin, also called a clarifier or settling basin.
It is a large tank with low water velocities, allowing floc to settle
to the bottom. The sedimentation basin is best located close to
the flocculation basin so the transit between the two processes
does not permit settlement or floc break up. Sedimentation
basins may be rectangular, where water flows from end to end,
or circular where flow is from the centre outward.
Sedimentation basin outflow is typically over a weir so only a
thin top layer of water—that furthest from the sludge—exits.
In 1904, Allen Hazen showed that the efficiency of a
sedimentation process was a function of the particle settling
velocity, the flow through the tank and the surface area of tank.
Sedimentation tanks are typically designed within a range of
overflow rates of 0.5 to 1.0 gallons per minute per square foot
(or 1.25 to 2.5 meters per hour). In general, sedimentation
basin efficiency is not a function of detention time or depth of
the basin. Although, basin depth must be sufficient so that
water currents do not disturb the sludge and settled particle
interactions are promoted. As particle concentrations in the
settled water increase near the sludge surface on the bottom of
the tank, settling velocities can increase due to collisions and
agglomeration of particles. Typical detention times for
sedimentation vary from 1.5 to 4 hours and basin depths vary
from 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4.5 meters).
Inclined flat plates or tubes can be added to traditional
sedimentation basins to improve particle removal performance.
Inclined plates and tubes drastically increase the surface area
available for particles to be removed in concert with Hazen’s
original theory. The amount of ground surface area occupied by
a sedimentation basin with inclined plates or tubes can be far
smaller than a conventional sedimentation basin.
Sludge storage and removal
As particles settle to the bottom of a sedimentation basin, a
layer of sludge is formed on the floor of the tank. This layer of
sludge must be removed and treated. The amount of sludge
that is generated is significant, often 3 to 5 percent of the total
volume of water that is treated. The cost of treating and
disposing of the sludge can be a significant part of the
operating cost of a water treatment plant. The sedimentation
tank may be equipped with mechanical cleaning devices that
continually clean the bottom of the tank or the tank can be
periodically taken out of service and cleaned manually.
Dissolved air flotation
When particles to be removed do not settle out of solution
easily, dissolved air flotation (DAF) is often used. Water
supplies that are particularly vulnerable to unicellular algae
blooms and supplies with low turbidity and high colour often
employ DAF. After coagulation and flocculation processes,
water flows to DAF tanks where air diffusers on the tank bottom
create fine bubbles that attach to floc resulting in a floating
mass of concentrated floc. The floating floc blanket is removed
from the surface and clarified water is withdrawn from the
bottom of the DAF tank.
Filtration
After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step
to remove remaining suspended particles and unsettled floc.
Rapid sand filters

Cutaway view of a typical rapid sand filter

The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water
moves vertically through sand which often has a layer
of activated carbon or anthracite coalabove the sand. The top
layer removes organic compounds, which contribute to taste
and odour. The space between sand particles is larger than the
smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough.
Most particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in
pore spaces or adhere to sand particles. Effective filtration
extends into the depth of the filter. This property of the filter is
key to its operation: if the top layer of sand were to block all the
particles, the filter would quickly clog.
To clean the filter, water is passed quickly upward through the
filter, opposite the normal direction (called back
flushing or backwashing) to remove embedded particles. Prior
to this step, compressed air may be blown up through the
bottom of the filter to break up the compacted filter media to aid
the backwashing process; this is known as air scouring. This
contaminated water can be disposed of, along with the sludge
from the sedimentation basin, or it can be recycled by mixing
with the raw water entering the plant although this is often
considered poor practice since it re-introduces an elevated
concentration of bacteria into the raw water
Some water treatment plants employ pressure filters. These
works on the same principle as rapid gravity filters, differing in
that the filter medium is enclosed in a steel vessel and the
water is forced through it under pressure.
Advantages:

 Filters out much smaller particles than paper and sand filters
can.
 Filters out virtually all particles larger than their specified
pore sizes.
 They are quite thin and so liquids flow through them fairly
rapidly.
 They are reasonably strong and so can withstand pressure
differences across them of typically 2–5 atmospheres.
 They can be cleaned (back flushed) and reused.

Slow sand filters

Slow "artificial" filtration (a variation of bank) to the ground, Water

purification plant Káraný, Czech Republic
Slow sand filters may be used where there is sufficient land and
space, as the water must be passed very slowly through the
filters. These filters rely on biological treatment processes for
their action rather than physical filtration. The filters are
carefully constructed using graded layers of sand, with the
coarsest sand, along with some gravel, at the bottom and finest
sand at the top. Drains at the base convey treated water away
for disinfection. Filtration depends on the development of a thin
biological layer, called the zoogleal layer or Schmutzdecke, on
the surface of the filter. An effective slow sand filter may remain
in service for many weeks or even months if the pre-treatment
is well designed and produces water with a very low available
nutrient level which physical methods of treatment rarely
achieve. Very low nutrient levels allow water to be safely sent
through distribution systems with very low disinfectant levels,
thereby reducing consumer irritation over offensive levels of
chlorine and chlorine by-products. Slow sand filters are not
backwashed; they are maintained by having the top layer of
sand scraped off when flow is eventually obstructed by
biological growth.
A specific "large-scale" form of slow sand filter is the process
of bank filtration, in which natural sediments in a riverbank are
used to provide a first stage of contaminant filtration. While
typically not clean enough to be used directly for drinking water,
the water gained from the associated extraction wells is much
less problematic than river water taken directly from the major
streams where bank filtration is often used.

Membrane filtration
Membrane filters are widely used for filtering both drinking
water and sewage. For drinking water, membrane filters can
remove virtually all particles larger than
0.2 um—including giardia and cryptosporidium. Membrane
filters are an effective form of tertiary treatment when it is
desired to reuse the water for industry, for limited domestic
purposes, or before discharging the water into a river that is
used by towns further downstream. They are widely used in
industry, particularly for beverage preparation (including bottled
water). However no filtration can remove substances that are
actually dissolved in the water such
as phosphorus, nitrates and heavy metal ions.
Removal of ions and other dissolved
substances
Ultra filtration membranes use polymer membranes with
chemically formed microscopic pores that can be used to filter
out dissolved substances avoiding the use of coagulants. The
type of membrane media determines how much pressure is
needed to drive the water through and what sizes of micro-
organisms can be filtered out.
Ion exchange: Ion exchange systems use ion exchange resin-
or zeolite-packed columns to replace unwanted ions. The most
common case is water softening consisting of removal
of Ca2+and Mg2+ ions replacing them with benign (soap
friendly) Na+ or K+ ions. Ion exchange resins are also used to
remove toxic ions such as
nitrate, nitrite, lead, mercury, arsenic and many others.
Precipitate softening: Water rich
in hardness (calcium and magnesium ions) is treated with lime
(calcium oxide) and/or soda-ash (sodium carbonate) to
precipitate calcium carbonate out of solution utilizing
the common-ion effect.
Electro deionization: Water is passed between a
positive electrode and a negative electrode. Ion
exchange membranes allow only positive ions to migrate from
the treated water toward the negative electrode and only
negative ions toward the positive electrode. High purity
deionised water is produced with a little worse degree of
purification in comparison with ion exchange treatment.
Complete removal of ions from water is regarded as electro
dialysis. The water is often pre-treated with a reverse
osmosis unit to remove non-ionic organic contaminants.

Disinfection
Disinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful micro-
organisms and also by adding disinfectant chemicals. Water is
disinfected to kill any pathogens which pass through the filters
and to provide a residual dose of disinfectant to kill or inactivate
potentially harmful micro-organisms in the storage and
distribution systems. Possible pathogens
include viruses, bacteria, including
Salmonella, Cholera, Campylobacter and Shigella,
and protozoa, including Giardia lamblia and
other cryptosporidium. Following the introduction of any
chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually held in
temporary storage – often called a contact tank or clear well to
allow the disinfecting action to complete.
Chlorine disinfection
The most common disinfection method involves some form
of chlorine or its compounds such as chloramines or chlorine
dioxide. Chlorine is a strong oxidant that rapidly kills many
harmful micro-organisms. Because chlorine is a toxic gas, there
is a danger of a release associated with its use. This problem is
avoided by the use of sodium hypochlorite, which is a relatively
inexpensive solution that releases free chlorine when dissolved
in water. Chlorine solutions can be generated on site by
electrolyzing common salt solutions. A solid form, calcium
hypochlorite, releases chlorine on contact with water. Handling
the solid, however, requires greater routine human contact
through opening bags and pouring than the use of gas
cylinders or bleach which are more easily automated. The
generation of liquid sodium hypochlorite is both inexpensive
and safer than the use of gas or solid chlorine.
All forms of chlorine are widely used, despite their respective
drawbacks. One drawback is that chlorine from any source
reacts with natural organic compounds in the water to form
potentially harmful chemical by-products. These by-
products, trihalomethanes (THMs) and halo acetic
acids (HAAs), are both carcinogenic in large quantities and are
regulated by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and the Drinking Water Inspectorate in the UK.
The formation of THMs and halo acetic acids may be minimized
by effective removal of as many organics from the water as
possible prior to chlorine addition. Although chlorine is effective
in killing bacteria, it has limited effectiveness against protozoa
that form cysts in water (Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium,
both of which are pathogenic).
Chlorine dioxide disinfection
Chlorine dioxide is a faster-acting disinfectant than elemental
chlorine. It is relatively rarely used, because in some
circumstances it may create excessive amounts of chlorite,
which is a by-product regulated to low allowable levels in the
United States. Chlorine dioxide is supplied as an aqueous
solution and added to water to avoid gas handling problems;
chlorine dioxide gas accumulations may spontaneously
detonate.
Ozone disinfection
Ozone is an unstable molecule which readily gives up one atom
of oxygen providing a powerful oxidizing agent which is toxic to
most waterborne organisms. It is a very strong, broad spectrum
disinfectant that is widely used in Europe. It is an effective
method to inactivate harmful protozoa that form cysts. It also
works well against almost all other pathogens. Ozone is made
by passing oxygen through ultraviolet light or a "cold" electrical
discharge. To use ozone as a disinfectant, it must be created
on-site and added to the water by bubble contact. Some of the
advantages of ozone include the production of fewer dangerous
by-products and the absence of taste and odour problems (in
comparison to chlorination) . Although fewer by-products are
formed by ozonation, it has been discovered that ozone reacts
with bromide ions in water to produce concentrations of the
suspected carcinogen bromated. Bromide can be found in fresh
water supplies in sufficient concentrations to produce (after
ozonation) more than 10 ppb of bromate — the maximum
contaminant level established by the USEPA. Another
advantage of ozone is that it leaves no residual disinfectant in
the water. Ozone has been used in drinking water plants since
1906 where the first industrial ozonation plant was built in Nice,
France. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has accepted
ozone as being safe; and it is applied as an anti-microbiological
agent for the treatment, storage, and processing of foods.
Ultraviolet disinfection
Ultraviolet light (UV) is very effective at inactivating cysts, in low
turbidity water. UV light's disinfection effectiveness decreases
as turbidity increases, a result of the absorption, scattering, and
shadowing caused by the suspended solids. The main
disadvantage to the use of UV radiation is that, like ozone
treatment, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water;
therefore, it is sometimes necessary to add a residual
disinfectant after the primary disinfection process. This is often
done through the addition of chloramines, discussed above as
a primary disinfectant. When used in this manner, chloramines
provide an effective residual disinfectant with very few of the
negative effects of chlorination.
Solar water disinfection
One low-cost method of disinfecting water that can often be
implemented with locally available materials is solar
disinfection (SODIS). Unlike methods that rely on firewood, it
has low impact on the environment.
One recent study has found that the wild Salmonella which
would reproduce quickly during subsequent dark storage of
solar-disinfected water could be controlled by the addition of
just 10 parts per million of hydrogen peroxide.

Other water purification techniques

Thermal
Bringing water to its boiling point (about 100 °C or 212 F at sea
level), is the oldest and most effective way since it eliminates
most microbes causing intestinal disease,[19] but it cannot
remove chemical toxins or impurities.[20] For human health,
complete sterilisation of water is not required, since heat
resistant microbes do not affect intestines.[19] The traditional
advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional
safety, since microbes start expiring at temperatures greater
than 60 °C (140 °F). Though the boiling point decreases with
increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect
disinfection.[19][21] In areas where the water is "hard" (that is,
containing significant dissolved calcium salts), boiling
decomposes the bicarbonate ions, resulting in partial
precipitation as calcium carbonate. This is the "fur" that builds
up on kettle elements, etc., in hard water areas. With the
exception of calcium, boiling does not remove solutes of higher
boiling point than water and in fact increases their
concentration (due to some water being lost as vapour). Boiling
does not leave a residual disinfectant in the water. Therefore,
water that is boiled and then stored for any length of time may
acquire new pathogens.
Adsorption
Granular activated carbon is a form of activated carbon with a
high surface area. It adsorbs many compounds including many
toxic compounds. Water passing through activated carbon is
commonly used in municipal regions with organic
contamination, taste or odors. Many household water filters and
fish tanks use activated carbon filters to purify water.
Household filters for drinking water sometimes contain silver as
metallic silver nanoparticle. If water is held in the carbon block
for longer periods, microorganisms can grow inside which
results in fouling and contamination. Silver nanoparticles are
excellent anti-bacterial material and can decompose toxic halo-
organic compounds such as pesticides into non-toxic organic
products.[22] Filtered water must be used soon after it is
filtered, as the low amount of remaining microbes may
proliferate over time. In general, these home filters remove over
90% of the chlorine in a glass of treated water. These filters
must be periodically replaced otherwise the bacterial content of
the water may actually increase due to the growth of bacteria
within the filter unit.[11]
Distillation
Distillation involves boiling water to produce water vapour. The
vapour contacts a cool surface where it condenses as a liquid.
Because the solutes are not normally vaporised, they remain in
the boiling solution. Even distillation does not completely purify
water, because of contaminants with similar boiling points and
droplets of unvapourised liquid carried with the steam.
However, 99.9% pure water can be obtained by distillation.
Direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) passes heated
seawater along the surface of
a hydrophobic polymer membrane. Evaporated water passes
from the hot side through pores in the membrane forming a
stream of cold pure water on the other side. The difference in
vapour pressure between the hot and cold side helps to push
water molecules through.
Reverse osmosis
Reverse osmosis involves mechanical pressure applied to force
water through a semi-permeable membrane. Contaminants are
left on the other side of the membrane. Reverse osmosis is
theoretically the most thorough method of large scale water
purification available, although perfect semi-permeable
membranes are difficult to create. Unless membranes are well-
maintained, algae and other life forms can colonise the
membranes.[23]
Crystallization
Carbon dioxide or other low molecular weight gas can be mixed
with contaminated water at high pressure and low temperature
to exothermically form gas hydrate crystals. Hydrate may be
separated by centrifuge or sedimentation. Water can be
released from the hydrate crystals by heating.[24]
In situ oxidation
In situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) is an advanced oxidation
process. It is used for soil and/or groundwater remediation to
reduce the concentrations of targeted contaminants. ISCO is
accomplished by injecting or otherwise introducing oxidizers
into the contaminated medium (soil or groundwater) to destroy
contaminants. It can be used to remediate a variety of organic
compounds, including some that are resistant to natural
degradation
Bioremediation
Bioremediation uses microorganisms to remove waste products
from a contaminated area. Since 1991 bioremediation has been
a suggested tactic to remove impurities such as alkanes,
perchlorates, and metals.[25] Bioremediation has seen success
because perchlorates are highly soluble, making them difficult
to remove.[26] Example applications of Dechloromonas
agitata strain CKB include field studies conducted in Maryland
and the US Southwest.[26][27][28]
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide (H
2O
2) is a common disinfectant that can purify water. It is typically
produced at chemical plants and transported to the
contaminated water. An alternative approach employs a gold-
palladium catalyst to synthesize H
2O
2 from ambient hydrogen and oxygen atoms at the use site.
The latter was reported to be faster and 107 times more potent
at killing Escherichia coli than commercial H
2O
2, and over 108 times more effective than chlorine The catalytic
reaction also produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) that
bind and degrade other compounds.[29]

Other popular methods for purifying water, especially for local private
supplies are listed below. In some countries some of these methods are
also used for large scale municipal supplies. Particularly important are
distillation (de-salination of seawater) and reverse osmosis.

1. Boiling: Bringing it to its boiling point at 100 °C (212 °F), is the

oldest and most effective way since it eliminates
most microbes causing intestine related diseases, but it cannot
removechemical toxins or impurities. For human health,
complete sterilization of water is not required, since the heat
resistant microbes are not intestine affecting. The traditional
advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional
safety, since microbes start getting eliminated at temperatures
greater than 60 °C (140 °F). Though the boiling point
decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the
disinfecting process. In areas where the water is "hard" (that is,
containing significant dissolved calcium salts), boiling decomposes
the bicarbonate ions, resulting in partial precipitation as calcium
carbonate. This is the "fur" that builds up on kettle elements, etc.,
in hard water areas. With the exception of calcium, boiling does
not remove solutes of higher boiling point than water and in fact
increases their concentration (due to some water being lost as
vapour). Boiling does not leave a residual disinfectant in the water.
Therefore, water that is boiled and then stored for any length of
time may acquire new pathogens.
2. Granular Activated Carbon filtering: a form of activated carbon with
a high surface area, adsorbs many compounds including many
 toxic compounds. Water passing through activated carbon is
commonly used in municipal regions with organic contamination,
taste or odors. Many household water filters and fish tanks use
activated carbon filters to further purify the water. Household filters
for drinking water sometimes contain silver as metallic silver
nanoparticle. If water is held in the carbon block for longer period,
microorganisms can grow inside which results in fouling and
contamination. Silver nanoparticles are excellent anti-bacterial
material and they can decompose toxic halo-organic compounds
such as pesticides into non-toxic organic products.
Demineralised water
Distillation removes all minerals from water, and the membrane
methods of reverse osmosis and nanofiltration remove most to
all minerals. This results in demineralised water which is not
considered ideal drinking water. The World Health Organization
has investigated the health effects of demineralized water since
1980. Experiments in humans found that demineralized water
increased diuresis and the elimination of electrolytes, with
decreasedblood
serum potassium concentration. Magnesium, calcium, and
other minerals in water can help to protect against nutritional
deficiency. Demineralized water may also increase the risk
from toxic metals because it more readily leaches materials
from piping like lead and cadmium, which is prevented by
dissolved minerals such as calcium and magnesium. Low-
mineral water has been implicated in specific cases of lead
poisoning in infants, when lead from pipes leached at especially
high rates into the water. Recommendations for magnesium
have been put at a minimum of 10 mg/L with 20–30 mg/L
optimum; for calcium a 20 mg/L minimum and a 40–80 mg/L
optimum, and a total water hardness (adding magnesium and
calcium) of 2 to 4 mmol/L. At water hardness above 5 mmol/L,
higher incidence of gallstones, kidney stones, urinary stones,
arthrosis, and arthropathies have been observed. Additionally,
desalination processes can increase the risk of bacterial
contamination.
Manufacturers of home water distillers claim the opposite—that
minerals in water are the cause of many diseases, and that
most beneficial minerals come from food, not water. They quote
the American Medical Association as saying "The body's need
for minerals is largely met through foods, not drinking water."
The WHO report agrees that "drinking water, with some rare
exceptions, is not the major source of essential elements for
humans" and is "not the major source of our calcium and
magnesium intake", yet states that demineralized water is
harmful anyway. "Additional evidence comes from animal
experiments and clinical observations in several countries.
Animals given zinc or magnesium dosed in their drinking water
had a significantly higher concentration of these elements in the
serum than animals given the same elements in much higher
amounts with food and provided with low-mineral water to
drink."

METHODS OF PURIFYING WATER

1. REVERSE OSMOSIS SYSTEMS
2. BOILING AND DISTILLATION
3. UV-LIGHT TREATMENT
4. FILTRATION
5. OZONATION
6. CHLORINATION
7. CHEMICAL DISINFECTION OF
WATER
 REVERSE OSMOSIS SYSTEMS

 Reverse Osmosis is a technology that is used to remove a

large majority of contaminants from water by pushing the
water under pressure through a semi-permeable
membrane.
 Certain types of water filters offer the best services and
quality in water filtration. They combine many filters for
efficiency and effectiveness so as to guarantee you highly
purified drinking and cooking water. These systems are
called reverse osmosis water filtration systems.
 The 5 Micron Polypropylene Sediment Filter
 Carbon water Filter
 1-micron propylene filter  Osmotic Membrane
 Carbon Post filter

BOILING AND DISTILLATION

3. Boiling: Bringing it to its boiling point at 100 °C (212 °F), is the
oldest and most effective way since it eliminates
most microbes causing intestine related diseases, but it cannot
removechemical toxins or impurities. For human health,
complete sterilization of water is not required, since the heat
 resistant microbes are not intestine affecting. The traditional
advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional
safety, since microbes start getting eliminated at temperatures
greater than 60 °C (140 °F). Though the boiling point
decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the
disinfecting process. In areas where the water is "hard" (that is,
containing significant dissolved calcium salts), boiling decomposes
the bicarbonate ions, resulting in partial precipitation as calcium
carbonate. This is the "fur" that builds up on kettle elements, etc.,
in hard water areas. With the exception of calcium, boiling does
not remove solutes of higher boiling point than water and in fact
increases their concentration (due to some water being lost as
vapour). Boiling does not leave a residual disinfectant in the water.
Therefore, water that is boiled and then stored for any length of
time may acquire new pathogens.
4. DISTILLATION

The vapours obtained after boiling are directed to another

container where they condense to form pure distilled water. This
way, most of the impurities that were contained in the water are
removed. These include sediment, salts, minerals and chemicals.


DISTILLED WATER SHOULD NOT BE USED FOR DRINKING

PURPOSES

UV-LIGHT TREATMENT
In this method, a UV lamp is used to produce UV light.
Contaminated water is then exposed to this light for treatment. A
dominant type of UV called UV-C or ‘germicidal UV’ is used in this
process. It is an efficient and trusted method of water purification.
It destroys 99.99% of disease-causing microorganisms. These
include E. coli, Giardia, and Cryptosporidium.  When UV-Crays
 are exposed to the micro-organisms contained in the water, the
DNA of the micro –organisms absorbs the rays. After absorption,
these rays alter the DNA of the pathogens is such a way that they
can no longer produce, and they permanently die. This process of
altering their DNA is called inactivation. The threat of water- borne
diseases is eliminated, and water made safe for drinking
purposes.

CONCLUSION

We can conclude from the project that

there are various methods of purification
of water. Today, we know that water is
present everywhere on earth in different
forms but due to human activities water is
being polluted day by day not only that
about 97% of earths water is in oceans
which is not suitable for drinking or any
other purpose. So there is very small
volume of water is left, to utilise that
humans are using best ways to purify it.
And in present time humans are capable
to purify water and all the methods to
purify it are mentioned in the project.

Save water, save

life.....

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I HAVE TAKEN HELP FROM:

 INTERNET
 CHEMISTRY PRACTICAL FILE
 CHEMISTRY BOOK
 MY CLASSMATES
 MY SENIOR BROTHER
 CHEMISTRY LAB (for observations and
tests..)